Evolution of the horse - wikipedia Evolution of the horse Jump to : navigation , search This image shows a representative sequence , but should not be construed to represent a `` straight - line '' evolution of the horse . Reconstruction , left forefoot skeleton ( third digit emphasized yellow ) and longitudinal section of molars of selected prehistoric horses Skeletal evolution The evolution of the horse , a mammal of the family Equidae , occurred over a geologic time scale of 50 million years , transforming the small , dog - sized , forest - dwelling Eohippus into the modern horse . Paleozoologists have been able to piece together a more complete outline of the evolutionary lineage of the modern horse than of any other animal . Much of this evolution took place in North America , where horses originated but became extinct about 10,000 years ago . The horse belongs to the order Perissodactyla ( odd - toed ungulates ) , the members of which all share hooved feet and an odd number of toes on each foot , as well as mobile upper lips and a similar tooth structure . This means that horses share a common ancestry with tapirs and rhinoceroses . The perissodactyls arose in the late Paleocene , less than 10 million years after the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . This group of animals appears to have been originally specialized for life in tropical forests , but whereas tapirs and , to some extent , rhinoceroses , retained their jungle specializations , modern horses are adapted to life on drier land , in the much harsher climatic conditions of the steppes . Other species of Equus are adapted to a variety of intermediate conditions . The early ancestors of the modern horse walked on several spread - out toes , an accommodation to life spent walking on the soft , moist grounds of primeval forests . As grass species began to appear and flourish , the equids ' diets shifted from foliage to grasses , leading to larger and more durable teeth . At the same time , as the steppes began to appear , the horse 's predecessors needed to be capable of greater speeds to outrun predators . This was attained through the lengthening of limbs and the lifting of some toes from the ground in such a way that the weight of the body was gradually placed on one of the longest toes , the third . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of research 2 Before odd - toed ungulates 2.1 Phenacodontidae 3 Eocene and Oligocene : early equids 3.1 Eohippus 3.2 Orohippus 3.3 Epihippus 3.4 Mesohippus 3.5 Miohippus 4 Miocene and Pliocene : true equines 4.1 Kalobatippus 4.2 Parahippus 4.3 Merychippus 4.4 Hipparion 4.5 Pliohippus 4.6 Dinohippus 4.7 Plesippus 5 Modern horses 5.1 Equus 5.2 Genome sequencing 5.3 Pleistocene extinctions 5.4 Return to the Americas 6 Details 6.1 Toes 6.2 Teeth 6.3 Coat color 7 See also 8 Further reading 9 References 10 External links History of research ( edit ) Extinct equids restored to scale . Left to right : Mesohippus , Neohipparion , Eohippus , Equus scotti and Hypohippus . Wild horses were known since prehistory from central Asia to Europe , with domestic horses and other equids being distributed more widely in the Old World , but no horses or equids of any type were found in the New World when European explorers reached the Americas . When the Spanish colonists brought domestic horses from Europe , beginning in 1493 , escaped horses quickly established large feral herds . In the 1760s , the early naturalist Buffon suggested this was an indication of inferiority of the New World fauna , but later reconsidered this idea . William Clark 's 1807 expedition to Big Bone Lick found `` leg and foot bones of the Horses '' , which were included with other fossils sent to Thomas Jefferson and evaluated by the anatomist Caspar Wistar , but neither commented on the significance of this find . The first Old World equid fossil was found in the gypsum quarries in Montmartre , Paris , in the 1820s . The tooth was sent to the Paris Conservatory , where it was identified by Georges Cuvier , who identified it as a browsing equine related to the tapir . His sketch of the entire animal matched later skeletons found at the site . During the Beagle survey expedition , the young naturalist Charles Darwin had remarkable success with fossil hunting in Patagonia . On 10 October 1833 , at Santa Fe , Argentina , he was `` filled with astonishment '' when he found a horse 's tooth in the same stratum as fossil giant armadillos , and wondered if it might have been washed down from a later layer , but concluded this was `` not very probable '' . After the expedition returned in 1836 , the anatomist Richard Owen confirmed the tooth was from an extinct species , which he subsequently named Equus curvidens , and remarked , `` This evidence of the former existence of a genus , which , as regards South America , had become extinct , and has a second time been introduced into that Continent , is not one of the least interesting fruits of Mr. Darwin 's palæontological discoveries . '' In 1848 , a study On the fossil horses of America by Joseph Leidy systematically examined Pleistocene horse fossils from various collections , including that of the Academy of Natural Sciences , and concluded at least two ancient horse species had existed in North America : Equus curvidens and another , which he named Equus americanus . A decade later , however , he found the latter name had already been taken and renamed it Equus complicatus . In the same year , he visited Europe and was introduced by Owen to Darwin . Restoration of Eurohippus parvulus , a mid - to late Eocene equid of Europe ( Museum für Naturkunde , Berlin ) The original sequence of species believed to have evolved into the horse was based on fossils discovered in North America in the 1870s by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh . The sequence , from Eohippus to the modern horse ( Equus ) , was popularized by Thomas Huxley and became one of the most widely known examples of a clear evolutionary progression . The horse 's evolutionary lineage became a common feature of biology textbooks , and the sequence of transitional fossils was assembled by the American Museum of Natural History into an exhibit that emphasized the gradual , `` straight - line '' evolution of the horse . Since then , as the number of equid fossils has increased , the actual evolutionary progression from Eohippus to Equus has been discovered to be much more complex and multibranched than was initially supposed . The straight , direct progression from the former to the latter has been replaced by a more elaborate model with numerous branches in different directions , of which the modern horse is only one of many . George Gaylord Simpson in 1951 first recognized that the modern horse was not the `` goal '' of the entire lineage of equids , but is simply the only genus of the many horse lineages to survive . Detailed fossil information on the distribution and rate of change of new equid species has also revealed that the progression between species was not as smooth and consistent as was once believed . Although some transitions , such as that of Dinohippus to Equus , were indeed gradual progressions , a number of others , such as that of Epihippus to Mesohippus , were relatively abrupt in geologic time , taking place over only a few million years . Both anagenesis ( gradual change in an entire population 's gene frequency ) and cladogenesis ( a population `` splitting '' into two distinct evolutionary branches ) occurred , and many species coexisted with `` ancestor '' species at various times . The change in equids ' traits was also not always a `` straight line '' from Eohippus to Equus : some traits reversed themselves at various points in the evolution of new equid species , such as size and the presence of facial fossae , and only in retrospect can certain evolutionary trends be recognized . Before odd - toed ungulates ( edit ) Phenacodontidae ( edit ) Restoration of Phenacodus Phenacodontidae is the most recent family in the order Condylarthra believed to be the ancestral to the odd - toed ungulates . It contains the genera Almogaver , Copecion , Ectocion , Eodesmatodon , Meniscotherium , Ordathspidotherium , Phenacodus and Pleuraspidotherium . The family lived from the Early Paleocene to the Middle Eocene in Europe and were about the size of a sheep , with tails making slightly less than half of the length of their bodies and unlike their ancestors , good running skills for eluding predators . Eocene and Oligocene : early equids ( edit ) Eohippus ( edit ) Main article : Eohippus Eohippus appeared in the Ypresian ( early Eocene ) , about 52 mya ( million years ago ) . It was an animal approximately the size of a fox ( 250 -- 450 mm in height ) , with a relatively short head and neck and a springy , arched back . It had 44 low - crowned teeth , in the typical arrangement of an omnivorous , browsing mammal : three incisors , one canine , four premolars , and three molars on each side of the jaw . Its molars were uneven , dull , and bumpy , and used primarily for grinding foliage . The cusps of the molars were slightly connected in low crests . Eohippus browsed on soft foliage and fruit , probably scampering between thickets in the mode of a modern muntjac . It had a small brain , and possessed especially small frontal lobes . Eohippus , with left forefoot ( third metacarpal colored ) and tooth ( a enamel ; b dentin ; c cement ) detailed Its limbs were long relative to its body , already showing the beginnings of adaptations for running . However , all of the major leg bones were unfused , leaving the legs flexible and rotatable . Its wrist and hock joints were low to the ground . The forelimbs had developed five toes , of which four were equipped with small proto - hooves ; the large fifth `` toe - thumb '' was off the ground . The hind limbs had small hooves on three out of the five toes , while the vestigial first and fifth toes did not touch the ground . Its feet were padded , much like a dog 's , but with the small hooves in place of claws . For a span of about 20 million years , Eohippus thrived with few significant evolutionary changes . The most significant change was in the teeth , which began to adapt to its changing diet , as these early Equidae shifted from a mixed diet of fruits and foliage to one focused increasingly on browsing foods . During the Eocene , an Eohippus species ( most likely Eohippus angustidens ) branched out into various new types of Equidae . Thousands of complete , fossilized skeletons of these animals have been found in the Eocene layers of North American strata , mainly in the Wind River basin in Wyoming . Similar fossils have also been discovered in Europe , such as Propalaeotherium ( which is not considered ancestral to the modern horse ) . Orohippus ( edit ) Approximately 50 million years ago , in the early - to - middle Eocene , Eohippus smoothly transitioned into Orohippus through a gradual series of changes . Although its name means `` mountain horse '' , Orohippus was not a true horse and did not live in the mountains . It resembled Eohippus in size , but had a slimmer body , an elongated head , slimmer forelimbs , and longer hind legs , all of which are characteristics of a good jumper . Although Orohippus was still pad - footed , the vestigial outer toes of Eohippus were not present in Orohippus ; there were four toes on each fore leg , and three on each hind leg . The most dramatic change between Eohippus and Orohippus was in the teeth : the first of the premolar teeth were dwarfed , the last premolar shifted in shape and function into a molar , and the crests on the teeth became more pronounced . Both of these factors gave the teeth of Orohippus greater grinding ability , suggesting Orohippus ate tougher plant material . Epihippus ( edit ) In the mid-Eocene , about 47 million years ago , Epihippus , a genus which continued the evolutionary trend of increasingly efficient grinding teeth , evolved from Orohippus . Epihippus had five grinding , low - crowned cheek teeth with well - formed crests . A late species of Epihippus , sometimes referred to as Duchesnehippus intermedius , had teeth similar to Oligocene equids , although slightly less developed . Whether Duchesnehippus was a subgenus of Epihippus or a distinct genus is disputed . Epihippus was only 2 feet tall . Mesohippus ( edit ) In the late Eocene and the early stages of the Oligocene epoch ( 32 -- 24 mya ) , the climate of North America became drier , and the earliest grasses began to evolve . The forests were yielding to flatlands , home to grasses and various kinds of brush . In a few areas , these plains were covered in sand , creating the type of environment resembling the present - day prairies . Restoration of Mesohippus In response to the changing environment , the then - living species of Equidae also began to change . In the late Eocene , they began developing tougher teeth and becoming slightly larger and leggier , allowing for faster running speeds in open areas , and thus for evading predators in nonwooded areas . About 40 mya , Mesohippus ( `` middle horse '' ) suddenly developed in response to strong new selective pressures to adapt , beginning with the species Mesohippus celer and soon followed by Mesohippus westoni . In the early Oligocene , Mesohippus was one of the more widespread mammals in North America . It walked on three toes on each of its front and hind feet ( the first and fifth toes remained , but were small and not used in walking ) . The third toe was stronger than the outer ones , and thus more weighted ; the fourth front toe was diminished to a vestigial nub . Judging by its longer and slimmer limbs , Mesohippus was an agile animal . Mesohippus was slightly larger than Epihippus , about 610 mm ( 24 in ) at the shoulder . Its back was less arched , and its face , snout , and neck were somewhat longer . It had significantly larger cerebral hemispheres , and had a small , shallow depression on its skull called a fossa , which in modern horses is quite detailed . The fossa serves as a useful marker for identifying an equine fossil 's species . Mesohippus had six grinding `` cheek teeth '' , with a single premolar in front -- a trait all descendant Equidae would retain . Mesohippus also had the sharp tooth crests of Epihippus , improving its ability to grind down tough vegetation . Miohippus ( edit ) Around 36 million years ago , soon after the development of Mesohippus , Miohippus ( `` lesser horse '' ) emerged , the earliest species being Miohippus assiniboiensis . As with Mesohippus , the appearance of Miohippus was relatively abrupt , though a few transitional fossils linking the two genera have been found . Mesohippus was once believed to have anagenetically evolved into Miohippus by a gradual series of progressions , but new evidence has shown its evolution was cladogenetic : a Miohippus population split off from the main genus Mesohippus , coexisted with Mesohippus for around four million years , and then over time came to replace Mesohippus . Miohippus was significantly larger than its predecessors , and its ankle joints had subtly changed . Its facial fossa was larger and deeper , and it also began to show a variable extra crest in its upper cheek teeth , a trait that became a characteristic feature of equine teeth . Miohippus ushered in a major new period of diversification in Equidae . While Mesohippus died out in the mid-Oligocene , Miohippus continued to thrive , and in the early Miocene ( 24 -- 5.3 mya ) , it began to rapidly diversify and speciate . It branched out into two major groups , one of which adjusted to the life in forests once again , while the other remained suited to life on the prairies . Miocene and Pliocene : true equines ( edit ) Kalobatippus ( edit ) Fossil Megahippus mckennai The forest - suited form was Kalobatippus ( or Miohippus intermedius , depending on whether it was a new genus or species ) , whose second and fourth front toes were long , well - suited travel on the soft forest floors . Kalobatippus probably gave rise to Anchitherium , which travelled to Asia via the Bering Strait land bridge , and from there to Europe . In both North America and Eurasia , larger - bodied genera evolved from Anchitherium : Sinohippus in Eurasia and Hypohippus and Megahippus in North America . Hypohippus became extinct by the late Miocene . Parahippus ( edit ) The Miohippus population that remained on the steppes is believed to be ancestral to Parahippus , a North American animal about the size of a small pony , with a prolonged skull and a facial structure resembling the horses of today . Its third toe was stronger and larger , and carried the main weight of the body . Its four premolars resembled the molar teeth ; the first were small and almost nonexistent . The incisor teeth , like those of its predecessors , had a crown ( like human incisors ) ; however , the top incisors had a trace of a shallow crease marking the beginning of the core / cup . Merychippus ( edit ) Merychippus , an effective grazer and runner In the middle of the Miocene epoch , the grazer Merychippus flourished . It had wider molars than its predecessors , which are believed to have been used for crunching the hard grasses of the steppes . The hind legs , which were relatively short , had side toes equipped with small hooves , but they probably only touched the ground when running . Merychippus radiated into at least 19 additional grassland species . Hipparion ( edit ) Protohippus simus Three lineages within Equidae are believed to be descended from the numerous varieties of Merychippus : Hipparion , Protohippus and Pliohippus . The most different from Merychippus was Hipparion , mainly in the structure of tooth enamel : in comparison with other Equidae , the inside , or tongue side , had a completely isolated parapet . A complete and well - preserved skeleton of the North American Hipparion shows an animal the size of a small pony . They were very slim , rather like antelopes , and were adapted to life on dry prairies . On its slim legs , Hipparion had three toes equipped with small hooves , but the side toes did not touch the ground . In North America , Hipparion and its relatives ( Cormohipparion , Nannippus , Neohipparion , and Pseudhipparion ) , proliferated into many kinds of equids , at least one of which managed to migrate to Asia and Europe during the Miocene epoch . ( European Hipparion differs from American Hipparion in its smaller body size -- the best - known discovery of these fossils was near Athens . ) Pliohippus ( edit ) Pliohippus pernix Pliohippus arose from Callippus in the middle Miocene , around 12 mya . It was very similar in appearance to Equus , though it had two long extra toes on both sides of the hoof , externally barely visible as callused stubs . The long and slim limbs of Pliohippus reveal a quick - footed steppe animal . Until recently , Pliohippus was believed to be the ancestor of present - day horses because of its many anatomical similarities . However , though Pliohippus was clearly a close relative of Equus , its skull had deep facial fossae , whereas Equus had no fossae at all . Additionally , its teeth were strongly curved , unlike the very straight teeth of modern horses . Consequently , it is unlikely to be the ancestor of the modern horse ; instead , it is a likely candidate for the ancestor of Astrohippus . Dinohippus ( edit ) Dinohippus was the most common species of Equidae in North America during the late Pliocene . It was originally thought to be monodactyl , but a 1981 fossil find in Nebraska shows some were tridactyl . Plesippus ( edit ) Mounted skeleton of Hagerman horse ( Equus simplicidens ) Plesippus is often considered an intermediate stage between Dinohippus and the extant genus , Equus . The famous fossils found near Hagerman , Idaho were originally thought to be a part of the genus Plesippus . Hagerman Fossil Beds ( Idaho ) is a Pliocene site , dating to about 3.5 mya . The fossilized remains were originally called Plesippus shoshonensis , but further study by paleontologists determined the fossils represented the oldest remains of the genus Equus . Their estimated average weight was 425 kg , roughly the size of an Arabian horse . At the end of the Pliocene , the climate in North America began to cool significantly and most of the animals were forced to move south . One population of Plesippus moved across the Bering land bridge into Eurasia around 2.5 mya . Modern horses ( edit ) Equus ( edit ) Main article : Equus ( genus ) Skull of a giant extinct horse , Equus eisenmannae The genus Equus , which includes all extant equines , is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus , via the intermediate form Plesippus . One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens , described as zebra - like with a donkey - shaped head . The oldest fossil to date is ~ 3.5 million years old from Idaho , USA . The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World , with the similarly aged Equus livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia . Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids ( members of the genus Equus ) lived ~ 5.6 ( 3.9 -- 7.8 ) mya . Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000 - year - old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor ( MRCA ) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP . The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones ( subgenus E. ( Asinus ) , including the kulan , onager , and kiang ) , followed by the African zebras ( subgenera E. ( Dolichohippus ) , and E. ( Hippotigris ) ) . All other modern forms including the domesticated horse ( and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms ) belong to the subgenus E. ( Equus ) which diverged ~ 4.8 ( 3.2 -- 6.5 ) million years ago . Pleistocene horse fossils have been assigned to a multitude of species , with over 50 species of equines described from the Pleistocene of North America alone , although the taxonomic validity of most of these has been called into question . Recent genetic work on fossils has found evidence for only three genetically divergent equid lineages in Pleistocene North and South America . These results suggest all North American fossils of caballine - type horses ( which also include the domesticated horse and Przewalski 's horse of Europe and Asia ) , as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. ( Amerhippus ) belong to the same species : E. ferus . Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped as New World stilt - legged horses ( including E. francisci , E. tau , E. quinni and potentially North American Pleistocene fossils previously attributed to E. cf . hemiones , and E. ( Asinus ) cf . kiang ) probably all belong to a second species endemic to North America , which despite a superficial resemblance to species in the subgenus E. ( Asinus ) ( and hence occasionally referred to as North American ass ) is closely related to E. ferus . Surprisingly , the third species , endemic to South America and traditionally referred to as Hippidion , originally believed to be descended from Pliohippus , was shown to be a third species in the genus Equus , closely related to the New World stilt - legged horse . The temporal and regional variation in body size and morphological features within each lineage indicates extraordinary intraspecific plasticity . Such environment - driven adaptative changes would explain why the taxonomic diversity of Pleistocene equids has been overestimated on morphoanatomical grounds . According to these results , it appears the genus Equus evolved from a Dinohippus - like ancestor ~ 4 -- 7 mya . It rapidly spread into the Old World and there diversified into the various species of asses and zebras . A North American lineage of the subgenus E. ( Equus ) evolved into the New World stilt - legged horse ( NWSLH ) . Subsequently , populations of this species entered South America as part of the Great American Interchange shortly after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama , and evolved into the form currently referred to as Hippidion ~ 2.5 million years ago . Hippidion is thus only distantly related to the morphologically similar Pliohippus , which presumably became extinct during the Miocene . Both the NWSLH and Hippidium show adaptations to dry , barren ground , whereas the shortened legs of Hippidion may have been a response to sloped terrain . In contrast , the geographic origin of the closely related modern E. ferus is not resolved . However , genetic results on extant and fossil material of Pleistocene age indicate two clades , potentially subspecies , one of which had a holarctic distribution spanning from Europe through Asia and across North America and would become the founding stock of the modern domesticated horse . The other population appears to have been restricted to North America . However , one or more North American populations of E. ferus entered South America ~ 1.0 -- 1.5 million years ago , leading to the forms currently known as E. ( Amerhippus ) , which represent an extinct geographic variant or race of E. ferus . Genome sequencing ( edit ) In June 2013 , a group of researchers announced that they had sequenced the DNA of a 560 -- 780 thousand year old horse , using material extracted from a leg bone found buried in permafrost in Canada 's Yukon territory . Prior to this publication , the oldest nuclear genome that had been successfully sequenced was dated at 110 -- 130 thousand years ago . For comparison , the researchers also sequenced the genomes of a 43,000 - year - old Pleistocene horse , a Przewalski 's horse , five modern horse breeds , and a donkey . Analysis of differences between these genomes indicated that the last common ancestor of modern horses , donkeys , and zebras existed 4 to 4.5 million years ago . The results also indicated that Przewalski 's horse diverged from other modern types of horse about 43,000 years ago , and had never in its evolutionary history been domesticated . Pleistocene extinctions ( edit ) Digs in western Canada have unearthed clear evidence horses existed in North America until about 12,000 years ago . However , all Equidae in North America ultimately became extinct . The causes of this extinction ( simultaneous with the extinctions of a variety of other American megafauna ) have been a matter of debate . Given the suddenness of the event and because these mammals had been flourishing for millions of years previously , something quite unusual must have happened . The first main hypothesis attributes extinction to climate change . For example , in Alaska , beginning approximately 12,500 years ago , the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra , which was covered with unpalatable plants . The other hypothesis suggests extinction was linked to overexploitation by newly arrived humans of naive prey that were not habituated to their hunting methods . The extinctions were roughly simultaneous with the end of the most recent glacial advance and the appearance of the big game - hunting Clovis culture . Several studies have indicated humans probably arrived in Alaska at the same time or shortly before the local extinction of horses . Additionally , it has been proposed that the steppe - tundra vegetation transition in Beringia may have been a consequence , rather than a cause , of the extinction of megafaunal grazers . In Eurasia , horse fossils began occurring frequently again in archaeological sites in Kazakhstan and the southern Ukraine about 6,000 years ago . From then on , domesticated horses , as well as the knowledge of capturing , taming , and rearing horses , probably spread relatively quickly , with wild mares from several wild populations being incorporated en route . Return to the Americas ( edit ) Horses only returned to the Americas with Christopher Columbus in 1493 . These were Iberian horses first brought to Hispaniola and later to Panama , Mexico , Brazil , Peru , Argentina , and , in 1538 , Florida . The first horses to return to the main continent were 16 specifically identified horses brought by Hernán Cortés . Subsequent explorers , such as Coronado and De Soto , brought ever - larger numbers , some from Spain and others from breeding establishments set up by the Spanish in the Caribbean . Later , as Spanish missions were founded on the mainland , horses would eventually be lost or stolen , and proliferated into large herds of feral horses that became known as mustangs . The indigenous peoples of the Americas did not have a specific word for horses , and came to refer to them in various languages as a type of dog or deer ( in one case , `` elk - dog '' , in other cases `` big dog '' or `` seven dogs '' , referring to the weight each animal could pull ) . Details ( edit ) Toes ( edit ) The ancestors of the horse came to walk only on the end of the third toe and both side toes . Skeletal remnants show obvious wear on the back of both sides of metacarpal and metatarsal bones , commonly called the `` splint bones '' . They are the remnants of the second and the fourth toe . Modern horses retain the splint bones ; they are often believed to be useless attachments , but they in fact play an important role in supporting the carpal joints ( front knees ) and even the tarsal joints ( hocks ) . See also : Limbs of the horse Teeth ( edit ) Throughout the phylogenetic development , the teeth of the horse underwent significant changes . The type of the original omnivorous teeth with short , `` bumpy '' molars , with which the prime members of the evolutionary line distinguished themselves , gradually changed into the teeth common to herbivorous mammals . They became long ( as much as 100 mm ) , roughly cubical molars equipped with flat grinding surfaces . In conjunction with the teeth , during the horse 's evolution , the elongation of the facial part of the skull is apparent , and can also be observed in the backward - set eyeholes . In addition , the relatively short neck of the equine ancestors became longer , with equal elongation of the legs . Finally , the size of the body grew as well . Further information : Horse teeth Coat color ( edit ) Reconstruction of possible ancestral coat colors The ancestral coat color of E. ferus was possible a uniform dun , consistent with modern populations of Przewalski 's horses . Pre-domestication variants including black and spotted have been inferred from cave wall paintings and confirmed by genomic analysis . Domestication may have also led to more varieties of coat colors . Further information : Equine coat color See also ( edit ) Evidence of common descent Horses portal Paleontology portal Prehistoric mammals portal Further reading ( edit ) MacFadden , Bruce J ( 1994 ) . Fossil Horses : Systematics , Paleobiology , and Evolution of the Family Equidae . Cambridge & New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 47708 - 5 . Retrieved 6 June 2010 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Legendre , Serge ( 1989 ) . Les communautés de mammifères du Paléogène ( Eocène supérieur et Oligocène ) d'Europe occidentale : structures , milieux et évolution . München : F. Pfeil . p. 110 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 923871 - 35 - 3 . Jump up ^ Singer , Ben ( May 2005 ) . A brief history of the horse in America . Canadian Geographic Magazine . Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved 22 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ancient American Horses '' . Joseph Leidy Online Exhibit . Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 05 . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ancient Horse ( Equus cf . E. complicatus ) '' . Academy of Natural Sciences . Archived from the original on 2008 - 08 - 29 . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 26 . Jump up ^ James Warren Evans ( 1992 ) . Horse breeding and management . Jump up ^ Knell , Simon J. ; Suzanne Macleod ; Sheila E.R. Watson ( 2007 ) . Museum revolutions : how museums and change and are changed . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 44467 - 5 . Jump up ^ ' Filled with astonishment ' : an introduction to the St. Fe Notebook , Barlow , Nora ( ed. 1945 ) Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle . London : Pilot Press , p. 210 Jump up ^ Darwin , C.R. ( ed. 1840 ) . Fossil Mammalia Part 1 No. 4 of The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle . By Richard Owen . London : Smith Elder and Co. p. 108 -- 109 Jump up ^ Academy of Natural Sciences - Joseph Leidy - Leidy and Darwin Jump up ^ Simpson , George Gaylord ( 1951 ) : Horses . Oxford University Press ; New Impression edition . ISBN 0 - 19 - 500104 - 4 ( 1971 reprint ) Jump up ^ The notion of a goal would contradict modern evolutionary synthesis , ^ Jump up to : Hunt , Kathleen ( 1995 ) . `` Horse Evolution '' . TalkOrigins Archive . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 26 . See also downloadable pdf version ) Jump up ^ MacFadden , B.J. ( March 18 , 2005 ) . `` Fossil Horses -- Evidence for Evolution '' . Science . 307 ( 5716 ) : 1728 -- 1730 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1105458 . PMID 15774746 . ^ Jump up to : MacFadden , B.J. ( 1976 ) . `` Cladistic analysis of primitive equids with notes on other perissodactyls '' . Syst . Zool. 25 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . doi : 10.2307 / 2412774 . JSTOR 2412774 . Jump up ^ Prothero , D.R. and Shubin , N. ( 1989 ) . `` The evolution of Oligocene horses '' . The Evolution of Perissodactyls ( pp. 142 -- 175 ) . New York : Clarendon Press . ^ Jump up to : Fossil Horses In Cyberspace . Florida Museum of Natural History and the National Science Foundation . Jump up ^ MacFadden , B.J. ( 2001 ) . `` Three - toed browsing horse Anchitherium clarencei from the early Miocene ( Hemingfordian ) Thomas Farm , Florida '' . Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History . 43 ( 3 ) : 79 -- 109 . Jump up ^ Salesa , M.J. ; Sánchez , I.M. & Morales , J. ( 2004 ) . `` Presence of the Asian horse Sinohippus in the Miocene of Europe '' ( PDF ) . 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Nature . doi : 10.1038 / nature. 2013.13261 . Jump up ^ Jane J Lee ( 26 June 2013 ) . `` World 's Oldest Genome Sequenced From 700,000 - Year - Old Horse DNA '' . National Geographic . Jump up ^ Singer , Ben ( May 2005 ) . A brief history of the horse in America . Canadian Geographic Magazine . Archived from the original on 19 August 2014 . Retrieved 16 October 2009 . Jump up ^ LeQuire , Elise ( 2004 - 01 - 04 ) . `` No Grass , No Horse '' . The Horse , online edition . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 08 . Jump up ^ Guthrie , R.D. ( 2003 - 11 - 13 ) . `` Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction '' . Nature . 426 ( 6963 ) : 169 -- 171 . doi : 10.1038 / nature02098 . PMID 14614503 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Ice Age Horses May Have Been Killed Off by Humans '' National Geographic News , May 1 , 2006 . ^ Jump up to : Buck , Caitlin E. ; Bard , Edouard ( 2007 ) . `` A calendar chronology for Pleistocene mammoth and horse extinction in North America based on Bayesian radiocarbon calibration '' . Quaternary Science Reviews . 26 ( 17 -- 18 ) : 2031 -- 2035 . doi : 10.1016 / j. quascirev. 2007.06. 013 . Jump up ^ Solow , Andrew ; Roberts , David ; Robbirt , Karen ( May 9 , 2006 ) . Haynes , C. Vance , ed . `` On the Pleistocene extinctions of Alaskan mammoths and horses '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ( 19 ed . ) . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 103 ( 19 ) : 7351 -- 3 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0509480103 . PMC 1464344 . PMID 16651534 . Jump up ^ Guthrie , R.D. ( 2006 - 05 - 11 ) . `` New carbon dates link climatic change with human colonization and Pleistocene extinctions '' . Nature . 441 ( 7090 ) : 207 -- 209 . doi : 10.1038 / nature04604 . PMID 16688174 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 30 . Jump up ^ Zimov , S.A. ; Chuprynin , V.I. ; Oreshko , A.P. ; Chapin , F.S. ; Reynolds , J.F. ; Chapin , M.C. ( Nov 1995 ) . `` Steppe - tundra transition : a herbivore - driven biome shift at the end of the Pleistocene '' . The American Naturalist. 146 ( 5 ) : 765 -- 794 . doi : 10.1086 / 285824 . JSTOR 2462990 . Jump up ^ Warmuth , V. ; Eriksson , A. ; Bower , M.A. ; Barker , G. ; Barrett , E. ; Hanks , B.K. ; Li , S. ; Lomitashvili , D. ; Ochir - Goryaeva , M. ; Sizonov , G.V. ; Soyonov , V. ; Manica , A. ( 2012 - 05 - 07 ) . `` Reconstructing the origin and spread of horse domestication in the Eurasian steppe '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 109 ( 21 ) : 8202 -- 8206 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1111122109 . PMC 3361400 . PMID 22566639 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Luís , Cristina ; et al. ( 2006 ) . `` Iberian Origins of New World Horse Breeds '' . Journal of Heredity. 97 ( 2 ) : 107 -- 113 . doi : 10.1093 / jhered / esj020 . PMID 16489143 . Jump up ^ http://www.pnas.org/content/108/46/18626.full.pdf Jump up ^ Pruvost , M. ; et al. ( November 2011 ) . `` Genotypes of predomestic horses match phenotypes painted in Paleolithic works of cave art '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 108 ( 46 ) : 18626 -- 18630 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1108982108 . PMC 3219153 . PMID 22065780 . Jump up ^ Hofreiter , Michael ; Ludwig , Arne ; Pruvost , Melanie ; Reissman , Monkia ; Benecke , Norbert ; Brockmann , Gudrun A ; Castanos , Pedro ; Cieslak , Michael ; Lippold , Sebastian ; Llorente , Laura ; Malaspinas , Anna - Sapfo ; Slatkin , Montgomery ( 2009 ) . `` Coat Color Variation at the Beginning of Horse Domestication '' . Science . 324 ( 5926 ) : 485 . External links ( edit ) Horse Evolution Over 55 Million Years . Tufts University . January 10 , 1998 . Retrieved July 11 , 2007 . : An excerpted collection of images of horse fossils Evolution of Horses Equine Equine science and management Equine anatomy Equine nutrition Horse behavior Horse care Horse breeding Horse genome Equine conformation Equine coat color Horse gait Equestrianism and sport Glossary of equestrian terms Horse industry List of equestrian sports Horse tack Bit Bridle Saddle Harness English riding Western riding Driving Horse training Horse racing Equestrian at the Summer Olympics ( medalists , venues ) Horse show Equitation Evolution and history Domestication of the horse Horses in warfare Horses in the Middle Ages Horses in the United States Horses in East Asian warfare History of the horse in South Asia Horses in the Napoleonic Wars Horses in World War I Horses in World War II History of the horse in Britain Horse worship Horse burial Horse breeds , types and other Equidae Horses List of horse breeds Draft horse Feral horse Gaited horse Mountain and moorland pony breeds Sport horse Stock horse Warmblood Wild horse Other Equus List of donkey breeds Donkey Zebra Onager Hybrids Hinny Mule Zebroid Category Horses portal Genera of extinct Equidae ( Horse family ) , arranged by subfamily Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Infraclass Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria Order Perissodactyla Basal forms Epihippus Eohippus Eurohippus Haplohippus Heptaconodon Pliolophus Propalaeotherium Protorohippus Orohippus Sifrhippus Xenicohippus Anchitheriinae Anchitherium Archaeohippus Desmatippus Hypohippus Kalobatippus Megahippus Mesohippus Miohippus Parahippus Sinohippus Equinae Acritohippus Merychippus Tribe Hipparionini : Cremohipparion Cormohipparion Eurygnathohippus Hipparion Hippotherium Nannippus Neohipparion Proboscidipparion Pseudhipparion Sivalhippus Tribe Equini : Astrohippus Calippus Dinohippus Equus Haringtonhippus Heteropliohippus Hippidion Onohippidium Parapliohippus Pliohippus Protohippus Species of the genus Equus Extinct species are marked † Asses African wild ass ( Equus africanus ) Nubian wild ass ( Equus africanus africanus ) Donkey ( Equus africanus asinus ) † Atlas wild ass ( Equus africanus atlanticus ) Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) Onager / Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus ) Mongolian wild ass ( Equus hemionus hemionus ) † Syrian wild ass ( Equus hemionus hemippus ) Indian wild ass ( Equus hemionus khur ) Turkmenian kulan ( Equus hemionus kulan ) Persian onager ( Equus hemionus onager ) † European wild ass ( Equus hydruntinus ) Kiang / Tibetan wild ass ( Equus kiang ) Western kiang ( Equus kiang kiang ) Eastern kiang ( Equus kiang holdereri ) Southern kiang ( Equus kiang polyodon ) Zebras Plains zebra ( Equus quagga ) † Quagga ( Equus quagga quagga ) Burchell 's zebra ( Equus quagga burchellii ) Grant 's zebra ( Equus quagga boehmi ) Maneless zebra ( Equus quagga borensis ) Chapman 's zebra ( Equus quagga chapmani ) Crawshay 's zebra ( Equus quagga crawshayi ) Selous ' zebra ( Equus quagga selousi ) Mountain zebra ( Equus zebra ) Cape mountain zebra ( Equus zebra zebra ) Hartmann 's mountain zebra ( Equus zebra hartmannae ) Grévy 's zebra ( Equus grevy ) Grévy 's zebra ( Equus grevy ) Prehistoric zebras † Stenon zebra ( Equus stenonis ) † Hagerman zebra ( Equus simplicidens ) Horses Wild horse ( Equus ferus ) Horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) † Tarpan ( Equus ferus ferus ) Przewalski 's horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ) Prehistoric horses † Equus alaskae † Equus andium † Equus cedralensis † Equus complicatus † Equus conversidens † Equus crinidens † Equus cumminsii † Equus excelsus † Equus fraternus † Equus giganteus † Equus lambei † Equus mexicanus † Equus namadicus † Equus niobrarensis † Equus occidentalis † Equus pacificus † Equus parastylidens † Equus pectinatus † Equus semiplicatus † Equus scotti † Equus sivalensis † Equus yunnanensis Equidae Evolution of the horse Wild horse Domestication of the horse Evolutionary biology Evolutionary history of life Index of evolutionary biology articles Introduction Outline of evolution Timeline of evolution Evolution Abiogenesis Adaptation Adaptive radiation Cladistics Coevolution Common descent Convergence Divergence Earliest known life forms Evidence of common descent Extinction Event Gene - centered view Homology Last universal common ancestor Macroevolution Microevolution Origin of life Panspermia Parallel evolution Prehistoric Autopsy Speciation Taxonomy Population genetics Biodiversity Gene flow Genetic drift Mutation Natural selection Variation Development Canalisation Evolutionary developmental biology Inversion Modularity Phenotypic plasticity Of taxa Birds origin Brachiopods Molluscs Cephalopods Dinosaurs Fish Fungi Insects butterflies Life Mammals cats canids wolves dogs hyenas dolphins and whales horses primates humans lemurs sea cows Plants Reptiles Spiders Tetrapods Viruses influenza Of organs Cell DNA Flagella Eukaryotes symbiogenesis chromosome endomembrane system mitochondria nucleus plastids In animals eye hair auditory ossicle nervous system brain Of processes Aging Death Programmed cell death Avian flight Biological complexity Cooperation Color vision in primates Emotion Empathy Ethics Eusociality Immune system Metabolism Monogamy Morality Mosaic evolution Multicellularity Sexual reproduction Gamete differentiation / sexes Life cycles / nuclear phases Mating types Sex - determination Snake venom Tempo and modes Gradualism / Punctuated equilibrium / Saltationism Micromutation / Macromutation Uniformitarianism / Catastrophism Speciation Allopatric Anagenesis Catagenesis Cladogenesis Cospeciation Ecological Hybrid Parapatric Peripatric Reinforcement Sympatric History Renaissance and Enlightenment Transmutation of species Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species History of paleontology Transitional fossil Blending inheritance Mendelian inheritance The eclipse of Darwinism Modern synthesis History of molecular evolution Extended evolutionary synthesis Philosophy Darwinism Alternatives Catastrophism Lamarckism Orthogenesis Mutationism Saltationism Structuralism Spandrel Theistic Vitalism Teleology in biology Related Biogeography Ecological genetics Molecular evolution Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Category Commons Portal WikiProject Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_the_horse&oldid=837772378 '' Categories : Cenozoic mammals Cenozoic events Horse history and evolution Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 6 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2018 , at 23 : 28 . 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Percy Jackson & the Olympians : the Lightning Thief - wikipedia Percy Jackson & the Olympians : the Lightning Thief Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the film . For the novel , see The Lightning Thief . For the series , see Percy Jackson & the Olympians . Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Theatrical release poster Directed by Chris Columbus Produced by Karen Rosenfelt Chris Columbus Michael Barnathan Mark Radcliffe Screenplay by Craig Titley Based on The Lightning Thief by Rick Riordan Starring Logan Lerman Brandon T. Jackson Alexandra Daddario Jake Abel Sean Bean Pierce Brosnan Steve Coogan Rosario Dawson Catherine Keener Kevin McKidd Joe Pantoliano Uma Thurman Music by Christophe Beck Cinematography Stephen Goldblatt Edited by Peter Honess Production company 1492 Pictures Sunswept Entertainment Dune Entertainment Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date February 2 , 2010 ( 2010 - 02 - 02 ) ( Canada ) February 12 , 2010 ( 2010 - 02 - 12 ) ( United States ) Running time 119 minutes Country United Kingdom Australia Canada United States Language English Budget $95 million Box office $227 million Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( also known as Percy Jackson & the Lightning Thief ) is a 2010 fantasy film directed by Chris Columbus . The film is loosely based on The Lightning Thief , the first novel in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series by Rick Riordan . It stars Logan Lerman as Percy Jackson alongside an ensemble cast that includes Brandon T. Jackson , Alexandra Daddario , Jake Abel , Rosario Dawson , Steve Coogan , Uma Thurman , Catherine Keener , Kevin McKidd , Sean Bean and Pierce Brosnan . It was released to theaters on February 12 , 2010 in the United States by 20th Century Fox . The film cost $95 million to make . In its opening weekend in North America , it ranked number two at the box office , making $38.8 million . The film , which received mixed reviews from critics , made $226,497,209 worldwide . The film was released on June 29 , 2010 on DVD and Blu - ray . A video game based on the film developed by Activision was released for Nintendo DS on February 11 , 2010 . A stand - alone sequel , Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters , was released on August 7 , 2013 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Reception 4.1 Box office 4.2 Critical response 4.3 Awards and nominations 5 Soundtrack 6 Video game 7 Home media 8 Stand - alone sequel 9 References 10 External links Plot ( edit ) In New York City , Zeus and Poseidon meet at the top of the Empire State Building , where Zeus reveals that his master lightning bolt has been stolen and accuses Poseidon 's demigod son , Percy Jackson , of the theft . Poseidon reminds him that Percy is unaware of his true identity , but Zeus declares that unless his master bolt is returned to Mount Olympus before the summer solstice , in two weeks ' time , war will be waged between all the gods . Percy is a 16 - year - old boy who appears to his peers to be dyslexic and has a unique ability to stay underwater for a long time . While on a school field trip to the local museum , Percy is attacked by Alecto , a Fury disguised as his substitute English teacher , Mrs. Dodds who demands the lightning bolt . Percy 's best friend , Grover Underwood , and his Latin teacher , Mr. Brunner -- both of whom appear disabled -- help Percy and scare off Alecto . Upon learning of Alecto 's reason for the attack , Brunner gives Percy a pen , claiming that it is a powerful weapon , and has Grover take Percy and his mother Sally to Camp Half - Blood , leaving behind Sally 's abusive husband , Gabe Ugliano . However , upon arriving at the camp , the three are attacked by the Minotaur , who appears to kill Sally , who is unable to enter the camp . Grover tells Percy to use the pen that he received from Brunner , and Percy discovers it is a sword . He uses his sword to fight the Minotaur , without initial success . Percy kills the Minotaur with his own horn , then faints from shock . Three days later , Percy wakes up in the camp . He learns he is the son of Poseidon , Grover is a disguised Satyr and his junior protector and Brunner is the Centaur , Chiron , also initially disguised . Chiron suggests that Percy go to Mount Olympus to convince Zeus of his innocence . Percy begins training to use his demigod powers , which include water manipulation and using water to heal . He also meets other demigods , including Annabeth Chase , daughter of Athena ; and Camp Leader Luke Castellan , son of Hermes . Percy is visited by a fiery apparition of his uncle Hades , who reveals that Sally is with him in the Underworld and that he will return her safely if Percy hands over the lightning bolt . Defying Chiron 's orders , Percy decides to go to the Underworld believing if he can convince Hades of his innocence , Hades will release his mother , joined by Grover and Annabeth . They visit Luke , who gives them a map showing the location of three pearls belonging to Hades ' wife , Persephone , which they can use to escape the Underworld . They are also given a pair of winged sneakers Luke stole from his father and a shield Luke describes as his favorite . The trio heads out , locating the first pearl at an old garden center before they suddenly encounter Medusa , who tries to kill them until she is decapitated by Percy ; they take her head with them for later use . They locate the second pearl in the Parthenon in Nashville ; Percy uses the winged shoes to take it from a statue of Athena . However , they are then confronted by the Hydra , which Grover turns to stone using Medusa 's head . The last pearl is located at the Lotus Casino in Las Vegas , where the three eat lotus flowers , which make them forget their reason for being there . They stay in the casino for five days until Poseidon speaks in Percy 's mind , helping Percy return to his senses . Percy frees Grover and Annabeth from the effects of the flowers and they flee , discovering that the casino is run by the Lotus - Eaters , and they had been keeping people captive since ancient times . With all three pearls , Percy , Grover , and Annabeth head into the Underworld , the portal to which is located in Hollywood . In the Underworld , they meet Hades and Persephone . Though Percy tells Hades that he does not have the lightning bolt , Hades finds it hidden inside Luke 's shield , revealing that Luke is the lightning thief . Persephone knocks Hades unconscious with the lightning bolt to get her revenge on him for imprisoning her for all eternity and hands the bolt to Percy . However , because they only have three pearls , Grover remains with Persephone to allow Percy 's mother to leave . Percy , Annabeth , and Sally teleport to the Empire State Building but are attacked by Luke , who wants to destroy Mount Olympus to secure the demigods ' place as the new rulers of Western Civilization . After a fight across Manhattan , Percy defeats and apparently kills Luke and returns the lightning bolt to Zeus , who forgives Percy and allows Poseidon to briefly speak with his son . The film ends with Percy and Annabeth reuniting with Grover , furloughed from Hades and sporting a new pair of small horns that designate his promotion to Percy 's senior protector . Percy and Annabeth are reunited , and they nearly kiss but Annabeth tricks Percy and they continue to train . In the post-credits scene , Ugliano is kicked out of the apartment by Sally . He decides to get a beer on his way out , but finds a note from Percy saying that he should not open the refrigerator . He breaks the lock anyway and is turned to stone and killed by Medusa 's head inside , on a serving plate . One of her snakes blurs the screen , revealing the movie 's end . The sound of Ugliano turning to stone is heard while the screen is black . Cast ( edit ) See also : List of Percy Jackson & the Olympians cast members Logan Lerman plays the titular character . Logan Lerman as Percy Jackson , the demigod son of Poseidon Brandon T. Jackson as Grover Underwood , Percy 's protector , a satyr Alexandra Daddario as Annabeth Chase , the demigod daughter of Athena , and Percy 's romantic foil Jake Abel as Luke Castellan , the demigod son of Hermes Sean Bean as Zeus , god of the sky , thunder , lightning , king of the twelve gods of Mount Olympus and brother of Poseidon and Hades . He blames Percy for stealing his bolt . Kevin McKidd as Poseidon , Percy 's father , god of the seas , earthquakes , horses and brother of Zeus and Hades Steve Coogan as Hades , god of the Underworld , the dead , riches and brother of Zeus and Poseidon Melina Kanakaredes as Athena , Annabeth 's mother , goddess of crafts , domestic arts , strategic warfare , peace and wisdom Rosario Dawson as Persephone , goddess of springtime and wife of Hades Dylan Neal as Hermes , Luke 's father , god of trade , thieves , travelers , sports , athletes , and messenger of the gods of Mount Olympus . Erica Cerra as Hera , goddess of birth , family , marriage , women and queen of the twelve gods of Mount Olympus , sister and wife of Zeus Stefanie von Pfetten as Demeter , goddess of agriculture , fertility , and the harvest , sister of Zeus and mother of Persephone Dimitri Lekkos as Apollo , god of the sun , light , knowledge , healing , plague and darkness , the arts , music , poetry , prophecy , archery , and twin brother of Artemis Ona Grauer as Artemis , goddess of the hunt , virginity , the moon , and all animals , and twin sister of Apollo Serinda Swan as Aphrodite , goddess of love , beauty , wife of Hephaestus and lover of Ares Conrad Coates as Hephaestus , god of fire , forge , blacksmiths , craftsmen and husband of Aphrodite Ray Winstone as Ares , god of war , lover of Aphrodite ( uncredited ) Luke Camilleri as Dionysus , god of wine , celebrations , ecstasy , and theatre Uma Thurman as Medusa , a gorgon cursed by Athena Pierce Brosnan as Chiron , also known as Mr. Brunner , a centaur who trains heroes at Camp Half - Blood , the immortal son of Kronos and brother of Zeus , Poseidon , Hades , Demeter , and Hera Maria Olsen as Mrs. Dodds / Alecto , a Fury , servant to Hades Julian Richings as Charon , ferryman of the River Styx , servant to Hades Catherine Keener as Sally Jackson , Percy 's mother Joe Pantoliano as Gabe Ugliano , Percy 's stepfather Production ( edit ) Chris Columbus is the film 's director and producer . In June 2004 , 20th Century Fox acquired feature film rights to the book . In April 2007 , director Chris Columbus was hired to helm the project . Filming began in April 2009 in Vancouver . Portions of the film were shot at the Parthenon in Nashville , Tennessee , that has a full - scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens . Filming wrapped up on the morning of July 25 , 2009 , in Mission , British Columbia . Additional exterior scenes were filmed on location in Brooklyn , New York during the first week of August 2009 . Digital intermediate work began in San Francisco in November 2009 . Christophe Beck composed the score . Columbus has stated that the cast was chosen specifically with sequels in mind . `` I think with Percy Jackson it was a matter of finding the right cast to fit into these roles , sort of the perfect cast for these roles , because hopefully , God willing , we will go on to do other Percy Jackson films and you want the cast to grow with their characters '' . Reception ( edit ) Box office ( edit ) The film opened on February 12 , 2010 , in 3,356 theaters ; its opening weekend box - office results totaled $31,236,067 in the U.S. , finishing at # 3 below The Wolfman , which opened at # 2 with $31,479,235 and below Valentine 's Day , which opened at # 1 with $56,260,707 . The film had a strong opening weekend for its genre , posting the highest opening weekend for a fantasy film not from the Harry Potter , Chronicles of Narnia , or Lord of the Rings series . As of September 14 , 2010 , it grossed a domestic total of $88,768,303 with $137,728,906 elsewhere in the world , bringing it to $226,497,209 . Critical response ( edit ) The film received mixed reviews from critics . It holds a 49 % approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 142 collected reviews , with an average score of 5.3 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : `` Though it may seem like just another Harry Potter knockoff , Percy Jackson benefits from a strong supporting cast , a speedy plot , and plenty of fun with Greek mythology . '' It also holds a Metacritic score of 47 out of 100 , based on 31 sampled reviews , indicating `` mixed to average reviews . '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described the film as `` standard Hollywood product ... unadventurous and uninteresting '' . The reviewer for The Washington Post thought `` the movie suffers by taking itself a little too seriously . It 's not just that it 's a lot less funny than the book . It 's also a lot less fun '' . On BBC Radio 5 , Mark Kermode criticized the similarity of the film to director Chris Columbus 's Harry Potter films , likening it to a Harry Potter parody book and dubbing it Benjamin Sniddlegrass and the Cauldron of Penguins . This comment later sparked a satirical fan creation with precisely that title , narrated by Stephen Fry . Awards and nominations ( edit ) Award Category / Recipient ( s ) Result References 2010 MTV Movie Awards Breakthrough Performance Logan Lerman Nominated Best Fight Logan Lerman vs. Jake Abel Nominated Teen Choice Awards 2010 Choice Movie Actress : Fantasy Rosario Dawson Nominated Choice : Breakout Female Alexandra Daddario Nominated Choice : Breakout Male Logan Lerman Nominated Choice : Fight Logan Lerman vs. Jake Abel Nominated 37th Saturn Awards Best Performance by a Younger Actor Logan Lerman Nominated 2010 Scream Awards Best Cameo `` Rosario Dawson '' Nominated Soundtrack ( edit ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Soundtrack album by Christophe Beck Released February 9 , 2010 ( 2010 - 02 - 09 ) Genre Soundtrack Length 59 : 07 Label ABKCO Records All music composed by Christophe Beck . No . Title Length 1 . `` Prelude '' 2 : 29 2 . `` The Minotaur '' 5 : 09 3 . `` Chiron '' 2 : 02 4 . `` Victory '' 1 : 32 5 . `` The Fury '' 2 : 16 6 . `` Dyslexia '' 1 : 02 7 . `` The Hydra '' 6 : 54 8 . `` Medusa '' 2 : 43 9 . `` Son of Poseidon '' 1 : 57 10 . `` The Parthenon '' 3 : 42 11 . `` Hollywood '' 2 : 32 12 . `` Lost Souls '' 2 : 35 13 . `` Fighting Luke , Part 1 '' 3 : 54 14 . `` Fighting Luke , Part 2 '' 2 : 47 15 . `` Hades '' 2 : 47 16 . `` Mount Olympus '' 1 : 27 17 . `` Poseidon '' 3 : 07 18 . `` Homecoming '' 3 : 06 19 . `` End Credits '' 7 : 12 Songs featured in the film that were not included in the soundtrack : No . Title Music Length 1 . `` Highway to Hell '' AC / DC 3 : 28 2 . `` I 'll Pretend '' Dwight Yoakam 2 : 22 3 . `` A Little Less Conversation '' Elvis Presley 3 : 30 4 . `` Poker Face '' Lady Gaga 3 : 58 5 . `` Mama Told Me ( Not to Come ) '' Three Dog Night 2 : 58 6 . `` Tik Tok '' Kesha 3 : 21 Video game ( edit ) A video game based on the film developed by Activision was released for Nintendo DS on February 11 , 2010 . GameZone 's Michael Splechta gave it a 6 / 10 , saying `` Percy Jackson might not make a splash when it comes to movie tie - in games , but fans of turn - based combat might find some redeeming qualities in this otherwise bare - bones game . '' On Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics , the game has a score of 56 ( citing `` mixed or average reviews '' ) based on 6 reviews . Home media ( edit ) The film was released on June 29 , 2010 on DVD and Blu - ray . The movie itself charted at the top of the charts ( DVD sales ) with $13,985,047 in revenue in its first week . As of October 2011 , the movie had sold 2,087,368 DVDs with over $37 million in sales . Stand - alone sequel ( edit ) Main article : Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters In October 2011 , 20th Century Fox announced a stand - alone sequel based on the second book , The Sea of Monsters . The film was released on August 7 , 2013 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` PERCY JACKSON & THE LIGHTNING THIEF British Board of Film Classification '' . Bbfc.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Percy Jackson & The Olympians The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) BFI '' . Explore.bfi.org.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` ' Valentine 's Day , ' ' Percy Jackson ' and ' Wolfman ' : The more they cost , the less they made '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . February 15 , 2010 . Retrieved February 16 , 2010 . The debut of `` Percy Jackson '' was good , but not great given its $95 - million production budget funded by 20th Century Fox , Dune Entertainment and Ingenious Film Partners . ^ Jump up to : Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief at Box Office Mojo Jump up ^ `` Contact Information and FAQ : Rick Riordan '' . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ Marshall , Rick ( February 16 , 2010 ) . `` What does the ' Percy Jackson ' opening weekend mean for Logan Lerman 's ' Spider - man ' Chances ? '' . Archived from the original on April 1 , 2017 . Retrieved October 14 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : ASIN B003HARV3Y , Percy Jackson & The Olympians : The Lightning Thief ^ Jump up to : ASIN B002ZG98J6 , Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( Blu - ray ) ^ Jump up to : Siegel , Tatiana ( March 2 , 2009 ) . `` ' Percy Jackson ' finds lead actors '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Fernandez , Jay A. ( March 18 , 2009 ) . `` ' Lightning Thief ' finds female lead '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 24 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Siegel , Tatiana ( March 25 , 2009 ) . `` Fox 2000 bulks up ' Percy Jackson ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Hewitt , Chris ( May 7 , 2009 ) . `` Dawson And Coogan Join Percy Jackson '' . Empire . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( April 15 , 2009 ) . `` Catherine Keener joins ' Percy Jackson ' film '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on April 19 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Brodesser , Claude ( June 23 , 2004 ) . `` ' Lightning Thief ' strikes Maverick '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Gilstrap , Peter ( April 17 , 2007 ) . `` Columbus struck by ' Lightning ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Portions Of Movie To Be Shot At Parthenon '' . WSMV - TV . June 2 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2009 . Retrieved June 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Chris Columbus , Joe Pantoliano And Logan Lerman On Location For `` Percy Jackson & The Olympians : The Lightning Thief '' - August 1 , 2009 . Wireimage . Retrieved October 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Caranicas , Peter ( October 20 , 2009 ) . `` Goldblatt , Deakins follow similar path '' . Variety . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2009 . Retrieved December 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Knowles , Harry ( November 20 , 2009 ) . `` New trailer for Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief hits ... '' Ai n't It Cool News . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2009 . Retrieved December 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Roberts , Sheila ( February 8 , 2009 ) . `` Exclusive Chris Columbus Interview '' . Roll Credits . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Valentine 's Day ( 2010 ) - Daily Box Office Results - Box Office Mojo Jump up ^ `` Weekend Report : ' Valentine 's Day ' Massacres Presidents ' Day Record '' . Box Office Mojo. 2010 - 02 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) '' . Flixster . Retrieved February 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief '' . CBS Interactive Inc . Retrieved February 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Turan , Kenneth ( February 12 , 2010 ) . `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Review '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Critic Review for Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ Percy Jackson and the Lightning Thief reviewed by Mark Kermode on YouTube Jump up ^ `` Septemberfest '' . Mark Kermode and Simon Mayo 's Film Reviews . BBC Radio 5 live . 17 September 2010 . Retrieved 19 September 2010 . Jump up ^ MTV Movie Awards : When Twilight & Betty White Collide ! Jump up ^ `` First Wave of `` Teen Choice 2010 '' Nominees Announced `` . The Futon Critic . June 14 , 2010 . Retrieved June 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Winners of ' Teen Choice 2010 ' Awards Announced ; Teens Cast More Than 85 Million Votes '' . Jump up ^ 37th Annual Saturn Award Nominations Jump up ^ 2010 Scream Awards # Best TV Show Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson and the Olympians : The Lightning Thief for DS - Percy Jackson and the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Nintendo DS - Percy Jackson and the Olympians : The Lightning Thief DS Game '' . Gamespot.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 07 . Jump up ^ Splechta , Michael . `` Percy Jackson & The Olympians : The Lightning Thief Review '' . GameZone.com . Retrieved February 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson and the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Reviews , Ratings , Credits , and More at Metacritic '' . Metacritic . Retrieved July 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` US DVD Sales Chart for Week Ending Jul 4 , 2010 '' . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief - DVD Sales '' . Jump up ^ Weinstein , Joshua L. ( October 12 , 2011 ) . `` Fox Sets Valentines Day 2013 Release for Next ' Die Hard ' '' . Reuters . Retrieved October 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters Moved up to August 7 '' . comingsoon.net. 2013 - 04 - 06 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 21 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief on IMDb Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief at AllMovie Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief at Rotten Tomatoes Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief at Metacritic Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief at Box Office Mojo The Camp Half - Blood Chronicles Percy Jackson & the Olympians Novels The Lightning Thief The Sea of Monsters The Titan 's Curse The Battle of the Labyrinth The Last Olympian The Demigod Files Films Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters Film cast members The Heroes of Olympus Novels The Lost Hero The Son of Neptune The Mark of Athena The House of Hades The Blood of Olympus The Demigod Diaries The Trials of Apollo Novels The Hidden Oracle The Dark Prophecy The Burning Maze Other Percy Jackson 's Greek Gods Percy Jackson 's Greek Heroes The Son of Sobek The Staff of Serapis The Crown of Ptolemy Characters Percy Jackson Chris Columbus Directed Adventures in Babysitting ( 1987 ) Heartbreak Hotel ( 1988 ) Home Alone ( 1990 ) Only the Lonely ( 1991 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) Nine Months ( 1995 ) Stepmom ( 1998 ) Bicentennial Man ( 1999 ) Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) Rent ( 2005 ) I Love You , Beth Cooper ( 2009 ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) Pixels ( 2015 ) Produced only Jingle All the Way ( 1996 ) Monkeybone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban ( 2004 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Fantastic Four ( 2005 ) Night at the Museum ( 2006 ) Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer ( 2007 ) Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) The Help ( 2011 ) Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) Night at the Museum : Secret of the Tomb ( 2014 ) The Young Messiah ( 2016 ) I Kill Giants ( 2017 ) Written only Reckless ( 1984 ) Gremlins ( 1984 ) The Goonies ( 1985 ) Young Sherlock Holmes ( 1985 ) Little Nemo : Adventures in Slumberland ( 1989 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Television Galaxy High ( 1986 , wrote ) See also 1492 Pictures House of Secrets Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Percy_Jackson_%26_the_Olympians:_The_Lightning_Thief&oldid=837732728 '' Categories : 2010 films English - language films 1492 Pictures films 2010s fantasy films 20th Century Fox films American fantasy adventure films American films Dune Entertainment films Empire State Building in fiction Films scored by Christophe Beck Films based on fantasy novels Films based on Greco - Roman mythology Films based on young adult literature Films directed by Chris Columbus Films produced by Michael Barnathan Films shot in Tennessee Films shot in Vancouver Percy Jackson & the Olympians Summer camps in films Teen adventure films Teen fantasy films Films produced by Karen Rosenfelt Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013 Articles with hAudio microformats Album infoboxes lacking a cover Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Track listings with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2018 , at 18 : 06 . 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Question: where was percy jackson and the olympians filmed


List of amendments to the United States Constitution - wikipedia List of amendments to the United States Constitution Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the 33 constitutional amendments approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification since 1789 . For proposals to amend the United States Constitution introduced in but not approved by the U.S. Congress , see List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution . This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I -- VII Amendments I -- X Amendments XI -- XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been proposed by the United States Congress and sent to the states for ratification since the Constitution was put into operation on March 4 , 1789 . Twenty - seven of these , having been ratified by the requisite number of states , are part of the Constitution . The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights . Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states . Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending , one is closed and has failed by its own terms , and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it . Article Five of the United States Constitution detailed the two - step process for amending the nation 's frame of government . Amendments must be properly Proposed and Ratified before becoming operative . This process was designed to strike a balance between the excesses of constant change and inflexibility . An amendment may be proposed and sent to the states for ratification by either : The United States Congress , whenever a two - thirds majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives deem it necessary ; OR A national convention , called by Congress for this purpose , on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds ( currently 34 ) of the states . To become part of the Constitution , an amendment must be ratified by either ( as determined by Congress ) : The legislatures of three - fourths ( currently 38 ) of the states , within the stipulated time period -- if any ; OR State ratifying conventions in three - fourths ( currently 38 ) of the states , within the stipulated time period -- if any . Upon being properly ratified , an amendment becomes an operative addition to the Constitution . Approximately 11,539 proposals to amend the Constitution have been introduced in Congress since 1789 ( as of December 2014 ) . Collectively , members of the House and Senate typically propose around 200 amendments during each two -- year term of Congress . Most , however , never get out of the Congressional committees in which they were proposed , and only a fraction of those that do receive enough support to win Congressional approval to go through the constitutional ratification process . Beginning in the early 20th century , Congress has usually , but not always , stipulated that an amendment must be ratified by the required number of states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states in order to become part of the Constitution . Congress ' authority to set ratification deadline was affirmed by the United States Supreme Court in Coleman v. Miller , 307 U.S. 433 ( 1939 ) . The thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution -- both ratified and unratified -- are listed and detailed in the tables below . Contents ( hide ) 1 Ratified amendments 1.1 Synopsis of each ratified amendment 1.2 Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment 2 Unratified amendments 2.1 Synopsis of each unratified amendment 2.2 Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Ratified amendments ( edit ) Synopsis of each ratified amendment ( edit ) No . Subject Date submitted for Ratification Date ratification completed Ratification time span 1st Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion , impeding the free exercise of religion , abridging the freedom of speech , infringing on the freedom of the press , interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 2nd Protects the right to keep and bear arms . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 3rd Places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner 's consent , prohibiting it during peacetime . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 4th Prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause as determined by a neutral judge or magistrate . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 5th Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain , protects the right to due process , and prohibits self - incrimination and double jeopardy . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 6th Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury , including the rights to be notified of the accusations , to confront the accuser , to obtain witnesses and to retain counsel . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 7th Provides for the right to trial by jury in certain civil cases , according to common law . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 8th Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail , as well as cruel and unusual punishment . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 9th Protects rights not enumerated in the Constitution . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 10th Reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the states or the people through the Constitution . September 25 , 1789 December 15 , 1791 2 years 2 months 20 days 11th Makes states immune from suits from out - of - state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders ; lays the foundation for sovereign immunity . March 4 , 1794 February 7 , 1795 11 months 3 days 12th Revises presidential election procedures by having the President and Vice President elected together as opposed to the Vice President being the runner up . December 9 , 1803 June 15 , 1804 6 months 6 days 13th Abolishes slavery , and involuntary servitude , except as punishment for a crime . January 31 , 1865 December 6 , 1865 10 months 6 days 14th Defines citizenship , contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause , the Due Process Clause , the Equal Protection Clause , and deals with post -- Civil War issues . June 13 , 1866 July 9 , 1868 2 years 0 months 26 days 15th Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race , color or previous condition of servitude . February 26 , 1869 February 3 , 1870 11 months 8 days 16th Permits Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census . July 12 , 1909 February 3 , 1913 3 years 6 months 22 days 17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote . May 13 , 1912 April 8 , 1913 10 months 26 days 18th Prohibited the manufacturing or sale of alcohol within the United States . ( Repealed December 5 , 1933 , via 21st Amendment . ) December 18 , 1917 January 16 , 1919 1 year 0 months 29 days 19th Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex . June 4 , 1919 August 18 , 1920 1 year 2 months 14 days 20th Changes the date on which the terms of the President and Vice President ( January 20 ) and Senators and Representatives ( January 3 ) end and begin . March 2 , 1932 January 23 , 1933 10 months 21 days 21st Repeals the 18th Amendment and makes it a federal offense to transport or import intoxicating liquors into US states and territories where such transport or importation is prohibited by the laws of those states and territories . February 20 , 1933 December 5 , 1933 9 months 15 days 22nd Limits the number of times that a person can be elected president : a person can not be elected president more than twice , and a person who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected can not be elected more than once . March 24 , 1947 February 27 , 1951 3 years 11 months 6 days 23rd Grants the District of Columbia electors ( the number of electors being equal to the least populous state ) in the Electoral College . June 16 , 1960 March 29 , 1961 9 months 12 days 24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax or any other tax . September 14 , 1962 January 23 , 1964 1 year 4 months 27 days 25th Addresses succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President , as well as responding to Presidential disabilities . July 6 , 1965 February 10 , 1967 1 year 7 months 4 days 26th Prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens , eighteen years of age or older , to vote on account of age . March 23 , 1971 July 1 , 1971 3 months 8 days 27th Delays laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until after the next election of representatives . September 25 , 1789 May 5 , 1992 202 years 7 months 10 days Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment ( edit ) `` Y '' indicates that the state ratified the amendment . `` N '' indicates that the state rejected the amendment and has not ratified it . `` Y '' indicates that the state 's ratification of the amendment came after the state had officially rejected it . `` Y '' indicates that after officially ratifying the amendment the state rescinded that ratification , but later re-ratified it . `` -- '' indicates that the state did not complete action on the amendment . `` '' indicates that the amendment was ratified before that state joined the Union . State ( in order of statehood ) 1 -- 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Delaware Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Pennsylvania Y -- Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- New Jersey Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Georgia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y -- Y -- -- -- Y Y Connecticut Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Massachusetts Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Maryland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y South Carolina Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y -- -- Y Y Y New Hampshire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Virginia Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y New York Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- North Carolina Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y -- Y Y Y Y Rhode Island Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Vermont Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Kentucky Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y -- -- Y Y -- Y Tennessee Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Ohio Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Louisiana Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y -- -- Y Y Y Indiana Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Mississippi Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y -- Y -- Y -- -- Illinois Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Alabama Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Maine Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Missouri Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Arkansas Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Michigan Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Florida Y Y Y -- -- Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y -- Y Texas Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Iowa Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Wisconsin Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y California Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Minnesota Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Oregon Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Kansas Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Y West Virginia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Nevada Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Nebraska Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Y Colorado Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y North Dakota Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y -- -- Y South Dakota Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y -- -- Y Montana Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Washington Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Y Y Idaho Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Wyoming Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Y Y Utah Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Oklahoma Y Y Y Y Y -- Y -- Y Y Y New Mexico Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y Arizona Y Y Y Y Y Y -- Y -- Y Y Y Alaska Y Y Y Y Y Hawaii Y Y Y Y Y State ( in order of statehood ) 1 -- 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Unratified amendments ( edit ) Synopsis of each unratified amendment ( edit ) Title Subject Status Congressional Apportionment Amendment Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives . Pending since September 25 , 1789 Titles of Nobility Amendment Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country . Pending since May 1 , 1810 Corwin Amendment Would make the states ' `` domestic institutions '' ( slavery ) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress . Pending since March 2 , 1861 Child Labor Amendment Would empower the federal government to limit , regulate , and prohibit child labor . Pending since June 2 , 1924 Equal Rights Amendment Would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex . Initial ratification period ended March 22 , 1979 , and extension period ended June 30 , 1982 ; amendment failed District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment Would have treated the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress ( including repealing the 23rd Amendment ) , representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended . Ratification period ended August 22 , 1985 ; amendment failed Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment ( edit ) `` Y '' indicates that the state ratified the amendment . `` N '' indicates that the state rejected the amendment and has not ratified it . `` Y '' indicates that the state 's ratification of the amendment came after the state had officially rejected it . `` Y '' indicates that after officially ratifying the amendment the state rescinded that ratification . `` ⋈ '' indicates that the state did not complete action on the amendment during the stated ratification period . `` '' An empty cell indicates that the state has not completed action on the pending amendment . State ( in alphabetical order ) Alabama ⋈ ⋈ Alaska Y ⋈ Arizona Y ⋈ ⋈ Arkansas Y ⋈ ⋈ California Y Y ⋈ Colorado Y Y ⋈ Connecticut Y Y Delaware Y Y Y Florida ⋈ ⋈ Georgia Y ⋈ ⋈ Hawaii Y Y Idaho Y Y ⋈ Illinois Y Y ⋈ ⋈ Indiana Y Y ⋈ Iowa Y Y Y Kansas Y Y ⋈ Kentucky Y Y Y Y Y ⋈ Louisiana ⋈ Y Maine Y Y Y Maryland Y Y Y Y Y Massachusetts Y Y Y Michigan Y Y Y Minnesota Y Y Y Mississippi ⋈ ⋈ Missouri ⋈ ⋈ Montana Y Y ⋈ Nebraska Y ⋈ Nevada Y Y ⋈ New Hampshire Y Y Y Y ⋈ New Jersey Y Y Y Y Y New Mexico Y Y ⋈ New York Y Y ⋈ North Carolina Y Y ⋈ ⋈ North Dakota Y Y ⋈ Ohio Y Y Y Y Y Oklahoma Y ⋈ ⋈ Oregon Y Y Y Pennsylvania Y Y Y Y ⋈ Rhode Island Y Y Y Y South Carolina Y ⋈ ⋈ South Dakota Y ⋈ Tennessee Y Y ⋈ Texas Y ⋈ Utah Y ⋈ ⋈ Vermont Y Y Y ⋈ Virginia Y ⋈ ⋈ Washington Y Y ⋈ West Virginia Y Y Y Wisconsin Y Y Y Wyoming Y Y ⋈ Number of ratifications : 11 12 5 28 35 16 See also ( edit ) History of the United States Constitution Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution References ( edit ) Specific Jump up ^ England , Trent & Spalding , Matthew . `` Essays on Article V : Amendments '' . The Heritage Foundation . Retrieved July 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Measures Proposed to Amend the Constitution '' . Statistics & Lists . United States Senate . Jump up ^ `` C - SPAN 's Capitol Questions '' . Archived from the original on May 9 , 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Congress , House . The Constitution of the United States of America , As Amended , H. Doc . 102 - 188 , 102nd Cong. , 2nd sess. , ( Washington : GPO , 1992 ) . Jump up ^ The U.S. Constitution and Constitutional Law . Britannica Educational Publishing . 2012 . pp. 105 -- 108 . ISBN 9781615307555 . General Congressional Research Service . ( 1992 ) . The Constitution of the United States of America : Analysis and Interpretation . ( Senate Document No. 103 -- 6 ) . ( Johnny H. Killian and George A. Costello , Eds . ) . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amendments to the United States Constitution . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Category : Constitution of the United States of America The Constitution of the United States of America : Analysis and Interpretation is available at : FindLaw -- FindLaw 's version of the official document ; incorporates 1996 , 1998 , and 2000 supplements into text , but does not include prefatory material included in official version . 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