Computer simulation - wikipedia Computer simulation Jump to : navigation , search This article is about computer model within a scientific context . For simulating a computer on a computer , see emulator . `` Computer model '' redirects here . For computer models of 3 - dimensional objects , see 3D modeling . Process of building a computer model , and the interplay between experiment , simulation , and theory . Computer simulation reproduces the behavior of a system using a mathematical model . Computer simulations have become a useful tool for the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics ( computational physics ) , astrophysics , climatology , chemistry and biology , human systems in economics , psychology , social science , and engineering . Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the system 's model . It can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions . Computer simulations are computer programs that can be either small , running almost instantly on small devices , or large - scale programs that run for hours or days on network - based groups of computers . The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible ( or perhaps even imaginable ) using traditional paper - and - pencil mathematical modeling . Over 10 years ago , a desert - battle simulation of one force invading another involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks , trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait , using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computer Modernization Program . Other examples include a 1 - billion - atom model of material deformation ; a 2.64 - million - atom model of the complex protein - producing organelle of all living organisms , the ribosome , in 2005 ; a complete simulation of the life cycle of Mycoplasma genitalium in 2012 ; and the Blue Brain project at EPFL ( Switzerland ) , begun in May 2005 to create the first computer simulation of the entire human brain , right down to the molecular level . Because of the computational cost of simulation , computer experiments are used to perform inference such as uncertainty quantification . Contents ( hide ) 1 Simulation versus model 2 History 3 Data preparation 4 Types 5 Visualization 6 Computer simulation in science 6.1 Simulation environments for physics and engineering 7 Computer simulation in practical contexts 8 Pitfalls 8.1 Model calibration techniques 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading Simulation versus model ( edit ) A computer model is the algorithms and equations used to capture the behavior of the system being modeled . By contrast , computer simulation is the actual running of the program that contains these equations or algorithms . Simulation , therefore , is the process of running a model . Thus one would not `` build a simulation '' ; instead , one would `` build a model '' , and then either `` run the model '' or equivalently `` run a simulation '' . History ( edit ) Computer simulation developed hand - in - hand with the rapid growth of the computer , following its first large - scale deployment during the Manhattan Project in World War II to model the process of nuclear detonation . It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm . Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to , or substitute for , modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible . There are many types of computer simulations ; their common feature is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible . Data preparation ( edit ) The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely . For some , the input might be just a few numbers ( for example , simulation of a waveform of AC electricity on a wire ) , while others might require terabytes of information ( such as weather and climate models ) . Input sources also vary widely : Sensors and other physical devices connected to the model ; Control surfaces used to direct the progress of the simulation in some way ; Current or historical data entered by hand ; Values extracted as a by - product from other processes ; Values output for the purpose by other simulations , models , or processes . Lastly , the time at which data is available varies : `` invariant '' data is often built into the model code , either because the value is truly invariant ( e.g. , the value of π ) or because the designers consider the value to be invariant for all cases of interest ; data can be entered into the simulation when it starts up , for example by reading one or more files , or by reading data from a preprocessor ; data can be provided during the simulation run , for example by a sensor network . Because of this variety , and because diverse simulation systems have many common elements , there are a large number of specialized simulation languages . The best - known may be Simula ( sometimes called Simula - 67 , after the year 1967 when it was proposed ) . There are now many others . Systems that accept data from external sources must be very careful in knowing what they are receiving . While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files , what is much harder is knowing what the accuracy ( compared to measurement resolution and precision ) of the values are . Often they are expressed as `` error bars '' , a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value ( is expected to ) lie . Because digital computer mathematics is not perfect , rounding and truncation errors multiply this error , so it is useful to perform an `` error analysis '' to confirm that values output by the simulation will still be usefully accurate . Even small errors in the original data can accumulate into substantial error later in the simulation . While all computer analysis is subject to the `` GIGO '' ( garbage in , garbage out ) restriction , this is especially true of digital simulation . Indeed , observation of this inherent , cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory . Types ( edit ) Computer models can be classified according to several independent pairs of attributes , including : Stochastic or deterministic ( and as a special case of deterministic , chaotic ) -- see external links below for examples of stochastic vs. deterministic simulations Steady - state or dynamic Continuous or discrete ( and as an important special case of discrete , discrete event or DE models ) Dynamic system simulation , e.g. electric systems , hydraulic systems or multi-body mechanical systems ( described primarely by DAE : s ) or dynamics simulation of field problems , e.g. CFD of FEM simulations ( described by PDE : s ) . Local or distributed . Another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures . For time - stepped simulations , there are two main classes : Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next - neighbor access are called stencil codes . Many CFD applications belong to this category . If the underlying graph is not a regular grid , the model may belong to the meshfree method class . Equations define the relationships between elements of the modeled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium . Such models are often used in simulating physical systems , as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted . Dynamic simulations model changes in a system in response to ( usually changing ) input signals . Stochastic models use random number generators to model chance or random events ; A discrete event simulation ( DES ) manages events in time . Most computer , logic - test and fault - tree simulations are of this type . In this type of simulation , the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur . The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed . It is not important to execute the simulation in real time . It is often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation and to discover logic defects in the design or the sequence of events . A continuous dynamic simulation performs numerical solution of differential - algebraic equations or differential equations ( either partial or ordinary ) . Periodically , the simulation program solves all the equations and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation . Applications include flight simulators , construction and management simulation games , chemical process modeling , and simulations of electrical circuits . Originally , these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on analog computers , where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as op - amps . By the late 1980s , however , most `` analog '' simulations were run on conventional digital computers that emulate the behavior of an analog computer . A special type of discrete simulation that does not rely on a model with an underlying equation , but can nonetheless be represented formally , is agent - based simulation . In agent - based simulation , the individual entities ( such as molecules , cells , trees or consumers ) in the model are represented directly ( rather than by their density or concentration ) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules that determine how the agent 's state is updated from one time - step to the next . Distributed models run on a network of interconnected computers , possibly through the Internet . Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as `` distributed simulations '' . There are several standards for distributed simulation , including Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol ( ALSP ) , Distributed Interactive Simulation ( DIS ) , the High Level Architecture ( simulation ) ( HLA ) and the Test and Training Enabling Architecture ( TENA ) . Visualization ( edit ) Formerly , the output data from a computer simulation was sometimes presented in a table or a matrix showing how data were affected by numerous changes in the simulation parameters . The use of the matrix format was related to traditional use of the matrix concept in mathematical models . However , psychologists and others noted that humans could quickly perceive trends by looking at graphs or even moving - images or motion - pictures generated from the data , as displayed by computer - generated - imagery ( CGI ) animation . Although observers could not necessarily read out numbers or quote math formulas , from observing a moving weather chart they might be able to predict events ( and `` see that rain was headed their way '' ) much faster than by scanning tables of rain - cloud coordinates . Such intense graphical displays , which transcended the world of numbers and formulae , sometimes also led to output that lacked a coordinate grid or omitted timestamps , as if straying too far from numeric data displays . Today , weather forecasting models tend to balance the view of moving rain / snow clouds against a map that uses numeric coordinates and numeric timestamps of events . Similarly , CGI computer simulations of CAT scans can simulate how a tumor might shrink or change during an extended period of medical treatment , presenting the passage of time as a spinning view of the visible human head , as the tumor changes . Other applications of CGI computer simulations are being developed to graphically display large amounts of data , in motion , as changes occur during a simulation run . Computer simulation in Science ( edit ) Computer simulation of the process of osmosis Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science , which are derived from an underlying mathematical description : a numerical simulation of differential equations that can not be solved analytically , theories that involve continuous systems such as phenomena in physical cosmology , fluid dynamics ( e.g. , climate models , roadway noise models , roadway air dispersion models ) , continuum mechanics and chemical kinetics fall into this category . a stochastic simulation , typically used for discrete systems where events occur probabilistically and which can not be described directly with differential equations ( this is a discrete simulation in the above sense ) . Phenomena in this category include genetic drift , biochemical or gene regulatory networks with small numbers of molecules . ( see also : Monte Carlo method ) . multiparticle simulation of the response of nanomaterials at multiple scales to an applied force for the purpose of modeling their thermoelastic and thermodynamic properties . Techniques used for such simulations are Molecular dynamics , Molecular mechanics , Monte Carlo method , and Multiscale Green 's function . Specific examples of computer simulations follow : statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles , such as the forecasting of equilibrium temperature of receiving waters , allowing the gamut of meteorological data to be input for a specific locale . This technique was developed for thermal pollution forecasting . agent based simulation has been used effectively in ecology , where it is often called `` individual based modeling '' and is used in situations for which individual variability in the agents can not be neglected , such as population dynamics of salmon and trout ( most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically ) . time stepped dynamic model . In hydrology there are several such hydrology transport models such as the SWMM and DSSAM Models developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for river water quality forecasting . computer simulations have also been used to formally model theories of human cognition and performance , e.g. , ACT - R . computer simulation using molecular modeling for drug discovery . computer simulation for studying the selective sensitivity of bonds by mechanochemistry during grinding of organic molecules . Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air , water and other fluids . One - , two - and three - dimensional models are used . A one - dimensional model might simulate the effects of water hammer in a pipe . A two - dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing . A three - dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building . An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions . Development of the Potential Distribution Theorem ( PDT ) allows this complex subject to be simplified to down - to - earth presentations of molecular theory . Notable , and sometimes controversial , computer simulations used in science include : Donella Meadows ' World3 used in the Limits to Growth , James Lovelock 's Daisyworld and Thomas Ray 's Tierra . In social sciences , computer simulation is an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data percolation methodology , which also includes qualitative and quantitative methods , reviews of the literature ( including scholarly ) , and interviews with experts , and which forms an extension of data triangulation . Simulation environments for physics and engineering ( edit ) Graphical environments to design simulations have been developed . Special care was taken to handle events ( situations in which the simulation equations are not valid and have to be changed ) . The open project Open Source Physics was started to develop reusable libraries for simulations in Java , together with Easy Java Simulations , a complete graphical environment that generates code based on these libraries . Computer simulation in practical contexts ( edit ) Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts , such as : analysis of air pollutant dispersion using atmospheric dispersion modeling design of complex systems such as aircraft and also logistics systems . design of noise barriers to effect roadway noise mitigation modeling of application performance flight simulators to train pilots weather forecasting forecasting of risk simulation of electrical circuits simulation of other computers is emulation . forecasting of prices on financial markets ( for example Adaptive Modeler ) behavior of structures ( such as buildings and industrial parts ) under stress and other conditions design of industrial processes , such as chemical processing plants strategic management and organizational studies reservoir simulation for the petroleum engineering to model the subsurface reservoir process engineering simulation tools . robot simulators for the design of robots and robot control algorithms urban simulation models that simulate dynamic patterns of urban development and responses to urban land use and transportation policies . See a more detailed article on Urban Environment Simulation . traffic engineering to plan or redesign parts of the street network from single junctions over cities to a national highway network to transportation system planning , design and operations . See a more detailed article on Simulation in Transportation . modeling car crashes to test safety mechanisms in new vehicle models . crop - soil systems in agriculture , via dedicated software frameworks ( e.g. BioMA , OMS3 , APSIM ) The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the validity of the simulation model , therefore verification and validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations . Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results , meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution . Although this might seem obvious , this is a special point of attention in stochastic simulations , where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers . An exception to reproducibility are human - in - the - loop simulations such as flight simulations and computer games . Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard , if not impossible , to reproduce exactly . Vehicle manufacturers make use of computer simulation to test safety features in new designs . By building a copy of the car in a physics simulation environment , they can save the hundreds of thousands of dollars that would otherwise be required to build and test a unique prototype . Engineers can step through the simulation milliseconds at a time to determine the exact stresses being put upon each section of the prototype . Computer graphics can be used to display the results of a computer simulation . Animations can be used to experience a simulation in real - time , e.g. , in training simulations . In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real - time or even slower than real - time modes . For example , faster than real - time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building . Furthermore , simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of scientific visualization . In debugging , simulating a program execution under test ( rather than executing natively ) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and , at the same time , log useful debugging information such as instruction trace , memory alterations and instruction counts . This technique can also detect buffer overflow and similar `` hard to detect '' errors as well as produce performance information and tuning data . Pitfalls ( edit ) Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations , it is very important to perform a sensitivity analysis to ensure that the accuracy of the results is properly understood . For example , the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the Monte Carlo method . If , for instance , one of the key parameters ( e.g. , the net ratio of oil - bearing strata ) is known to only one significant figure , then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure , although it might ( misleadingly ) be presented as having four significant figures . Model calibration techniques ( edit ) The following three steps should be used to produce accurate simulation models : calibration , verification , and validation . Computer simulations are good at portraying and comparing theoretical scenarios , but in order to accurately model actual case studies they have to match what is actually happening today . A base model should be created and calibrated so that it matches the area being studied . The calibrated model should then be verified to ensure that the model is operating as expected based on the inputs . Once the model has been verified , the final step is to validate the model by comparing the outputs to historical data from the study area . This can be done by using statistical techniques and ensuring an adequate R - squared value . Unless these techniques are employed , the simulation model created will produce inaccurate results and not be a useful prediction tool . Model calibration is achieved by adjusting any available parameters in order to adjust how the model operates and simulates the process . For example , in traffic simulation , typical parameters include look - ahead distance , car - following sensitivity , discharge headway , and start - up lost time . These parameters influence driver behavior such as when and how long it takes a driver to change lanes , how much distance a driver leaves between his car and the car in front of it , and how quickly a driver starts to accelerate through an intersection . Adjusting these parameters has a direct effect on the amount of traffic volume that can traverse through the modeled roadway network by making the drivers more or less aggressive . These are examples of calibration parameters that can be fine - tuned to match characteristics observed in the field at the study location . Most traffic models have typical default values but they may need to be adjusted to better match the driver behavior at the specific location being studied . Model verification is achieved by obtaining output data from the model and comparing them to what is expected from the input data . For example , in traffic simulation , traffic volume can be verified to ensure that actual volume throughput in the model is reasonably close to traffic volumes input into the model . Ten percent is a typical threshold used in traffic simulation to determine if output volumes are reasonably close to input volumes . Simulation models handle model inputs in different ways so traffic that enters the network , for example , may or may not reach its desired destination . Additionally , traffic that wants to enter the network may not be able to , if congestion exists . This is why model verification is a very important part of the modeling process . The final step is to validate the model by comparing the results with what is expected based on historical data from the study area . Ideally , the model should produce similar results to what has happened historically . This is typically verified by nothing more than quoting the R - squared statistic from the fit . This statistic measures the fraction of variability that is accounted for by the model . A high R - squared value does not necessarily mean the model fits the data well . Another tool used to validate models is graphical residual analysis . If model output values drastically differ from historical values , it probably means there is an error in the model . Before using the model as a base to produce additional models , it is important to verify it for different scenarios to ensure that each one is accurate . If the outputs do not reasonably match historic values during the validation process , the model should be reviewed and updated to produce results more in line with expectations . It is an iterative process that helps to produce more realistic models . Validating traffic simulation models requires comparing traffic estimated by the model to observed traffic on the roadway and transit systems . Initial comparisons are for trip interchanges between quadrants , sectors , or other large areas of interest . The next step is to compare traffic estimated by the models to traffic counts , including transit ridership , crossing contrived barriers in the study area . These are typically called screenlines , cutlines , and cordon lines and may be imaginary or actual physical barriers . Cordon lines surround particular areas such as a city 's central business district or other major activity centers . Transit ridership estimates are commonly validated by comparing them to actual patronage crossing cordon lines around the central business district . Three sources of error can cause weak correlation during calibration : input error , model error , and parameter error . In general , input error and parameter error can be adjusted easily by the user . Model error however is caused by the methodology used in the model and may not be as easy to fix . Simulation models are typically built using several different modeling theories that can produce conflicting results . Some models are more generalized while others are more detailed . If model error occurs as a result , in may be necessary to adjust the model methodology to make results more consistent . In order to produce good models that can be used to produce realistic results , these are the necessary steps that need to be taken in order to ensure that simulation models are functioning properly . Simulation models can be used as a tool to verify engineering theories , but they are only valid if calibrated properly . Once satisfactory estimates of the parameters for all models have been obtained , the models must be checked to assure that they adequately perform the intended functions . The validation process establishes the credibility of the model by demonstrating its ability to replicate actual traffic patterns . The importance of model validation underscores the need for careful planning , thoroughness and accuracy of the input data collection program that has this purpose . Efforts should be made to ensure collected data is consistent with expected values . For example , in traffic analysis it is typical for a traffic engineer to perform a site visit to verify traffic counts and become familiar with traffic patterns in the area . The resulting models and forecasts will be no better than the data used for model estimation and validation . See also ( edit ) A 48 - hour computer simulation of Typhoon Mawar using the Weather Research and Forecasting model Software portal List of computer simulation software Emulator Energy modeling Stencil code Virtual prototyping Web - based simulation References ( edit ) This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( May 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Jump up ^ Strogatz , Steven ( 2007 ) . `` The End of Insight '' . In Brockman , John . What is your dangerous idea ? . HarperCollins . ISBN 9780061214950 Jump up ^ `` `` Researchers stage largest Military Simulation ever '' Archived 2008 - 01 - 22 at the Wayback Machine. , Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Caltech , December 1997 , Jump up ^ `` Molecular Simulation of Macroscopic Phenomena '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Largest computational biology simulation mimics life 's most essential nanomachine '' ( news ) , News Release , Nancy Ambrosiano , Los Alamos National Laboratory , Los Alamos , NM , October 2005 , webpage : LANL - Fuse - story7428 Archived 2007 - 07 - 04 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ `` Mission to build a simulated brain begins '' Archived 2015 - 02 - 09 at the Wayback Machine. , project of the institute at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne ( EPFL ) , Switzerland , New Scientist , June 2005 . Jump up ^ Santner , Thomas J ; Williams , Brian J ; Notz , William I ( 2003 ) . The design and analysis of computer experiments . Springer Verlag . Jump up ^ John Robert Taylor ( 1999 ) . An Introduction to Error Analysis : The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements . University Science Books . pp. 128 -- 129 . ISBN 0 - 935702 - 75 - X . Archived from the original on 2015 - 03 - 16 . Jump up ^ Atanasov AG , Waltenberger B , Pferschy - Wenzig EM , Linder T , Wawrosch C , Uhrin P , Temml V , Wang L , Schwaiger S , Heiss EH , Rollinger JM , Schuster D , Breuss JM , Bochkov V , Mihovilovic MD , Kopp B , Bauer R , Dirsch VM , Stuppner H . doi : 10.1016 / j. biotechadv. 2015.08. 001 Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant - derived natural products : A review . ) Biotechnol Adv. 2015 , PMID 26281720 . Jump up ^ Mizukami , Koichi ; Saito , Fumio ; Baron , Michel . Study on grinding of pharmaceutical products with an aid of computer simulation Archived 2011 - 07 - 21 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Mesly , Olivier ( 2015 ) . Creating Models in Psychological Research . United States : Springer Psychology : 126 pages . ISBN 978 - 3 - 319 - 15752 - 8 Jump up ^ Wescott , Bob ( 2013 ) . The Every Computer Performance Book , Chapter 7 : Modeling Computer Performance . CreateSpace . ASIN 1482657759 . ISBN 1482657759 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 26 . CS1 maint : ASIN uses ISBN ( link ) Jump up ^ Baase , Sara . A Gift of Fire : Social , Legal , and Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet . 3 . Upper Saddle River : Prentice Hall , 2007 . Pages 363 -- 364 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 600848 - 8 . Further reading ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Computer simulation . `` A Resource Allocation Framework for Experiment - Based Validation of Numerical Models , '' Journal of Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures ( Taylor & Francis ) . Young , Joseph and Findley , Michael . 2014 . `` Computational Modeling to Study Conflicts and Terrorism . '' Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies edited by Soeters , Joseph ; Shields , Patricia and Rietjens , Sebastiaan . pp. 249 -- 260 . New York : Routledge , R. Frigg and S. Hartmann , Models in Science . Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . E. Winsberg Simulation in Science . Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . A.K. Hartmann , Practical Guide to Computer Simulations , Singapore : World Scientific , 2009 S. Hartmann , The World as a Process : Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences , in : R. Hegselmann et al. ( eds . ) , Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View , Theory and Decision Library . Dordrecht : Kluwer 1996 , 77 -- 100 . E. Winsberg , Science in the Age of Computer Simulation . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 2010 . P. Humphreys , Extending Ourselves : Computational Science , Empiricism , and Scientific Method . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2004 . James J. Nutaro ( 2011 ) . Building Software for Simulation : Theory and Algorithms , with Applications in C++ . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 09945 - 2 . Computer simulation Chemistry Molecular design Molecular mechanics Protein structure prediction Quantum chemistry Semi-empirical Valence bond Physics Mechanics Contact mechanics Fluid dynamics Magnetohydrodynamics Solid mechanics Astrophysics Electrodynamics Particle physics Linguistics Semantics Lexicology Energy modeling Models ACEGES iNEMS MARKAL NEMS POLES Open data OpenEI Reegle Lists Open energy system databases Open energy system models Concepts Climate change mitigation scenarios Computer simulation Energy modeling Mathematical optimization Scenario analysis System dynamics Applications Electricity market Electric power transmission Energy market Energy planning Energy policy Integrated assessment modelling People Hartmut Bossel Mark Jacobson John Laitner John Weyant Organizations Energy Modeling Forum Openmod Initiative Categories Economics models Energy models LCCN : sh85029533 GND : 4148259 - 1 BNF : cb119412265 ( data ) BNE : XX535293 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_simulation&oldid=837984532 '' Categories : Computational science Scientific modeling Simulation software Virtual reality Alternatives to animal testing Computational fields of study Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : ASIN uses ISBN Articles lacking in - text citations from May 2008 All articles lacking in - text citations Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша Latina Mirandés Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Українська 中文 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 06 : 26 . 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Question: computer based models of real life situation are called


Kim Matula - wikipedia Kim Matula Jump to : navigation , search Kim Matula Kim Matula at the 2014 Daytime Emmy Nominees Reception Kimberly Marie Matula ( 1988 - 08 - 23 ) August 23 , 1988 ( age 29 ) Fort Worth , Texas , U.S. Other names Kim Matula Occupation Actress Years active 2006 -- present Known for Hope Logan on The Bold and the Beautiful Kimberly Marie `` Kim '' Matula ( born August 23 , 1988 ) is an American actress , best known for her role as Hope Logan in the CBS daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful . Contents ( hide ) 1 Life and career 2 Filmography 3 References 4 External links Life and career ( edit ) Matula was born in Fort Worth , Texas to David and Karin Matula . She is of Norwegian ancestry . Matula has always dreamed of acting and created videos of her acting . She studied film at the University of Texas at Arlington , but dropped out because her acting career was taking off . In 2008 , Matula appeared in the Lifetime movie Queen Sized , and in next year moved to Los Angeles , then in 2010 , she landed the role of Hope Logan in the CBS daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful . In 2014 , Matula was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series . In her two final years on the soap , Matula 's character had major storylines . In November 2014 , it was announced that Matula had not renewed her contract and would be departing the series for a career in primetime television and film . In 2016 , Matula joined the cast of the second season of the critically acclaimed Lifetime dark comedy - drama series , Unreal . As of 2018 she has a leading role in the Fox comedy series LA to Vegas . Filmography ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2006 Savage Spirit Megan 2008 Queen Sized Tara Television film 2009 How I Met Your Mother Girl Episode : `` Definitions '' 2010 -- 2014 , 2015 , 2016 The Bold and the Beautiful Hope Logan Series regular : January 11 , 2010 -- December 12 , 2014 Guest : April 17 and 20 , 2015 and March 16 , 2016 Nominated -- Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series ( 2014 ) Crown thy Good Claire Short film Spilt Milk Sabrina Cool Wheels Stacy McFuggins Short film 2011 The Defenders Mia Episode : `` Nevada v. Doug the Mule '' 2014 Broken Strings Wind / Heidi Lewis Short film 2014 Dawn Patrol Donna 2014 Almost Royal Herself Episode : `` Los Angeles '' 2015 Maybe Someday Lacey 2016 UnReal Tiffany Series regular ( Season 2 ) 2018 LA to Vegas Veronica `` Ronnie '' Messing Main role TBA Fighting with My Family Jeri - Lyn Filming References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Kim Matula 411 '' . Soap Opera Digest . 2010 - 01 - 11 . Archived from the original on 2014 - 08 - 18 . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Kimberly Matula Playing Hope Logan on The Bold and the Beautiful - Soaps.com '' . Soaps.sheknows.com . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The 41st Annual Daytime Entertainment Emmy Award Nominations '' . New York : emmyonline.org and National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences . May 1 , 2014 . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2014 . Retrieved May 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` No Hope For The Future : Kim Matula Quits The Bold and The Beautiful ! '' . Daytime Confidential . Retrieved 9 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Kim Matula Leaving The Bold and the Beautiful ! '' . Michael Fairman On - Air On - Soaps . Retrieved 9 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister . `` ' UnReal ' Season 2 Cast : Meagan Tandy & Kim Matula to Play Contestants - Variety '' . Variety . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kimberly Matula . Kim Matula on IMDb Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kim_Matula&oldid=833303997 '' Categories : American people of Norwegian descent American soap opera actresses American voice actresses American stage actresses American television actresses Actresses from Texas Living people 1988 births Actresses from Fort Worth , Texas 21st - century American actresses Hidden categories : Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2018 , at 19 : 06 . About Wikipedia

Question: who plays hope on the bold and beautiful


Coral Sea - wikipedia Coral Sea Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Coral Sea ( disambiguation ) . Coral Sea Coordinates 18 ° S 158 ° E  /  18 ° S 158 ° E  / - 18 ; 158 Coordinates : 18 ° S 158 ° E  /  18 ° S 158 ° E  / - 18 ; 158 Type Aerial Basin countries Australia , New Caledonia ( France ) , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Vanuatu Surface area 4,791,000 km ( 1,850,000 sq mi ) Average depth 2,394 m ( 7,854 ft ) Max . depth 9,140 m ( 29,990 ft ) Water volume 11,470,000 km ( 9.30 × 10 acre ⋅ ft ) References The Coral Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific off the northeast coast of Australia , and classified as an interim Australian bioregion . The Coral Sea extends 2,000 kilometres ( 1,200 mi ) down the Australian northeast coast . It is bounded in the west by the east coast of Queensland , thereby including the Great Barrier Reef , in the east by Vanuatu ( formerly the New Hebrides ) and by New Caledonia , and in the northeast approximately by the southern extremity of the Solomon Islands . In the northwest , it reaches to the south coast of eastern New Guinea , thereby including the Gulf of Papua . It merges with the Tasman Sea in the south , with the Solomon Sea in the north and with the Pacific Ocean in the east . On the west , it is bounded by the mainland coast of Queensland , and in the northwest , it connects with the Arafura Sea through the Torres Strait . The sea is characterised by its warm and stable climate , with frequent rains and tropical cyclones . It contains numerous islands and reefs , as well as the world 's largest reef system , the Great Barrier Reef ( GBR ) , which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1981 . All previous oil exploration projects were terminated at the GBR in 1975 , and fishing is restricted in many areas . The reefs and islands of the Coral Sea are particularly rich in birds and aquatic life and are a popular tourist destination , both nationally and internationally . Contents ( hide ) 1 Extent 2 Geology 3 Hydrology 4 Climate 4.1 Winds 5 Flora 6 Fauna 7 Human activities 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Extent ( edit ) A map of the Coral Sea Islands . While the Great Barrier Reef with its islands and cays belong to Queensland , most reefs and islets east of it are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory . In addition , some islands west of and belonging to New Caledonia are also part of the Coral Sea Islands in a geographical sense , such as the Chesterfield Islands and Bellona Reefs . The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Coral Sea as follows : On the North . The South coast of New Guinea from the entrance to the Bensbach River ( 141 ° 01'E ) to Gadogadoa Island near its Southeastern extreme ( 10 ° 38 ′ S 150 ° 34 ′ E  /  10.633 ° S 150.567 ° E  / - 10.633 ; 150.567 ) , down this meridian to the 100 fathom line and thence along the Southern edges of Uluma Reef and those extending to the Eastward as far as the Southeast point of Lawik Reef ( 11 ° 43.5 ′ S 153 ° 56.5 ′ E  /  11.7250 ° S 153.9417 ° E  / - 11.7250 ; 153.9417 ) off Tagula Island , thence a line to the Southern extreme of Rennell Island ( Solomon Islands ) and from its Eastern point to Cape Surville , the Eastern extreme of San Cristobal Island ( Makira ) , Solomons ; thence through Nupani Island , the Northwestern of the Santa Cruz Islands ( 10 ° 04.5 ′ S 165 ° 40.5 ′ E  /  10.0750 ° S 165.6750 ° E  / - 10.0750 ; 165.6750 ) to the Northernmost Island of the Duff Islands ( 9 ° 48.5 ′ S 167 ° 06 ′ E  /  9.8083 ° S 167.100 ° E  / - 9.8083 ; 167.100 ) . On the Northeast . From the Northernmost island of the Duff Islands , through these islands to their Southeastern extreme , thence a line to Méré Lava , Vanuatu Islands ( 14 ° 25 ′ S 163 ° 03 ′ E  /  14.417 ° S 163.050 ° E  / - 14.417 ; 163.050 ) and down the Eastern coasts of the islands of this Group to Anatom Island ( 20 ° 11 ′ S 169 ° 51 ′ E  /  20.183 ° S 169.850 ° E  / - 20.183 ; 169.850 ) in such a way that all the islands of these Groups , and the straits separating them , are included in the Coral Sea . On the Southeast . A line from the Southeastern extreme of Anatom Island to Nokanhoui ( reefs ) ( 22 ° 46 ′ S 167 ° 34 ′ E  /  22.767 ° S 167.567 ° E  / - 22.767 ; 167.567 ) off the Southeast extreme of New Caledonia , thence through the East point of Middleton Reef to the Eastern extreme of Elizabeth Reef ( 29 ° 55 ′ S 159 ° 02 ′ E  /  29.917 ° S 159.033 ° E  / - 29.917 ; 159.033 ) and down this meridian to Latitude 30 ° South . On the South . The parallel of 30 ° South to the Australian coast . On the West . The Eastern limit of the Arafura Sea ( The entrance to the Bensbak River ( 141 ° 01'E ) , and thence a line to the Northwest extreme of York Peninsula , Australia ( 11 ° 05 ′ S 142 ° 03 ′ E  /  11.083 ° S 142.050 ° E  / - 11.083 ; 142.050 ) ) and the East Coast of Australia as far south as Latitude 30 ° South . Geology ( edit ) The Coral Sea basin was formed between 58 million and 48 million years ago when the Queensland continental shelf was uplifted , forming the Great Dividing Range , and continental blocks subsided at the same time . The sea has been an important source of coral for the Great Barrier Reef , both during its formation and after sea level lowering . The geological formation processes are still proceeding , as partly evidenced by the seismic activity . Several hundred earthquakes with the magnitude between 2 and 6 were recorded in the period 1866 -- 2000 along the Queensland coast and in the Coral Sea . On 2 April 2007 , the Solomon Islands were struck by a major earthquake followed by a several metres tall tsunami . The epicentre of this magnitude 8.1 earthquake was 349 km ( 217 mi ) northwest of Honiara , at a depth of 10 kilometres ( 6.2 mi ) . It was followed by more than 44 aftershocks of a magnitude 5.0 or greater . The resulting tsunami killed at least 52 people and destroyed more than 900 homes . The sea received its name because of its numerous coral formations . They include the GBR , which extends about 2,000 km ( 1,200 mi ) along the northeast coast of Australia and includes approximately 2,900 individual reefs and 1000 islands . The Chesterfield Islands and Lihou Reef are the largest atolls of the Coral Sea . Hydrology ( edit ) Thermal profile of the East Australian Current Major Coral Sea currents form a counter-clockwise gyro which includes the East Australian Current . It brings warm nutrient - poor waters from the Coral Sea down the east coast of Australia to the cool waters of the Tasman Sea . This current is the strongest along the Australian coasts and transforms 30 million m / s of water within a flow band of about 100 kilometres wide and 500 metres deep . The current is strongest around February and weakest around August . The major river flowing into the sea is the Burdekin River , which has its delta southeast of Townsville . Owing to the seasonal and annual variations in occurrence of cyclones and in precipitation ( typically between 200 and 1600 mm / year ) , its annual discharge can vary more than 10 times between the two succeeding years . In particular , in the period 1920 -- 1999 , the average flow rate near the delta was below 1000 m / s in 1923 , 1931 , 1939 , 1969 , 1982 , 1985 , 1987 , 1993 and 1995 ; it was above 25,000 m / s in 1927 , 1940 , 1946 , 1950 , 1951 , 1959 , 1968 , 1972 , 1974 and 1991 , and reached about 40,000 m / s in 1946 . This irregularity results in concomitant fluctuations of the sea water composition near the river delta . The surface water temperature varies on the south of the sea from 19 ° C in August to 24 ° C in February . It is rather warm and stable at 27 -- 28 ° С in the north all through the year . Water salinity is 34.5 -- 35.5 ‰ ( parts per thousand ) . The water is mostly very clear , with the visibility of about 30 metres ( 100 ft ) near the reefs . Climate ( edit ) Tropical Cyclone Larry over the Great Barrier Reef , 19 March 2006 The sea has a subtropical climate and is frequently hit by tropical cyclones , especially between January and April . This range extends to November -- May in the areas south to 10 ° S. Between 1969 and 1997 , the GBR experienced 80 cyclones , 90 % which were of category 1 or 2 ( winds 17 -- 33 m / s , central pressure 970 -- 1000 hPa ) and only 10 % of category 3 ( winds > 33 m / s , pressure < 970 hPa ) . The cyclone frequency decreased between 1997 and 2005 to 1.5 per year ( 12 in total ) . Annual rainfall typically ranges between 1,000 and 3,000 mm depending on the area . Most rains fall between December and March , in bursts of 30 -- 60 days . The number of clear days per year varies approximately between 80 and 125 , and the typical temperature variation through the year are 18 -- 27 ° C . Climate change made it 175 times more likely that the surface waters of the Coral Sea would reach the record - breaking temperatures March 2016 that bleached reefs , modeling analysis showed . Winds ( edit ) Winds in the Coral Sea can be classified by season , longitude and latitude . Southeasterly trade winds dominate through all sea areas and all seasons , especially between 20 ° S and 25 ° S , west of the meridian of 155 ° E. However , between September and December they change to northerly and northwesterly winds in this region , and the direction is mostly southwestern in May -- August . West of 155 ° E , gales are common between January and August and are less frequent in September -- December . In January , the northwest monsoon may occur between the parallels of 15 ° S and 20 ° S , west of the 150 ° E meridian . Gales are rare in this region most of the year except for June -- August , when strong southeasterly winds occur a few days per month . The southeasterly trades are also strong north of 15 ° S between March and November . They weaken and often change to westerly winds in December and to northerly and northwesterly winds in January and February . Flora ( edit ) The Australian shore of the Coral Sea is mostly composed of sand . The GBR is too far away to provide significant coral deposits , but it effectively screens the coast from the ocean waves . As a result , most land vegetation spreads down to the sea , and the coastal waters are rich in underwater vegetation , such as green algae . The most common genera of seagrasses are Halophila and Halodule . The islands of the GBR contain more than 2,000 plant species , and three of these are endemic . The northern islands have 300 -- 350 plant species which tend to be woody , whereas the southern islands have 200 which are more herbaceous ; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse , supporting 1,141 species . The plants are spread by birds . Fauna ( edit ) Corals on Flynn Reef near Cairns Crown - of - thorns starfish Christmas Tree Worm ( Spirobranchus giganteus ) in Porites coral . Admiralty , Osprey Reef A banded sea krait Laticauda colubrina The sea hosts numerous species of anemones , sponges , worms ( e.g. Spirobranchus giganteus shown in the photograph ) , gastropods , lobsters , crayfish , prawns and crabs . Red algae Lithothamnion and Porolithon colour many coral reefs purple - red and the green alga Halimeda is found throughout the sea . The coastal plants consisting of only about 30 -- 40 species , and mangroves occur in the northern part of the sea . Four hundred coral species , both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reefs . The majority of these spawn gametes , breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer , the lunar cycle , and the diurnal cycle . Reefs in the inner GBR spawn during the week after the full moon in October , while the outer reefs spawn in November and December . Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera . There are more than 1500 fish species in the reef systems . Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef , including thirteen species of the Halimeda genus , which deposit calcareous mounds up to 100 metres ( 110 yd ) wide , creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover . Crown - of - thorns starfish ( Acanthaster planci ) is the major predator of the reefs , as it preys upon coral polyps by climbing onto them , extruding its stomach over them , and releasing digestive enzymes to absorb the liquefied tissue . An individual adult can eat up to 6 m of reef per year . In 2000 , an outbreak of crown - of - thorns starfish contributed to a loss of 66 % of live coral cover on sampled reefs . Changes in water quality and overfishing of natural predators , such as the Giant Triton , may have contributed to an increase in the number of crown - of - thorns starfish . There are at least 30 species of whales , dolphins , and porpoises , including the dwarf minke whale , Indo - Pacific humpback dolphin , humpback whale and dugongs . Six species of sea turtles breed on the GBR -- the green sea turtle , leatherback sea turtle , hawksbill turtle , loggerhead sea turtle , flatback turtle and the Olive Ridley . More than 200 species of birds ( including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds ) visit , nest or roost on the islands and reefs , including the white - bellied sea eagle and roseate tern . Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the GBR , with 1.4 -- 1.7 million birds using the sites to breed . Seventeen species of sea snake , including Laticauda colubrina ( pictured ) , live on the GBR in warm waters up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern section ; none of them are endemic or endangered . The venom of many of these snakes is highly toxic ; for example , Aipysurus duboisii is regarded as the world 's most venomous sea snake . There are more than 1,500 fish species , including the clownfish ( Amphiprioninae ) , red bass ( Lutjanus bohar ) , red - throat emperor ( Lethrinus miniatus ) , coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) and several species of snapper ( Lutjanidae ) . Forty - nine species mass spawn and eighty - four other species spawn elsewhere in their range . With a maximum total length of 0.84 cm ( 0.33 in ) , Schindleria brevipinguis , which is native to the GBR and Osprey Reef , is one of the smallest known fish and vertebrate . There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of 1 -- 10 cm ( 0.4 -- 4 in ) . Between 300 and 500 species of bryozoans live on the reef . Saltwater crocodiles live in mangrove and salt marshes on the coast . Around 125 species of shark , stingray , skates or chimaera live on the GBR , in addition to about 5,000 species of mollusc . The latter include the giant clam and various nudibranchs and cone snails . One study of 443 individual sharks gives the following distribution of their species on the Australian side of the Coral Sea : grey reef shark ( Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos , 69 % ) , whitetip reef shark ( Triaenodon obesus , 21 % ) , silvertip shark ( Carcharhinus albimarginatus , 10 % ) , tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier , < 1 % ) and great hammerhead ( Sphyrna mokarran , < 1 % ) . The interaction rate ( free diving ) at the Coral Sea reefs ranged from a few to 26 sharks per hour . The rare Etmopterus dislineatus shark species is endemic to the central part of the Coral Sea . It has been observed at depths of 590 -- 700 m on or near the continental slope . Human activities ( edit ) The coastal areas of the Coral Sea were populated at least 40,000 years ago by prehistoric people descending through the northern islands . Those Aboriginal tribes have been dispersed and nowadays only about 70 groups live in the area around the GBR . The sea was the location for the Battle of the Coral Sea , a major confrontation during World War II between the navies of the Empire of Japan , and the United States and Australia . Navigation has long been a traditional human activity on the Coral Sea and there are 10 major ports on the Queensland coast alone . More than 3,500 ships operated in this area in 2007 , making over 9,700 voyages that transported coal , sugar , iron ore , timber , oil , chemicals , cattle and other goods . The abundance of coral reefs hinders shipping traffic , and about 50 -- 60 accidents per year were reported between 1990 and 2007 in the GBR alone . Other economic activities in the sea include fishing and exploration of petroleum deposits in the Gulf of Papua . The sea is also a popular tourism destination . In 2006 -- 2007 , tourism on the GBR contributed A $5.1 billion to the Australian economy . The tourism is mostly foreign or from remote parts of Australia , with a local contribution of about A $153 million . In particular , about 14.6 million visits were made to the Coral Sea reefs by the Queensland residents over 12 months in 2008 . Growing concerns over the environmental effects of tourism resulted in establishment in 1975 of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . There are also smaller state and national parks . In 1981 , the Great Barrier Reef was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . From the middle of 2004 , approximately one - third of the GBR Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind , including fishing , without written permission . It was suggested in 1923 that the Great Barrier Reef contains a major oil reservoir . After the Commonwealth Petroleum Search Subsidies Act of 1957 , hydrocarbon exploration increased in Queensland , including a well drilled at Wreck Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef in 1959 . In the 1960s , drilling for oil and gas was investigated throughout the Great Barrier Reef , in the Torres Strait , along `` the eastern seaboard of Cape York to Princess Charlotte Bay '' and along the coast from Cooktown to Fraser Island . In the late 1960s , more exploratory oil wells were drilled near Wreck Island in the Capricorn Channel , and near Darnley Island in the Torres Strait , but with no results . In the 1970s , responding to concern about oil spills , the Australian government forbade petroleum drilling on the GBR . Yet oil spills due to shipping accidents are still a threat to environment , with a total of 282 spills between 1987 and 2002 . Shen Neng 1 aground on the Great Barrier Reef on 5 April 2010 Queensland has several major urban centres on the coast including Cairns , Townsville , Mackay , Rockhampton , Bundaberg , Sunshine Coast and the industrial city of Gladstone , which inevitably contaminate the sea . About thirty rivers and hundreds of small streams add continental water , which contains sediments , pesticides and industrial waste . Runoff is especially concerning in the region south of Cairns , as it may receive up to 4200 mm of rain per year . About 90 % of sea contamination originates from land farming activities . The area is continuously urbanising , so that the population is expected to increase by 40 % by 2026 . As a result , 70 -- 90 % of the coastal wetlands has been lost over the past decades , and many remaining flora species are endangered . On 3 April 2010 , the Chinese ship Shen Neng 1 carrying 950 tonnes of oil , ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland , Australia , causing the 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill and inflicting the largest damage to the GBR and the Coral Sea so far . The scarred area was roughly 3 km ( 1.9 mi ) long and 250 m ( 820 ft ) wide , and some parts of it have become completely devoid of marine life . There are concerns that there could be considerable long - term damage and it will take 10 to 20 years for the reef to recover . By 13 April 2010 , oil tar balls were washing up on the beaches of North West Island , a significant bird rookery and turtle nesting colony . A group of 10 environment NGOs have come together as a coalition called the Protect our Coral Sea campaign , asking the government to create a very large highly protected Coral Sea Marine Park . In November 2011 the Australian government announced that a 989,842 square kilometres ( 382,180 sq mi ) protected area was planned and pending approval . See also ( edit ) Queensland portal APNG ( cable system ) Coral Sea Islands Torres Strait Islands Willis Island References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Coral Sea , Great Soviet Encyclopedia ( in Russian ) ^ Jump up to : Coral Sea , Encyclopædia Britannica on - line Jump up ^ `` Limits of Oceans and Seas , 3rd edition '' ( PDF ) . International Hydrographic Organization . 1953 . p. 37 . Retrieved 23 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Hopley , p. 19 Jump up ^ Hopley , p. 27 Jump up ^ Hopley , pp. 33 -- 34 Jump up ^ `` Solomon Islands earthquake and tsunami '' , Breaking Legal News -- International , 4 March 2007 Jump up ^ `` Aid reaches tsunami - hit Solomons '' , BBC News , 2007 - 04 - 03 ^ Jump up to : Great Barrier Reef , Encyclopædia Britannica on - line Jump up ^ Hopley , pp. 1 , 26 Jump up ^ East Australian Current , NASA Jump up ^ Susan B. Marriott , Jan Alexander Floodplains : interdisciplinary approaches , Geological Society , 1999 ISBN 1 - 86239 - 050 - 9 p. 31 ^ Jump up to : Hopley , p. 96 ^ Jump up to : Climate Data Online , Australian Bureau of Meteorology Jump up ^ John Upton . `` Climate Change is ' Devastating ' The Great Barrier Reef '' . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : Australia -- Coral Sea -- Islands and Dangers , p. 131 Jump up ^ Jonathan D. Sauer Cayman Islands seashore vegetation : a study in comparative biogeography , University of California Press , 1982 ISBN 0520096568 pp. 47 , 53 Jump up ^ Alan R. Longhurst Ecological Geography of the Sea , Academic Press , 1998 ISBN 0 - 12 - 455559 - 4 pp. 331 -- 332 Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2005 ) . `` Environmental Status : Seagrasses '' . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report -- latest updates . Archived from the original on 23 March 2010 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Appendix 5 - Island Flora and Fauna '' . Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area . 2000 . Archived from the original on 31 August 2007 . Retrieved 13 September 2007 . ^ Jump up to : CRC Reef Research Centre Ltd . `` Reef facts : Plants and Animals on the Great Barrier Reef '' . Archived from the original on 21 August 2006 . Retrieved 14 July 2006 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2006 ) . `` Information Fact Sheets No. 20 Coral Spawning '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 4 July 2009 . Retrieved 27 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Australian Institute of Marine Science ( 2002 ) . `` Soft coral atlas of the Great Barrier Reef '' . Archived from the original on 6 April 2007 . Retrieved 27 May 2007 . Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan . 2011 . Coral Sea . Encyclopedia of Earth . Eds . P. Saundry & C.J. Cleveland . National Council for Science and the Environment . Washington DC Jump up ^ Hopley , p. 185 Jump up ^ Pierre Madl . `` Marine Biology I -- Acanthaster planci '' . Retrieved 2006 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ The CRC Reef Research Centre defines an outbreak as when there are more than 30 adult starfish in an area of one hectare . CRC Reef Research Centre . `` Managing crown - of - thorns starfish outbreaks '' . Archived from the original on 2 October 2006 . Retrieved 18 October 2006 . ( PDF ) Jump up ^ `` Crc Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 32 -- Crown - of - thorns starfish ( Acanthaster planci ) in the central GBR region . Results of fine - scale surveys conducted in 1999 -- 2000 '' . Archived from the original on 29 August 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . Jump up ^ CRC Reef Research Centre . `` Crown - of - thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 August 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 08 - 28 . ( PDF ) Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2000 ) . `` Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area '' . Archived from the original on 14 October 2006 . Retrieved 24 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2004 ) . `` Environmental Status : Marine Mammals '' . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report -- latest updates . Archived from the original on 19 June 2010 . Retrieved 13 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Dobbs , Kirstin ( 2007 ) . Marine turtle and dugong habitats in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park used to implement biophysical operational principles for the Representative Areas Program ( PDF ) . Great Barrier Marine Park Authority . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ Hopley , pp. 450 -- 451 Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority . `` Environmental status : birds '' . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report -- latest updates . Archived from the original on 13 June 2009 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Environmental status : birds Condition '' . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report -- latest updates . Archived from the original on 16 April 2010 . 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Walker Jr , The World 's Smallest Vertebrate , Schindleria brevipinguis , A New Paedomorphic Species in the Family Schindleriidae ( Perciformes : Gobioidei ) Records of the Australian Museum ( 2004 ) Vol. 56 : 139 -- 142 . However , it was claimed later ( 2006 ) that Paedocypris progenetica is the smallest fish and vertebrate . ^ Jump up to : `` Appendix 4 - Other species of conservation concern '' . Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area . 2000 . Archived from the original on 31 August 2007 . Retrieved 13 September 2007 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2005 ) . `` Environmental Status : Marine Reptiles '' . Archived from the original on 1 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Environmental Status : Sharks and rays '' . The State of the Great Barrier Reef Report -- latest updates . Archived from the original on 29 March 2007 . Retrieved 23 May 2007 . 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The Great Barrier Reef : history , science , heritage . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . p. 319 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 82430 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority -- Annual Report 1976 - 77 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 8 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Australian Institute of Marine Science ( 1996 ) . `` AIMS Science for Management of the Great Barrier Reef -- The Great Barrier Reef at a Glance '' . Archived from the original on 25 August 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage . `` Review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 '' . Archived from the original on 18 October 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ Parliament of Australia ( 2006 ) . `` Royal Commissions and Commissions of Inquiry '' . Archived from the original on 7 January 2011 . Retrieved 2006 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( 2006 ) . `` Principal water quality influences on Great Barrier Reef ecosystems '' . Archived from the original on 16 October 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ Henderson , Fiona ; Kroon , Frederike ( 2009 ) . `` Overview of CSIRO Water Quality Research in the Great Barrier Reef , 2003 -- 2008 '' ( PDF ) . CSIRO . Jump up ^ `` Coastal water quality '' ( PDF ) . The State of the Environment Report Queensland 2003 . Environment Protection Agency Queensland. 2003 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 March 2009 . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ Coastal development , Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009 Jump up ^ `` Ship leaking oil ' way off course ' '' . ABC News . 4 April 2010 . Retrieved 4 April 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Oil found on beach near damaged reef '' . ABC News Online . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 13 April 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2010 . Jump up ^ AAP ( 15 April 2010 ) . `` Two men in court over coal carrier grounding on Great Barrier Reef '' . The Australian . Retrieved 15 April 2010 . Jump up ^ AAP ; Andrew Fraser ( 14 April 2010 ) . `` Great Barrier Reef island oil spill clean - up starts '' . The Australian . Retrieved 15 April 2010 . Jump up ^ www.protectourcoralsea.org.au . Retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Australia plans huge marine reserve in Coral Sea '' . BBC News . 25 November 2011 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . Bibliography ( edit ) Hopley , David ; Smithers , Scott G. ; Parnell , Kevin E. ( 2007 ) . The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef : development , diversity , and change . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 85302 - 8 . no External links ( edit ) Media related to Coral Sea at Wikimedia Commons Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia ( IBRA ) Arnhem Coast Arnhem Plateau Australian Alps Avon Wheatbelt Ben Lomond Brigalow Belt North Brigalow Belt South Broken Hill Complex Burt Plain Cape York Peninsula Carnarvon Central Arnhem Central Kimberley Central Mackay Coast Central Ranges Channel Country Cobar Peneplain Coolgardie Coral Sea Daly Basin Dampierland Darling Riverine Plains Darwin Coastal Davenport Murchison Ranges Desert Uplands Einasleigh Uplands Esperance Plains Eyre Yorke Block Finke Flinders Lofty Block Furneaux Gascoyne Gawler Geraldton Sandplains Gibson Desert Great Sandy Desert Great Victoria Desert Gulf Coastal Gulf Fall and Uplands Gulf Plains Hampton Indian Tropical Islands Jarrah Forest Kanmantoo King Little Sandy Desert MacDonnell Ranges Mallee Mitchell Grass Downs Mount Isa Inlier Mulga Lands Murchison Murray Darling Depression Nandewar Naracoorte Coastal Plain New England Tablelands Northern Kimberley New South Wales North Coast New South Wales South Western Slopes Nullarbor Ord Victoria Plain Pacific Subtropical Islands Pine Creek Pilbara Riverina Simpson Strzelecki Dunefields South East Coastal Plain South East Corner South Eastern Highlands South East Queensland Southern Volcanic Plain Stony Plains Sturt Plateau Subantarctic Islands Swan Coastal Plain Sydney Basin Tanami Tasmanian Central Highlands Tasmanian Northern Midlands Tasmanian Northern Slopes Tasmanian South East Tasmanian Southern Ranges Tasmanian West Tiwi Cobourg Victoria Bonaparte Victorian Midlands Warren Wet Tropics Yalgoo Bioregions of the National Reserve System List of Australian seas Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Southern Ocean Sea Arafura Sea Coral Sea Tasman Sea Timor Sea Strait Backstairs Passage Bass Strait Clarence Strait Dundas Strait Endeavour Strait Investigator Strait Torres Strait Gulf Admiralty Gulf Beagle Gulf Cambridge Gulf Gulf of Carpentaria Great Australian Bight Exmouth Gulf Joseph Bonaparte Gulf Gulf St Vincent Spencer Gulf Van Diemen Gulf Earth 's oceans and seas Arctic Ocean Amundsen Gulf Barents Sea Beaufort Sea Chukchi Sea East Siberian Sea Greenland Sea Gulf of Boothia Kara Sea Laptev Sea Lincoln Sea Prince Gustav Adolf Sea Pechora Sea Queen Victoria Sea Wandel Sea White Sea Atlantic Ocean Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Alboran Sea Archipelago Sea Argentine Sea Baffin Bay Balearic Sea Baltic Sea Bay of Biscay Bay of Bothnia Bay of Campeche Bay of Fundy Black Sea Bothnian Sea Caribbean Sea Celtic Sea English Channel Foxe Basin Greenland Sea Gulf of Bothnia Gulf of Finland Gulf of Lion Gulf of Guinea Gulf of Maine Gulf of Mexico Gulf of Saint Lawrence Gulf of Sidra Gulf of Venezuela Hudson Bay Ionian Sea Irish Sea Irminger Sea James Bay Labrador Sea Levantine Sea Libyan Sea Ligurian Sea Marmara Sea Mediterranean Sea Myrtoan Sea North Sea Norwegian Sea Sargasso Sea Sea of Åland Sea of Azov Sea of Crete Sea of the Hebrides Thracian Sea Tyrrhenian Sea Wadden Sea Indian Ocean Andaman Sea Arabian Sea Bali Sea Bay of Bengal Flores Sea Great Australian Bight Gulf of Aden Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Kutch Gulf of Oman Gulf of Suez Java Sea Laccadive Sea Mozambique Channel Persian Gulf Red Sea Timor Sea Pacific Ocean Arafura Sea Banda Sea Bering Sea Bismarck Sea Bohai Sea Bohol Sea Camotes Sea Celebes Sea Ceram Sea Chilean Sea Coral Sea East China Sea Gulf of Alaska Gulf of Anadyr Gulf of California Gulf of Carpentaria Gulf of Fonseca Gulf of Panama Gulf of Thailand Gulf of Tonkin Halmahera Sea Koro Sea Mar de Grau Molucca Sea Moro Gulf Philippine Sea Salish Sea Savu Sea Sea of Japan Sea of Okhotsk Seto Inland Sea Shantar Sea Sibuyan Sea Solomon Sea South China Sea Sulu Sea Tasman Sea Visayan Sea Yellow Sea Southern Ocean Amundsen Sea Bellingshausen Sea Cooperation Sea Cosmonauts Sea Davis Sea D'Urville Sea King Haakon VII Sea Lazarev Sea Mawson Sea Riiser - 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