Cradle of civilization - wikipedia Cradle of civilization Jump to : navigation , search Human history and prehistory ↑ before Homo ( Pliocene epoch ) Prehistory ( three - age system ) Stone Age Lower Paleolithic Homo Homo erectus Middle Paleolithic Early Homo sapiens Upper Paleolithic Behavioral modernity Neolithic Cradle of civilization Bronze Age China Europe India Near East Iron Age Bronze Age collapse China Europe India Japan Korea Near East Nigeria Recorded history Ancient history Earliest records Post-classical history Modern history Early Later Contemporary ↓ Future The term `` cradle of civilization '' refers to locations where , according to current archeological data , civilization is understood to have emerged . Current thinking is that there was no single `` cradle '' , but several civilizations that developed independently , with the Fertile Crescent ( Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt ) understood to be the earliest . Other civilizations arose in Asia among cultures situated along large river valleys , such as Indo - Gangetic Plain in the Indian subcontinent and the Yellow River in China . The extent to which there was significant influence between the early civilizations of the Near East and those of East Asia is disputed . Scholars accept that the civilizations of Mesoamerica , mainly in modern Mexico , and Norte Chico in present - day Peru emerged independently from those in Eurasia . Scholars have defined civilization using various criteria such as the use of writing , cities , a class - based society , agriculture , animal husbandry , public buildings , metallurgy , and monumental architecture . The term cradle of civilization has frequently been applied to a variety of cultures and areas , in particular the Ancient Near Eastern Chalcolithic ( Ubaid period ) and Fertile Crescent , Ancient India and Ancient China . It has also been applied to ancient Anatolia , the Levant and Iran , and used to refer to culture predecessors -- such as Ancient Greece as the predecessor of Western Civilization -- even when such sites are not understood as an independent development of civilization , as well as within national rhetoric . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of the idea 2 Rise of civilization 3 Single or multiple cradles 4 Old World 4.1 Mesopotamia 4.2 Egypt 4.3 India 4.4 China 5 New World 5.1 Central Andes 5.2 Mesoamerica 6 Timeline 7 Cradle of Western civilization 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources History of the idea ( edit ) The concept `` cradle of civilization '' is the subject of much debate . The figurative use of cradle to mean `` the place or region in which anything is nurtured or sheltered in its earlier stage '' is traced by the Oxford English Dictionary to Spenser ( 1590 ) . Charles Rollin 's Ancient History ( 1734 ) has `` Egypt that served at first as the cradle of the holy nation '' . The phrase `` cradle of civilization '' plays a certain role in national mysticism . It has been used in Eastern as well as Western cultures , for instance , in Hindu nationalism ( In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995 ) and Taiwanese nationalism ( Taiwan -- The Cradle of Civilization 2002 ) . The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory , such as the Urantia Book , claiming the title for `` the second Eden '' , or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain ( Civilization One 2004 , Ancient Britain : The Cradle of Civilization 1921 ) . Rise of civilization ( edit ) Further information : Neolithic Revolution , Urban revolution , and Chalcolithic Ancient history Preceded by Prehistory Ancient Near East Sumer Egypt Assyria Elam Akkad Babylonia Canaan Israel and Judah Hittite Empire Arzawa Mitanni Minoan Crete Mycenaean Greece Syro - Hittite states Hayasa - Azzi Georgia Anatolia Armenia Neo-Assyrian Empire Urartu Neo-Babylonian Empire Medes Classical antiquity Greece Persia ( Achaemenid ) Hellenism Rome Africa Late Antiquity East Asia China Korea Japan South Asia Indus Valley Vedic period Maha Janapadas Maurya Empire Tamilakam Satavahana Gupta Empire Pre-Columbian Americas Mesoamerica Olmec Maya civilization Teotihuacan Aztec Andean civilizations Chavín culture Moche Inca empire See also History of the world Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization Followed by the Postclassical Era The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC , when the Natufian culture became sedentary ; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC . The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply , due to favourable conditions for hunting , fishing and gathering resources including cereals , provided an initial wide spectrum economy that triggered the creation of permanent villages . The earliest proto - urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the Neolithic . The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk , by the 31st century BC ( see Historical urban community sizes ) . Historic times are marked apart from prehistoric times when `` records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations '' ; which may be in written or oral form . If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the development of writing out of proto - writing , the Near Eastern Chalcolithic , the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th millennium BC , and the development of proto - writing in Harappa in the Indus Valley of South Asia around 3300 BC are the earliest incidences , followed by Chinese proto - writing evolving into the oracle bone script , and again by the emergence of Mesoamerican writing systems from about 2000 BC . In the absence of written documents , most aspects of the rise of early civilizations are contained in archaeological assessments that document the development of formal institutions and the material culture . A `` civilized '' way of life is ultimately linked to conditions coming almost exclusively from intensive agriculture . Gordon Childe defined the development of civilization as the result of two successive revolutions : the Neolithic Revolution , triggering the development of settled communities , and the Urban Revolution , which enhanced tendencies towards dense settlements , specialized occupational groups , social classes , exploitation of surpluses , monumental public buildings and writing . Few of those conditions , however , are unchallenged by the records : dense settlements were not attested in Egypt 's Old Kingdom and were absent in the Maya area ; the Incas lacked writing altogether ; and often monumental architecture preceded any indication of village settlement . For instance , in present - day Louisiana , researchers have determined that cultures that were primarily nomadic organized over generations to build earthwork mounds at seasonal settlements as early as 3400 BC . Rather than a succession of events and preconditions , the rise of civilization could equally be hypothesized as an accelerated process that started with incipient agriculture and culminated in the Oriental Bronze Age . Single or multiple cradles ( edit ) A traditional theory of the spread of civilization is that it began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there by influence . Scholars more generally now believe that civilizations arose independently at several locations in both hemispheres . They have observed that sociocultural developments occurred along different timeframes . `` Sedentary '' and `` nomadic '' communities continued to interact considerably ; they were not strictly divided among widely different cultural groups . The concept of a cradle of civilization has a focus where the inhabitants came to build cities , to create writing systems , to experiment in techniques for making pottery and using metals , to domesticate animals , and to develop complex social structures involving class systems . Current scholarship generally identifies six sites where civilization emerged independently : Mesopotamia , the Nile River , the Indus River , the Yellow River , the Central Andes , and Mesoamerica . Old World ( edit ) Mesopotamia ( edit ) Main articles : History of Mesopotamia and Sumer Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A ( PPNA ) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ( 7600 to 6000 BC ) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards . One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho in the Levant region , thought to be the world 's first town ( settled around 8500 BC and fortified around 6800 BC ) . In Mesopotamia , the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation . The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are among the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies . It is because of this that the fertile crescent region , and Mesopotamia in particular , are often referred to as the cradle of civilization . The period known as the Ubaid period ( c. 6500 to 3800 BC ) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain , although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium . It was during the Ubaid period that the movement towards urbanization began . Agriculture and animal husbandry were widely practiced in sedentary communities , particularly in Northern Mesopotamia , and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced in the south . Eridu is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period , around 5300 BC , and the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period . In the south , the Ubaid period had a very long duration from around 6500 to 3800 BC ; when it is replaced by the Uruk period . Sumerian civilization coalesces in the subsequent Uruk period ( 4000 to 3100 BC ) . Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk , this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and , during its later phase , the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script . Proto - writing in the region dates to around 3500 BC , with the earliest texts dating to 3300 BC ; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BC . It was also during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular , along with cylinder seals . Uruk trade networks started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus , and strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to emerge leading to the Early Dynastic Period ( c. 2900 BC ) . The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period , although architectural precursors in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period , and the second phase of the Early Dynastic Period ( c. 2700 BC ) is also when the legendary king Gilgamesh is believed to have reigned . Eannatum , the Sumerian king of Lagash , established one of the first verifiable empires in history in 2500 BC . The neighboring Elam , in modern Iran , was also part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period . Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East . The emergence of Elamite written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history , where slightly earlier records have been found . During the 3rd millennium BC , there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians . Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC . The Semitic - speaking Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BC under Sargon the Great . The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC . Under Sargon and his successors , the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium . After the fall of the Akkadian Empire , the Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian - speaking nations : Assyria in the north , and , a few centuries later , Babylonia in the south . Egypt ( edit ) Main articles : History of ancient Egypt and Ancient Egypt The maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt The developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A ( 10,200 BC ) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ( 7600 to 6000 BC ) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards . Contemporaneously , a grain - grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunters , fishers , and gathering people using stone tools along the Nile . Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies also suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa , eventually forming the Sahara . Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle . By about 5500 BC , small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan , demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry , and identifiable by their pottery and personal items , such as combs , bracelets , and beads . The largest of these early cultures in upper ( Southern ) Egypt was the Badari , which probably originated in the Western Desert ; it was known for its high quality ceramics , stone tools , and use of copper . The oldest known domesticated bovine in Africa are from Fayum dating to around 4400 BC . The Badari cultures was followed by the Naqada culture , which brought a number of technological improvements . As early as the first Naqada Period , Amratia , Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia , used to shape blades and other objects from flakes . By 3300 BC , just before the first Egyptian dynasty , Egypt was divided into two kingdoms , known as Upper Egypt to the south , and Lower Egypt to the north . Egyptian civilization begins during the second phase of the Naqda culture , known as the Gerzeh period , around 3500 BC and coalesces with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BC . Farming produced the vast majority of food ; with increased food supplies , the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle , and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5,000 residents . It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their cities , and the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect became popular . Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools and weaponry . Symbols on Gerzean pottery also resemble nascent Egyptian hieroglyphs . Early evidence also exists of contact with the Near East , particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast , during this time . Concurrent with these cultural advances , a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River , or Upper Egypt , occurred . At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta , or Lower Egypt , also underwent a unification process . During his reign in Upper Egypt , King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule . The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt . It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties , lasting from the Naqada III archaeological period until about the beginning of the Old Kingdom , c. 2686 BC . With the First Dynasty , the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by a god - king . The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization , such as art , architecture and many aspects of religion , took shape during the Early Dynastic period . The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land , labour , and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization . Major advances in architecture , art , and technology were made during the subsequent Old Kingdom , fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population , made possible by a well - developed central administration . Some of ancient Egypt 's crowning achievements , the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx , were constructed during the Old Kingdom . Under the direction of the vizier , state officials collected taxes , coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield , drafted peasants to work on construction projects , and established a justice system to maintain peace and order . Along with the rising importance of a central administration there arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services . Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples , to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death . Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh , and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration . As the power of the pharaoh diminished , regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh . This , coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC , is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140 - year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period . India ( edit ) Main articles : History of India and Indus Valley Civilization Indian cultural zone One of the earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia is Bhirrana along the ancient Saraswati riverine system in the present day state of Haryana in India , dating to around 7600 BC . Other early sites include Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers , both dating to around the 7000 BC . The aceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasts from 7000 to 5500 BC , with the ceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasting up to 3300 BC ; blending into the Early Bronze Age . Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia . It is likely that the culture centered around Mehrgarh migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation . The Indus Valley Civilisation starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase ( 3300 to 2600 BC ) . The earliest examples of the Indus Script date to this period , as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life . Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials , including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead - making . By this time , villagers had domesticated numerous crops , including peas , sesame seeds , dates , and cotton , as well as animals , including the water buffalo . 2600 BC marks the Mature Harappan Phase during which Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres including Harappa , Dholavira , Mohenjo - Daro , Lothal , and Rakhigarhi , and more than 1,000 towns and villages , often of relatively small size . Mature Harappans evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper , bronze , lead , and tin and displayed advanced levels of engineering . The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today . The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards , granaries , warehouses , brick platforms , and protective walls . The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts . Around 1800 BC , signs of a gradual decline began to emerge , and by around 1700 BC most of the cities had been abandoned . Many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation . The migration of Aryan peoples into the region at this time is also notable ; however , the idea of a violent invasion is no longer widely accepted . The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilisation continue in later South Asian and Vedic cultures . China ( edit ) Main articles : History of China and Erlitou culture Mainland China , Taiwan , and countries linked to the Chinese cultural and political history Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC , with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River , dated to 6500 BC . Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China . This Neolithic Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture ( 7000 to 5800 BC ) . Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 6600 BC ) are the earliest form of proto - writing in China . However , it is likely that they should not be understood as writing itself , but as features of a lengthy period of sign - use which led eventually to a fully - fledged system of writing . Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county , Henan , found a community that flourished in 5500 to 4900 BC , with evidence of agriculture , constructed buildings , pottery , and burial of the dead . With agriculture came increased population , the ability to store and redistribute crops , and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators . In late Neolithic times , the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture ( 5000 to 3000 BC ) , and the first villages were founded . Later , Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture , which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 to 2000 BC . The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site ( 3100 to 2700 BC ) . Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period ( 1900 to 1500 BC ) , with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia . There is considerable debate whether Erlitou sites correlate to the semi-legendary Xia dynasty . The Xia dynasty ( 2070 to 1600 BC ) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient Chinese historical records such as the Bamboo Annals , first published more than a millennium later during the Western Zhou period . Although Xia is an important element in Chinese historiography , there is to date no archeological evidence to corroborate the dynasty . Erlitou saw an increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification . The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is the Shang dynasty ( 1600 to 1046 BC ) . Shang sites have yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing , the oracle bone script , mostly divinations inscribed on bones . These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics , economy , and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization . Some historians argue that Erlitou should be considered an early phase of the Shang dynasty . The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the period between about 2000 and 771 BC ; a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule . The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society , contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty , however they developed a different method of bronze - making from the Shang . The Shang dynasty was succeeded by the Zhou dynasty ( 1046 to 256 BC ) . The succession of dynasties , known as the dynastic cycle , is an important political theory in Chinese history . This theory sees a continuity in Chinese history from early times to the present by looking at the succession of empires or dynasties . Emperors would legitimize their rule by invoking the Mandate of Heaven . During the Zhou dynasty , Chinese script evolved into its almost - modern form with the use of a clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period . In 221 BC , China became culturally and politically unified under a large centralized empire , the Qin Dynasty , founded by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di . Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory from the center . New World ( edit ) Central Andes ( edit ) Main articles : Ancient Peru and Norte Chico civilization Caral of the Norte Chico , the oldest known civilization in the Americas The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 4700 BC at Huaca Prieta and Paredones . The oldest evidence of canal irrigation in South America dates to 4700 to 2500 BC in the Zaña Valley of northern Peru . The earliest urban settlements of the Andes , as well as North and South America , are dated to 3500 BC at Huaricanga , in the Fortaleza area , and Sechin Bajo near the Sechin River . The Norte Chico civilization proper is understood to have emerged around 3200 BC , as it is at that point that large - scale human settlement and communal construction across multiple sites becomes clearly apparent . Since the early 21st century , it has been established as the oldest known civilization in the Americas . The civilization flourished at the confluence of three rivers , the Fortaleza , the Pativilca , and the Supe . These river valleys each have large clusters of sites . Further south , there are several associated sites along the Huaura River . Notable settlements include the cities of Caral , the largest and most complex Preceramic site , and Aspero . Norte Chico is unusual in that it completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no visual art . Nevertheless , the civilization exhibited impressive architectural feats , including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas , and an advanced textile industry . The platform mounds , as well as large stone warehouses , provide evidence for a stratified society and a centralized authority necessary to distribute resources such as cotton . However , there is no evidence of warfare or defensive structures during this period . Originally , it was theorized that , unlike other early civilizations , Norte Chico developed by relying on maritime food sources in place of a staple cereal . This hypothesis , the Maritime Foundation of Andean Civilization , is still hotly debated ; however , most researches now agree that agriculture played a central role in the civilization 's development while still acknowledging a strong supplemental reliance on maritime proteins . The discovery of quipu , string - based recording devices , at Caral can be understood as a form of `` proto - writing '' at Norte Chico . However , the exact use of quipu in this and later Andean cultures has been widely debated . Additionally , the image of the Staff God has been found on a gourd dated to 2250 BC . The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures . The presence of quipu and the commonality of religious symbols suggests a cultural link between Norte Chico and later Andean cultures . Circa 1800 BC , the Norte Chico civilization began to decline , with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast and to the east inside the belt of the Andes . Pottery eventually developed in the Amazon Basin and spread to the Andean culture region around 2000 BC . The next major civilization to arise in the Andes would be the Chavín culture at Chavín de Huantar , located in the Andean highlands of the present - day Ancash Region . It is believed to have been built around 900 BC and was the religious and political center of the Chavín people . Mesoamerica ( edit ) Main articles : Mesoamerican chronology and Olmec The Olmec heartland , where the Olmec reigned The Coxcatlan caves in the Valley of Tehuacán provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC . Similarly , sites such as Sipacate in Guatemala provide maize pollen samples dating to 3500 BC . It is estimated that fully domesticated maize developed in Mesoamerica around 2700 BC . Mesoamericans during this period likely divided their time between small hunting encampments and large temporary villages . What would become the Olmec civilization had its roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco , which began around 5100 to 4600 BC . The emergence of the Olmec civilization has traditionally been dated to around 1600 to 1500 BC . Olmec features first emerged in the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , fully coalescing around 1400 BC . The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well - watered alluvial soil , as well as by the transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos River basin . This environment encouraged a densely concentrated population , which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class and an associated demand for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture . Many of these luxury artifacts were made from materials such as jade , obsidian , and magnetite , which came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica . The aspect of Olmec culture perhaps most familiar today is their artwork , particularly the Olmec colossal heads . San Lorenzo was all but abandoned around 900 BC at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence . A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments occurred around 950 BC . La Venta continued as the center of Olmec culture until its abandonment around 400 BC ; constructing monumental architectural achievements such as the Great Pyramid of La Venta . The exact cause of the decline of the Olmec culture is uncertain . Between 400 and 350 BC , the population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously . This depopulation was probably the result of serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers , in particular changes to the riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture , hunting and gathering , and transportation . These changes may have been triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence , or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices . Within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities , successor cultures became firmly established . The Tres Zapotes site , on the western edge of the Olmec heartland , continued to be occupied well past 400 BC , but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture . This post-Olmec culture , often labeled Epi - Olmec , has features similar to those found at Izapa , some 550 km ( 330 miles ) to the southeast . The Olmecs are sometimes referred to as the mother culture of Mesoamerica , as they were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed . However , the causes and degree of Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures has been a subject of debate over many decades . Practices introduced by the Olmec include ritual bloodletting and the Mesoamerican ballgame ; hallmarks of subsequent Mesoamerican societies such as the Maya and Aztec . Although the Mesoamerican writing system would fully develop later , early Olmec ceramics show representations that may be interpreted as codices . Timeline ( edit ) The following timeline shows the approximate dates of the emergence of civilization ( as discussed in the article ) in the featured areas and the primary cultures associated with these early civilizations . It is important to note that the timeline is not indicative of the beginning of human habitation , the start of a specific ethnic group , or the development of Neolithic cultures in the area ; which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper . Cradle of Western civilization ( edit ) Main articles : Ancient Greece , Ancient Rome , and Classical antiquity The Colosseum and the Acropolis , symbols of the Graeco - Roman world . Via the Roman Empire , Greek culture spread throughout Europe . There is academic consensus that Classical Greece is the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture , democracy , art , theatre , philosophy and science . For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization . Along with Greece , Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics , republicanism , law , architecture , warfare and Western Christianity . See also ( edit ) Chronology of the ancient Near East Cradle of Humankind Human history Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ See Jump up ^ References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ Charles Keith Maisels ( 1993 ) . The Near East : Archaeology in the `` Cradle of Civilization . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 04742 - 0 . Jump up ^ Thorpe , Showick Thorpe Edgar ( 2009 ) . The Pearson General Studies Manual 2009 , 1 / e . Pearson Education India . Jump up ^ `` Indus River Valley Civilizations '' . History-world.org . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ Cradles of Civilization - China : Ancient Culture , Modern Land , Robert E. Murowchick , gen . ed . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press , 1994 ^ Jump up to : Mann , Charles C. ( 2006 ) ( 2005 ) . 1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus . Vintage Books . pp. 199 -- 212 . ISBN 1 - 4000 - 3205 - 9 . Jump up ^ Haviland , William ; et al. ( 2013 ) . Cultural Anthropology : The Human Challenge . Cengage Learning . p. 250 . ^ Jump up to : Understanding Early Civilizations : A Comparative Study , Trigger , Bruce G. , Cambridge University Press , 2007 ^ Jump up to : Maura Ellyn ; Maura McGinnis ( 2004 ) . Greece : A Primary Source Cultural Guide . The Rosen Publishing Group . p. 8 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8239 - 3999 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Lin ( 林 ) , Shengyi ( 勝義 ) ; He ( 何 ) , Xianrong ( 顯榮 ) ( 2001 ) . 臺灣 -- 人類 文明 原 鄉 ( Taiwan -- The Cradle of Civilization ) . Taiwan gu wen ming yan jiu cong shu ( 臺灣 古 文明 研究 叢書 ) ( in Chinese ) . Taipei : Taiwan fei die xue yan jiu hui ( 台灣 飛碟 學 硏 究 會 ) . ISBN 978 - 957 - 30188 - 0 - 3 . OCLC 52945170 . Jump up ^ Ofer Bar - Yosef . `` The Natufian Culture in the Levant , Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture '' ( PDF ) . Columbia.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ La protohistoire de l'Europe , Jan Lichardus et al. , Presses Universitaires de France , Paris . ISBN 84 - 335 - 9366 - 8 , 1987 , chapter II. 2 . Jump up ^ Carr , Edward H. ( 1961 ) . What is History ? , p. 108 , ISBN 0 - 14 - 020652 - 3 . Jump up ^ Britannica 15th edition , 26 : 62 -- 63 . Jump up ^ `` The Rise Of Civilization In The Middle East And Africa '' . History-world.org . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Rise of Civilizations : Mesopotamia to Mesoamerica '' , Archaeology , Wright , Henry T. , vol. 42 , no . 1 , pp. 46 -- 48 , 96 -- 100 , 1990 Jump up ^ `` AP World History '' . College Board . Archived from the original on April 22 , 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` World History Course Description '' ( PDF ) . College Board . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 10 - 03 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Civilization '' . The Columbia Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ Edwin , Eric ( 2015 - 02 - 27 ) . `` city '' . Britannica.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Africanafrican.com '' ( PDF ) . Africanafrican.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ The Ancient Hawaiian State : Origins of a Political Society , Hommon , Robert J. , Oxford University Press , 2013 Jump up ^ Kennett , Douglas J. ; Winterhalder , Bruce ( 2006 ) . Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture . University of California Press . pp. 121 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 24647 - 8 . Retrieved 27 December 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Bellwood , Peter . First Farmers : The Origins of Agricultural Societies. 2004 . Wiley - Blackwell Jump up ^ Akhilesh Pillalamarri ( 18 April 2015 ) . `` Exploring the Indus Valley 's Secrets '' . The diplomat . Retrieved 18 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Jericho - Facts & History '' . Jump up ^ `` Ubaid Civilization '' . Ancientneareast.tripod.com . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ Adams , Robert MCC. and Wright , Henry T. 1989 . ' Concluding Remarks ' in Henrickson , Elizabeth and Thuesen , Ingolf ( eds . ) Upon This Foundation - The ' Ubaid Reconsidered . Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press . pp. 451 - 456 . Jump up ^ Carter , Robert A. and Philip , Graham Beyond the Ubaid : Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East ( Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization , Number 63 ) The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago ( 2010 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 885923 - 66 - 0 p. 2 , at http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/saoc/saoc63.html ; `` Radiometric data suggest that the whole Southern Mesopotamian Ubaid period , including Ubaid 0 and 5 , is of immense duration , spanning nearly three millennia from about 6500 to 3800 B.C '' . Jump up ^ Pollock , Susan ( 1999 ) . 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CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Pool , Christopher A. ( 2007 ) . Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica . Cambridge World Archaeology . Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Nagy , Christopher ( 1997 ) . `` The Geoarchaeology of Settlement in the Grijalva Delta '' . In Barbara L. Stark ; Philip J. Arnold III . Olmec to Aztec : Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands . Tucson : University of Arizona Press . pp. 253 -- 277 Jump up ^ Coe , Michael D. ( 1968 ) . America 's First Civilization : Discovering the Olmec . New York : The Smithsonian Library . ^ Jump up to : Coe , Michael D. ; Rex Koontz ( 2002 ) . Mexico : from the Olmecs to the Aztecs ( 5th edition , revised and enlarged ed . ) . London and New York : Thames & Hudson . Jump up ^ Wilford , John Noble ; `` Mother Culture , or Only a Sister ? '' , The New York Times , March 15 , 2005 . Jump up ^ John E. Findling ; Kimberly D. Pelle ( 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 23 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 32278 - 5 . Jump up ^ Wayne C. Thompson ; Mark H. Mullin . Western Europe , 1983 . Stryker - Post Publications . p. 337 . for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ... Jump up ^ Frederick Copleston ( 1 June 2003 ) . History of Philosophy Volume 1 : Greece and Rome . A&C Black . p. 13 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8264 - 6895 - 6 . PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT : Jump up ^ Mario Iozzo ( 2001 ) . Art and History of Greece : And Mount Athos . Casa Editrice Bonechi . p. 7 . ISBN 978 - 88 - 8029 - 435 - 1 . The capital of Greece , one of the world 's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture , Jump up ^ Marxiano Melotti ( 25 May 2011 ) . The Plastic Venuses : Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society . Cambridge Scholars Publishing . p. 188 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4438 - 3028 - 7 . In short , Greece , despite having been the cradle of Western culture , was then an `` other '' space separate from the West . Jump up ^ Library Journal . 97 . Bowker. April 1972 . p. 1588 . Ancient Greece : Cradle of Western Culture ( Series ) , disc . 6 strips with 3 discs , range : 44 -- 60 fr. , 17 -- 18 min Jump up ^ Stanley Mayer Burstein ( 2002 ) . Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History . Regina Books . p. 15 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 930053 - 10 - 6 . and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture . Jump up ^ Murray Milner , Jr. ( 8 January 2015 ) . Elites : A General Model . John Wiley & Sons . p. 62 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7456 - 8950 - 0 . Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization . Jump up ^ Slavica viterbiensia 003 : Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia . Gangemi Editore spa. 2011 - 11 - 10 . p. 148 . ISBN 978 - 88 - 492 - 6909 - 3 . The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture , Jump up ^ Kim Covert ( 1 July 2011 ) . Ancient Greece : Birthplace of Democracy . Capstone . p. 5 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4296 - 6831 - 6 . Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece . Jump up ^ Ricardo Duchesne ( 7 February 2011 ) . The Uniqueness of Western Civilization . BRILL . p. 297 . ISBN 90 - 04 - 19248 - 4 . The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the `` cradle '' of the West is endless ; two more examples are Charles Freeman 's The Greek Achievement : The Foundation of the Western World ( 1999 ) and Bruce Thornton 's Greek Ways : How the Greeks Created Western Civilization ( 2000 ) Jump up ^ Henry Turner Inman . `` Rome : the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments '' . Amazon.com . ISBN 9781177738538 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ Michael Ed . Grant . `` The Birth Of Western Civilisation , Greece & Rome '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ HUXLEY , George ( et al ) . `` 9780500040034 : The Birth of Western Civilization : Greece and Rome '' . AbeBooks.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Athens . Rome . Jerusalem and Vicinity . Peninsula of Mt . Sinai. : Geographicus Rare Antique Maps '' . Geographicus.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Download This PDF eBooks Free '' ( PDF ) . File104.filthbooks.org . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2016 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 04 . Sources ( edit ) Samuel Noah Kramer ( 1959 ) . Anchor Paperback . Doubleday Anchor Books . Samuel Noah Kramer ( 1969 ) . Cradle of Civilization . Little Brown & Co . ISBN 0 - 316 - 32617 - 8 . Georg Feuerstein ( 2001 ) . In Search of the Cradle of Civilization . Quest Books . ISBN 0 - 8356 - 0741 - 0 . Ethel Hofflund ( 2001 ) . The Cradle of Civilization ( Lifepac History & Geography Grade 6 ) . Alpha Omega Publications . ISBN 0 - 86717 - 552 - 4 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cradle_of_civilization&oldid=806887682 '' Categories : Ancient Near East Civilizations History of the Mediterranean Archaeology of the Near East Archaeological terminology Hidden categories : CS1 uses Chinese - language script ( zh ) CS1 Chinese - language sources ( zh ) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Use dmy dates from June 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Беларуская Čeština Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano 日本 語 Română Русский Slovenščina Türkçe Українська 文言 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2017 , at 19 : 33 . 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Extensor pollicis longus muscle - wikipedia Extensor pollicis longus muscle Jump to : navigation , search Extensor pollicis longus muscle Posterior surface of the forearm . Deep muscles . Extensor pollicis longus muscle is labeled in purple . Details Origin Middle third of posterior surface of ulna , interosseous membrane Insertion thumb , distal phalanx Artery posterior interosseous artery Nerve posterior interosseous nerve ( branching from the radial nerve ) Actions extension of the thumb ( metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal ) Antagonist Flexor pollicis longus muscle , Flexor pollicis brevis muscle Identifiers Latin musculus extensor pollicis longus Dorlands / Elsevier m_22 / 12548955 TA A04. 6.02. 051 FMA 38521 Anatomical terms of muscle ( edit on Wikidata ) In human anatomy , the extensor pollicis longus muscle ( EPL ) is a skeletal muscle located dorsally on the forearm . It is much larger than the extensor pollicis brevis , the origin of which it partly covers and acts to stretch the thumb together with this muscle . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Relations 1.2 Blood supply 1.3 Innervation 2 Function 3 Clinical significance 3.1 Injury 4 Additional images 5 Notes 6 References Structure ( edit ) The extensor pollicis longus arises from the dorsal surface of the ulna and from the interosseous membrane , next to the origins of abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis . Passing through the third tendon compartment , lying in a narrow , oblique groove on the back of the lower end of the radius , it crosses the wrist close to the dorsal midline before turning towards the thumb using Lister 's tubercle on the distal end of the radius as a pulley . It obliquely crosses the tendons of the extensores carpi radialis longus and brevis , and is separated from the extensor pollicis brevis by a triangular interval , the anatomical snuff box in which the radial artery is found . At the proximal phalanx , the tendon is joined by expansions from abductor pollicis brevis and adductor pollicis . The tendon is finally inserted on the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb . 6.7 to 9.7 centimetres ( 2.6 to 3.8 in ) in length , the tendon passes through a long and superficial synovial sheath which , passing obliquely from the radial border of the foremarm into the thumb , extends from the proximal border of the extensor retinaculum to the first carpometacarpal joint . In the synovial sheath a proximal and a distal mesotendon connect the tendon to the floor of the sheath . Relations ( edit ) Together with the tendons of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis longus , its tendon crosses the radial artery . Blood supply ( edit ) The tendon of extensor pollicis longus is supplied by branches from various arteries . Before the tendon enters its synovial sheath , arteries from the anterior interosseous artery or its muscular branches enter the tendon . The sheath itself is supplied by the posterior ramus of the same artery . In the metacarpal region , beyond the synovial sheath , the tendon is supplied directly from the radial artery . At the phalanges , the tendon forms a dorsal aponeurosis which is supplied by a digital branch of the first dorsal metacarpal artery . Innervation ( edit ) The extensor pollicis longus muscle receives innervation from the posterior interosseous nerve ( C7 and C8 ) which is the continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve . Function ( edit ) Extensor pollicis longus extends the terminal phalanx of the thumb . While abductor pollicis brevis and adductor pollicis , both attached to the extensor pollicis longus tendon , can extend the thumb 's interphalangeal joint to the neutral position , only extensor pollicis longus can achieve full hyperextension at the interphalangeal joint . This complete extension at the interphalangeal joint is not possible , or considerably more difficult , with the carpal , carpometacarpal , and metacarpophalangeal joints simultaneously extended . Likewise , flexion at the interphalangeal joint by flexor pollicis longus is considerably reduced in wrist flexion . It also applies an extensor force at the metacarpophalangeal joint together with the extensor pollicis brevis and extends and adducts at the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb . Clinical significance ( edit ) Injury ( edit ) Tenosynovitis , inflammatory irritation of the synovial sheath , is relatively common in the third compartment after repetitive activities such as drum playing . Additional images ( edit ) Anatomical snuff box Bones of left forearm . Posterior aspect . Bones of the left hand . Dorsal surface . Tendons of forefinger and vincula tendina . Cross-section through the middle of the forearm . Posterior surface of the forearm . Superficial muscles . Posterior surface of the forearm . Deep muscles . Transverse section across the wrist and digits . Arteries of the back of the forearm and hand . The mucous sheaths of the tendons on the back of the wrist . ( Extensor pollicis longus visible at center right . ) Muscle of the hand . Posterior view . Notes ( edit ) This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) ^ Jump up to : Platzer 2004 , p. 168 ^ Jump up to : Austin 2005 , p. 339 ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy 1918 , see infobox ^ Jump up to : Zbrodowski , Gajisin & Grodecki 1982 , Results , pp. 235 -- 9 Jump up ^ Schmitt , Lanz & Buchberger 2008 , p. 336 References ( edit ) Austin , Noelle M ( 2005 ) . `` Chapter 9 : The Wrist and Hand Complex '' . In Levangie , Pamela K ; Norkin , Cynthia C. Joint Structure and Function : A Comprehensive Analysis ( 4th ed . ) . Philadelphia : F.A. Davis Company . ISBN 0 - 8036 - 1191 - 9 . Platzer , Werner ( 2004 ) . Color Atlas of Human Anatomy , Vol. 1 : Locomotor System ( 5th ed . ) . Thieme . ISBN 3 - 13 - 533305 - 1 . Schmitt , Rainer ; Lanz , Ulrich ; Buchberger , Wolfgang ( 2008 ) . Diagnostic Imaging of the Hand . Thieme . ISBN 9781588904539 . Zbrodowski , A ; Gajisin , S ; Grodecki , J ( September 1982 ) . `` Vascularization of the tendons of the extensor pollicis longus , extensor carpi radialis longus and extensor carpi radialis brevis muscles '' . J Anat. 135 ( Pt 2 ) : 235 -- 44 . PMC 1168229 . PMID 7174499 . ( hide ) Muscles of the arm Shoulder deltoid rotator cuff supraspinatus infraspinatus teres minor subscapularis teres major fascia : deltoid fascia supraspinous fascia infraspinous fascia Arm ( compartments ) anterior coracobrachialis biceps brachialis posterior triceps brachii anconeus articularis cubiti fascia axillary sheath axillary fascia brachial fascia intermuscular septa lateral medial other spaces quadrangular space triangular space triangular interval Forearm anterior superficial : pronator teres palmaris longus flexor carpi radialis flexor carpi ulnaris flexor digitorum superficialis deep : pronator quadratus flexor digitorum profundus flexor pollicis longus posterior superficial : mobile wad brachioradialis extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis extensor digitorum extensor digiti minimi extensor carpi ulnaris deep : supinator anatomical snuff box abductor pollicis longus extensor pollicis brevis extensor pollicis longus extensor indicis fascia bicipital aponeurosis common tendons extensor flexor antebrachial fascia other cubital tunnel Hand lateral volar thenar opponens pollicis flexor pollicis brevis abductor pollicis brevis adductor pollicis medial volar hypothenar opponens digiti minimi flexor digiti minimi brevis abductor digiti minimi palmaris brevis intermediate lumbrical interossei dorsal palmar fascia posterior : extensor retinaculum extensor expansion anterior : flexor retinaculum palmar aponeurosis Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extensor_pollicis_longus_muscle&oldid=822137120 '' Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Muscles of the upper limb Hidden categories : Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage Medicine infobox template using Dorlands parameter Pages using infobox muscle with Antagonist Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Svenska ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2018 , at 16 : 30 . 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Question: where is the extensor pollicis longus tendon located


Boston mayoral election , 2017 - wikipedia Boston mayoral election , 2017 Jump to : navigation , search Boston mayoral election , 2017 ← 2013 November 7 , 2017 2021 → Candidate Marty Walsh Tito Jackson Party Nonpartisan Nonpartisan Popular vote 70,125 36,433 Percentage 65.3 % 33.9 % Mayor before election Marty Walsh Elected Mayor Marty Walsh Elections in Massachusetts General elections ( show ) General elections 1960 1962 1964 1966 1970 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2008 2012 2014 2016 Federal government ( show ) Presidential elections 1788 - 89 1792 1796 1800 1804 1808 1812 1816 1820 1824 1828 1832 1836 1840 1844 1848 1852 1856 1860 1864 1868 1872 1876 1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1916 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1940 1944 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 2000 2008 2012 2016 U.S. Senate elections Class 1 1899 1905 1911 1916 1922 1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006 2012 Class 2 1918 1924 1930 1936 1942 1948 1954 1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 2002 2008 2014 U.S. House elections 2006 2008 2012 2014 2016 Special elections Senate , 1944 Senate , 1962 1st district , 1991 9th district , 2001 5th district , 2007 Senate , 2010 Senate , 2013 5th district , 2013 State government ( show ) Gubernatorial elections 1839 1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1970 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 State Senate elections 2006 2008 State House elections 2006 2008 Governor 's Council elections 2006 Ballot measures ( show ) 1980 Proposition 21⁄2 2002 English Language Education in Public Schools 2008 Greyhound Protection Sensible Marijuana Policy State Income Tax Repeal No Sales Tax for Alcohol Sales Tax Relief Comprehensive Permits and Regional Planning 2012 Right to Repair Death with Dignity Medical Marijuana 2014 Automatic Gas Tax Increase Repeal Expansion of Bottle Deposits Casino Repeal Paid Sick Days 2016 Expand Slot Machine Gaming Charter School Expansion Conditions for Farm Animals Legalization , Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Boston ( hide ) Mayoral elections 1951 1955 1959 1963 1967 1971 1979 1991 2005 2009 2013 City council elections 2009 2011 The Boston mayoral election of 2017 was held on Tuesday , November 7 , 2017 , to elect the mayor of Boston , Massachusetts . Incumbent Democratic mayor Marty J. Walsh won re-election to a second term , defeating District 7 City Councilor Tito Jackson , and two long - shot candidates , Robert Cappucci and Joseph Wiley . A preliminary election was held on Tuesday , September 26 , 2017 with Walsh and Jackson advancing into a November runoff election . In the November election , Walsh secured a landslide victory , winning 2 - 1 . A total of 108,909 ( of the city 's 390,136 registered voters ) cast a ballot in the November election . The voter turnout of 28 % , down 10 percentage points on turnout in the 2013 mayoral election ( which generated more excitement as the first Boston mayoral race in a generation without an incumbent ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Endorsements 2 Polling 3 Results 4 References Endorsements ( edit ) By October 2017 , 10 out of the 13 Boston City Council members endorsed Walsh for re-election . Ayanna Pressley has remained neutral due to her husband being employed by the mayor and one councilor , Andrea Campbell , has declined to comment on her preference . The Boston Globe editorial board endorsed Walsh for a second time , citing his excellence in handling housing and the city 's vibrancy during this first term . The Boston Herald editorial board also endorsed Walsh saying the newspaper was wrong not to give their endorsement to Walsh in 2013 . Polling ( edit ) Walsh led in polls by substantial margins . An Emerson College Polling Society survey in September poll of likely voters found Walsh at 52 % , Jackson at 21 % , Cappucci at 7 % , and Wiley at 5 % . A Suffolk University / Boston Globe poll in June 2017 found Walsh with a 31 - point lead . Results ( edit ) Notes : all candidates are nonpartisan , 0.66 % are write - in votes in the general election . Candidates Primary election General election Votes % Votes % Marty Walsh 34,882 62.52 % 70,125 65.38 % Tito Jackson 16,216 29.07 % 36,433 33.97 % Robert Cappucci 3,736 6.70 % Joseph Wiley 529 0.95 % References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Irons , Meghan E. ( January 11 , 2017 ) . `` ' I want to become the 55th mayor of the City of Boston ' '' . Boston Globe . Retrieved April 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Meghan E. Irons , Long shots force runoff in Boston mayoral primary , Boston Globe ( June 7 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Marty Walsh faces 3 challengers on Boston 's preliminary ballot , Associated Press ( September 24 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Steve LeBlanc , Marty Walsh , Tito Jackson advance to November election , Associated Press ( September 26 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Dan Atkinson & O'Ryan Johnson , ( Mayor Walsh with a ' W ' in re-election bid : Incumbent cruises home over challenger Tito Jackson ) , Boston Herald ( November 8 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Lisa Creamer , Low -- But Slightly Higher Than Expected -- Voter Turnout In Boston 's Election , WBUR ( November 8 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Irons , Meghan E. ( 2017 - 10 - 04 ) . `` Mayoral candidate Tito Jackson gets a cold shoulder from political establishment '' . The Boston Globe . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ Editorial Board ( 2017 - 10 - 23 ) . `` A second term for Mayor Walsh '' . The Boston Globe . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 23 . Jump up ^ Boston Herald , Editorial Staff ( 2017 - 10 - 25 ) . `` Editorial : Walsh has earned a second term '' . Boston Herald . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ Joe Battenfeld , Walsh up big in poll ; pollster says Tito needs ' perfect storm at this point ' , Boston Herald ( September 18 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ Walsh has 31 - point lead over Jackson in mayoral race , poll shows , Boston Globe ( June 22 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ `` PRELIMINARY MUNICIPAL ELECTION - SEPTEMBER 26 , 2017 MAYOR '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ http://www.cityofboston.gov/elections/currentelections/default.asp ( 2016 ← ) 2017 United States elections ( → 2018 ) U.S. Senate Alabama U.S. House California 's 34th Georgia 's 6th Kansas 's 4th Montana 's at - large South Carolina 's 5th Utah 's 3rd Governors New Jersey Virginia Mayors Albuquerque , NM Atlanta , GA Atlantic City , NJ Birmingham , AL Boston , MA Buffalo , NY Charlotte , NC Cincinnati , OH Cleveland , OH Detroit , MI El Paso , TX Frederick , MD Hoboken , NJ Jackson , MS Jersey City , NJ Los Angeles , CA Miami , FL Minneapolis , MN New Orleans , LA New York , NY North Miami , FL Omaha , NE Pittsburgh , PA Raleigh , NC Rochester , NY St. Louis , MO St. Paul , MN St. Petersburg , FL San Antonio , TX Seattle , WA City Houston , TX Minneapolis , MN State New Jersey Virginia Territories Puerto Rican status referendum Select elections in Massachusetts General 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1976 1978 1982 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1998 2000 2002 2006 2008 2012 2014 2016 2018 Mass . Senate 2002 2006 2008 2012 2014 2016 2018 Mass . House 2002 2006 2008 2012 2014 2016 2018 Governor ( with winners ) 1839 ( Morton ) ... 1908 ( Draper ) ... 1944 ( Tobin ) 1946 ( Bradford ) 1948 ( Dever ) 1950 ( Dever ) 1952 ( Herter ) 1954 ( Herter ) 1956 ( Furcolo ) 1958 ( Furcolo ) 1960 ( Volpe ) 1962 ( Peabody ) 1964 ( Volpe ) 1966 ( Volpe ) 1970 ( Sargent ) 1974 ( Dukakis ) 1978 ( King ) 1982 ( Dukakis ) 1986 ( Dukakis ) 1990 ( Weld ) 1994 ( Weld ) 1998 ( Cellucci ) 2002 ( Romney ) 2006 ( Patrick ) 2010 ( Patrick ) 2014 ( Baker ) 2018 ( TBD ) Gov. 's Council 2002 2006 2012 2014 2016 2018 U.S. President 1788 1792 1796 1800 1804 1808 1812 1816 1820 1824 1828 1832 1836 1840 1844 1848 1852 1856 1860 1864 1868 1872 1876 1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1916 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1940 1944 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 2000 2008 2012 2016 2020 U.S. Senate ( with winners ) Class 1 1789 ( Dalton ) 1790 ( Cabot ) 1796 ( sp ) ( Goodhue ) 1796 ( Goodhue ) 1800 ( sp ) ( Mason ) 1802 ( Adams ) 1808 ( sp ) ( Lloyd ) 1809 ( Lloyd ) 1815 ( Gore ) 1816 ( sp ) ( Ashmun ) 1818 ( sp ) ( Mellon ) 1820 ( sp ) ( Mills ) 1820 ( Mills ) 1827 ( Webster ) 1833 ( Webster ) 1839 ( Webster ) Feb 1841 ( sp ) ( Choate ) 1845 ( Webster ) 1851 ( sp ) ( Rantoul ) 1851 ( Sumner ) 1857 ( Sumner ) 1863 ( Sumner ) 1869 ( Sumner ) 1874 ( sp ) ( Washburn ) 1875 ( Dawes ) 1881 ( Dawes ) 1887 ( Dawes ) 1893 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1899 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1905 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1911 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1916 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1922 ( Lodge Sr . ) 1926 ( sp ) ( Walsh ) 1928 ( Walsh ) 1934 ( Walsh ) 1940 ( Walsh ) 1946 ( Lodge Jr . ) 1952 ( J. Kennedy ) 1958 ( J. Kennedy ) 1962 ( sp ) ( T. Kennedy ) 1964 ( T. Kennedy ) 1970 ( T. Kennedy ) 1976 ( T. Kennedy ) 1982 ( T. Kennedy ) 1988 ( T. Kennedy ) 1994 ( T. Kennedy ) 2000 ( T. Kennedy ) 2006 ( T. Kennedy ) 2010 ( sp ) ( Brown ) 2012 ( Warren ) 2018 ( TBD ) Class 2 1789 ( Strong ) 1793 ( Strong ) 1796 ( sp ) ( Sedgwick ) 1799 ( Dexter ) 1800 ( sp ) ( Foster ) 1803 ( sp ) ( Pickering ) 1804 or 05 ( Pickering ) 1811 ( Varnum ) 1817 ( Otis ) 1822 ( sp ) ( Lloyd ) 1822 ( Lloyd ) 1826 ( sp ) ( Silsbee ) 1828 ( Silsbee ) 1835 ( Davis ) Jan 1841 ( sp ) ( Bates ) 1841 ( Bates ) 1845 ( sp ) ( Davis ) 1847 ( Davis ) 1853 ( Everett ) 1855 ( sp ) ( Davis ) 1859 ( Wilson ) 1865 ( Wilson ) 1871 ( Wilson ) 1873 ( sp ) ( Boutwell ) 1877 ( Hoar ) 1883 ( Hoar ) 1889 ( Hoar ) 1895 ( Hoar ) 1901 ( Hoar ) 1905 ( sp ) ( Crane ) 1907 ( Crane ) 1913 ( Weeks ) 1918 ( Walsh ) 1924 ( Gillett ) 1930 ( Coolidge ) 1936 ( Lodge Jr . ) 1942 ( Lodge Jr . ) 1944 ( sp ) ( Saltonstall ) 1948 ( Saltonstall ) 1954 ( Saltonstall ) 1960 ( Saltonstall ) 1966 ( Brooke ) 1972 ( Brooke ) 1978 ( Tsongas ) 1984 ( Kerry ) 1990 ( Kerry ) 1996 ( Kerry ) 2002 ( Kerry ) 2008 ( Kerry ) 2013 ( sp ) ( Markey ) 2014 ( Markey ) 2020 ( TBD ) U.S. House 1788 1790 1792 1794 1796 ( sp : 1st d. , 10th d . ) 1797 ( sp : 11th d . ) 1798 1800 ( sp : 3rd d. , 4th d. , 10th d . ) 1801 ( sp : 4th d. , 12th d. , 14th d . ) 1802 1804 ( sp : 12th d . ) 1806 1807 ( sp : 12th d . ) 1808 ( sp : 2nd d . ) 1810 ( sp : 10th d. , 11th d . ) 1811 ( sp : 4th d . ) 1812 ( sp : 17th d . ) 1814 ( sp : 4th d. , 12th d . ) 1816 ( sp : 11th d . ) 1817 ( sp : 1st d . ) 1818 ( sp : 20th d . ) 1820 ( sp : 1st d. , 8th d. , 13th d . ) 1822 1823 ( sp : 10th d . ) 1824 ( sp : 10th d . ) 1826 1828 1830 1832 1834 1836 1838 1840 1842 1844 1846 1848 1850 1852 1854 1856 1858 1860 1862 1864 1866 1868 1870 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1882 1884 1886 1888 1890 1892 1894 1896 1898 1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 1918 1920 1922 1924 1926 1928 1930 1932 1934 1936 1938 1940 1942 1944 1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1998 2000 2001 ( sp : 9th d . ) 2002 2006 2007 ( sp : 5th d . ) 2008 2012 2014 2016 2018 See also : Political party strength in Massachusetts City of Boston Topics Accent Annual events Arts Bibliography Culture Demographics Diplomatic missions Economy Education Colleges and universities Geography Historic Places Northern Southern History Timeline Media Nicknames People Politics Port Public Library Public Schools Sister cities Skyscrapers Songs Transportation Attractions Boston Common Boston Convention and Exhibition Center Boston Irish Famine Memorial Boston Tea Party Ships and Museum Bunker Hill Monument Faneuil Hall Fenway Park Franklin Park Zoo Freedom Trail Hynes Convention Center Institute of Contemporary Art Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum Museum of Fine Arts Museum of Science New England Aquarium Old North Church Paul Revere House Symphony Hall TD Garden USS Constitution Museum Business districts Back Bay Downtown Fenway -- Kenmore Financial District Government Center Innovation district North End Route 128 corridor South End List of companies in Boston Government City council City Hall Elections Emergency Medical Services ( EMS ) FinComm Fire Housing ( BHA ) Mayor Police Boston Planning and Development Agency Neighborhoods Allston -- Brighton Allston Brighton Back Bay Bay Village Beacon Hill Downtown Boston Financial District Government Center Charlestown Chinatown Dorchester Columbia Point South Bay East Boston Fenway -- Kenmore Harbor Islands Hyde Park Readville Jamaica Plain Forest Hills Leather District Mattapan Mission Hill Longwood North End Roslindale Roxbury Fort Hill South Boston Fort Point South End West End West Roxbury Chestnut Hill Sports Boston Bruins Boston Celtics Boston Red Sox New England Patriots New England Revolution Suffolk County Boston - Cambridge Metro Massachusetts United States Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boston_mayoral_election,_2017&oldid=816290140 '' Categories : Mayors of Boston United States mayoral elections , 2017 Politics of Boston Mayoral elections in Boston Massachusetts elections , 2017 2017 in Boston Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 20 December 2017 , at 12 : 29 . 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Question: who won the election for mayor in boston


Flame test - wikipedia Flame test Jump to : navigation , search The flame test carried out on a copper halide . The characteristic bluish - green color of the flame is due to the copper . Different flame of Bunsen burner , depending on air flow through the valve : air valve closed air valve nearly fully closed air valve semi-opened air valve maximally opened Gas flame A flame test is an analytic procedure used in chemistry to detect the presence of certain elements , primarily metal ions , based on each element 's characteristic emission spectrum . The color of flames in general also depends on temperature ; see flame color . Contents ( hide ) 1 Process 2 Results 3 Common elements 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Process ( edit ) The test involves introducing a sample of the element or compound to a hot , non-luminous flame , and observing the color of the flame that results . The idea of the test is that sample atoms evaporate and since they are hot , they emit light when being in flame . Bulk sample emits light too , but its light is not good for analysis . Bulk sample emits light primarily due to motion of the atoms , therefore its spectrum is broad , consisting of a broad range of colors . Separate atoms of sample present in flame can emit only due to electronic transitions between different atomic energy levels . Those transitions emit light of very specific frequencies , characteristic of chemical element itself . Therefore , the flame gets the color , which is primarily determined by properties of the chemical element of the substance being put into flame . The flame test is a relatively easy experiment to set up , and thus is often demonstrated or carried out in science classes in schools . Samples are usually held on a platinum wire cleaned repeatedly with hydrochloric acid to remove traces of previous analytes . The compound is usually made into a paste with concentrated hydrochloric acid , as metal halides , being volatile , give better results . Different flames should be tried to avoid wrong data due to `` contaminated '' flames , or occasionally to verify the accuracy of the color . In high - school chemistry courses , wooden splints are sometimes used , mostly because solutions can be dried onto them , and they are inexpensive . Nichrome wire is also sometimes used . When using a splint , one must be careful to wave the splint through the flame rather than holding it in the flame for extended periods , to avoid setting the splint itself on fire . The use of cotton swab or melamine foam ( used in `` eraser '' cleaning sponges ) as a support have also been suggested . Sodium is a common component or contaminant in many compounds and its spectrum tends to dominate over others . The test flame is often viewed through cobalt blue glass to filter out the yellow of sodium and allow for easier viewing of other metal ions . Results ( edit ) The flame test is relatively quick and simple to perform , and can be carried out with the basic equipment found in most chemistry laboratories . However , the range of elements positively detectable under these conditions is small , as the test relies on the subjective experience of the experimenter rather than any objective measurements . The test has difficulty detecting small concentrations of some elements , while too strong a result may be produced for certain others , which tends to cause fainter colors to not appear . Although the flame test only gives qualitative information , not quantitative data about the proportion of elements in the sample , quantitative data can be obtained by the related techniques of flame photometry or flame emission spectroscopy . Flame Atomic absorption spectroscopy Instruments , made by e.g. PerkinElmer or Shimadzu , can be operated in emission mode according to the instrument manuals . Common elements ( edit ) Some common elements and their corresponding colors are : Symbol Name Color Image Al Aluminium Silver - white , in very hot such as an electric arc , light blue As Arsenic Blue Boron Bright green Ba Barium Pale / Apple green Be Beryllium White Bi Bismuth Azure Ca Calcium Brick red , light green as seen through blue glass Cd Cadmium Brick red Ce Cerium Blue Co Cobalt Silver - white Cr Chromium Silver - white Cs Caesium Blue - Violet Cu ( I ) Copper ( I ) Bluish - green Cu ( II ) Copper ( II ) ( non-halide ) Green Cu ( II ) Copper ( II ) ( halide ) Blue - green Ge Germanium Pale blue Fe ( II ) Iron ( II ) Gold , when very hot such as an electric arc , bright blue , or green turning to orange - brown Fe ( III ) Iron ( III ) Orange - brown Hf Hafnium White Hg Mercury Red In Indium Indigo / Blue Potassium Lilac Li Lithium crimson red ; invisible through green glass Mg Magnesium ( none ) , but for burning Mg metal Intense White Mn ( II ) Manganese ( II ) Yellowish green Mo Molybdenum Yellowish green Na Sodium Intense yellow ; invisible through cobalt blue glass Nb Niobium Green or blue Ni Nickel Silver - white ( sometimes reported as colorless ) Phosphorus Pale bluish green Pb Lead Blue / white Ra Radium Crimson Rb Rubidium Red - violet Sb Antimony Pale green Sc Scandium Orange Se Selenium Azure Sn Tin Blue - white Sr Strontium Crimson to Scarlet , yellowish through green glass and violet through blue cobalt glass Ta Tantalum Blue Te Tellurium Pale green Ti Titanium Silver - white Tl Thallium Pure green V Vanadium Yellowish Green Tungsten Green Y Yttrium Carmine , Crimson , or Scarlet Zn Zinc Colorless ( sometimes reported as bluish - green ) Zr Zirconium Mild red Gold , silver , platinum , palladium , and a number of other elements do not produce a characteristic flame color , although some may produce sparks ( as do metallic titanium and iron ) ; salts of beryllium and gold reportedly deposit pure metal on cooling . See also ( edit ) Colored fire Emission spectrum Photoelectric flame photometer Qualitative inorganic analysis Burning splint test Glowing splint test References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jim Clark ( 2005 ) . `` Flame Tests '' . Chemguide . Jump up ^ Sanger , Michael J. ; Phelps , Amy J. ; Catherine Banks ( 2004 ) . `` Simple Flame Test Techniques Using Cotton Swabs '' . Journal of Chemical Education . 81 ( 7 ) : 969 . Bibcode : 2004JChEd ... 81 ... 969S . doi : 10.1021 / ed081p969 Jump up ^ Landis , Arthur M. ; Davies , Malonne I. ; Landis , Linda ; Nicholas c . Thomas ( 2009 ) . `` '' Magic Eraser '' Flame Tests `` . Journal of Chemical Education . 86 ( 5 ) : 577 . Bibcode : 2009JChEd ... 86 ... 577L . doi : 10.1021 / ed086p577 Jump up ^ `` Atomic Absorption ( AA ) '' . Perkin Elmer . Retrieved 2 May 2013 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flame test . Flame Test - Coloring Fire - Pictures of Several Flame Tests , Includes Instructions WebMineral.com - Flame Coloration by Element Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Flame test '' dated 2012 - 07 - 22 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flame_test&oldid=816321223 '' Categories : Chemical tests Chemistry classroom experiments Fire Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats Spoken articles Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina தமிழ் اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2017 , at 16 : 44 . 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Question: what color flame test indicates the presence of strontium

Crimson to Scarlet, yellowish through green glass and violet through blue cobalt glass