Conscription in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Conscription in the United Kingdom Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Conscription Military service National service Conscription crisis Conscientious objector Alternative civilian service Conscription by country Conscription in the United Kingdom has existed for two periods in modern times . The first was from 1916 to 1920 , the second from 1939 to 1960 , with the last conscripted soldiers leaving the service in 1963 . Known as Military Service from 1916 to 1920 , the system of conscription from 1939 to 1960 was called National Service , but between 1939 and 1948 , it was often referred to as `` war service '' in documents relating to National Insurance and pension provision . Contents ( hide ) 1 First World War 2 Second World War 3 After 1945 4 British Overseas Territories 5 Support for reintroduction of conscription 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links First World war ( edit ) See also : Recruitment to the British Army during the First World War Conscription during the First World War began when the British government passed the Military Service Act in 1916 . The act specified that single men aged 18 to 40 years old were liable to be called up for military service unless they were widowed with children or ministers of a religion . There was a system of Military Service Tribunals to adjudicate upon claims for exemption upon the grounds of performing civilian work of national importance , domestic hardship , health , and conscientious objection . The law went through several changes before the war ended . Married men were exempt in the original Act , although this was changed in June 1916 . The age limit was also eventually raised to 51 years old . Recognition of work of national importance also diminished , and in the last year of the war there was some support for the conscription of clergy . Conscription lasted until mid-1919 . Due to the political situation in Ireland , conscription was never applied there ; only in England , Scotland and Wales . Second World war ( edit ) World War II poster from the United Kingdom Conscription legislation lapsed in 1920 . However , as a result of the deteriorating international situation and the rise of Nazi Germany , Leslie Hore - Belisha , Secretary of State for War , persuaded the cabinet of Neville Chamberlain to introduce a limited form of conscription on 27 April 1939 , with the Military Training Act being passed the following month . Only single men 20 to 22 years old were liable to be called up , and they were to be known as `` militiamen '' to distinguish them from the regular army . To emphasise this distinction , each man was issued with a suit in addition to a uniform . The intention was for the first intake to undergo six months of basic training before being discharged into an active reserve . They would then be recalled for short training periods and attend an annual camp . At the outbreak of war , on 3 September 1939 , the Military Training Act was overtaken by the National Service ( Armed Forces ) Act , and the first intake was absorbed into the army . This act imposed a liability to conscription of all men 18 to 41 years old . Men could be rejected for medical reasons , and those engaged in vital industries or occupations were `` reserved '' at a particular age beyond which no one in that job would be enlisted . For example , lighthouse keepers were `` reserved '' at 18 years old . From 1943 , some conscripts were directed into the British coal mining industry and become known as the `` Bevin Boys '' . Provision was also made for conscientious objectors , who were required to justify their position to a tribunal , with power to allocate the applicant to one of three categories : unconditional exemption ; exemption conditional upon performing specified civilian work ( frequently farming , forestry or menial hospital work ) ; exemption from only combatant service , meaning that the objector had to serve in the specially created Non-Combatant Corps or in some other non-combatant unit such as the Royal Army Medical Corps . By 1942 all male British subjects between 18 and 51 years old and all females 20 to 30 years old resident in Britain were liable to be called up , with some exemptions : British subjects from outside Britain and the Isle of Man who had lived in the country for less than two years Police , medical and prison workers Northern Ireland Students Persons employed by the government of any country of the British Empire except the United Kingdom Clergy of any denomination Those who were blind or had mental disorders Married women Women who had one or more children 14 years old or younger living with them . This included their own children , legitimate or illegitimate , stepchildren , and adopted children , as long as the child was adopted before 18 December 1941 . Pregnant women were not exempted , but in practice were not called up . Men under 20 years old were initially not liable to be sent overseas , but this exemption was lifted by 1942 . People called up before they were 51 years old but who reached their 51st birthday during their service were liable to serve until the end of the war . People who had retired , resigned or been dismissed from the forces before the war were liable to be called back if they had not reached 51 years of age . Britain did not completely demobilise in 1945 , as conscription continued after the war . Those already in the armed forces were given a release class determined by length of service and age . In practice , releases began in June 1945 , and the last of the wartime conscripts had been released by 1949 . However , urgently needed men , particularly those in the building trades , were released in 1945 , although some restrictions on their immediate employment were supposed to be enforced . All women were released at the end of the war . After 1945 ( edit ) National Service ( 1939 -- 1960 ) memorial at the National Memorial Arboretum National Service as peacetime conscription was formulated by the National Service Act 1948 . From 1 January 1949 , healthy males 17 to 21 years old were expected to serve in the armed forces for 18 months , and remain on the reserve list for four years . They could be recalled to their units for up to 20 days for no more than three occasions during these four years . Men were exempt from National Service if they worked in one of the three `` essential services '' : coal mining , farming and the merchant navy for a period of eight years . If they quit early , they were subject to being called up . Exemption continued for conscientious objectors , with the same tribunal system and categories . In October 1950 , in response to the British involvement in the Korean War , the service period was extended to two years ; in compensation , the reserve period was reduced by six months . National Servicemen who showed promise could be commissioned as officers . National Service personnel were used in combat operations , including the Malayan Emergency , the Cyprus Emergency , in Kenya against the Mau Mau Uprising , and the Korean War , where conscripts to the Gloucestershire Regiment took part in the last stand during the Battle of the Imjin River . In addition , National Servicemen served in the Suez Crisis in 1956 . During the 1950s there was a prohibition on serving members of the armed forces standing for election to parliament . A few National Servicemen stood for election in the 1951 and 1955 general elections in order to be dismissed from service . National Service ended gradually from 1957 . It was decided that those born on or after 1 October 1939 would not be required , but conscription continued for those born earlier whose call - up had been delayed for any reason . In November 1960 the last men entered service , as call - ups formally ended on 31 December 1960 , and the last National Servicemen left the armed forces in May 1963 . British overseas territories ( edit ) Bermuda Regiment recruits clean their Ruger Mini-14 / 20GB rifles prior to a shoot at Warwick Camp during the 1994 Recruit Camp . Currently , the British overseas territory of Bermuda practises conscription . Recruitment into the part - time military reserves in Bermuda ( from 1895 ; service in the old Bermuda Militia , as in that in England and Wales , had been compulsory for all able - bodied , military - aged males ) had originally followed the practices in England for the militia , in which soldiers voluntarily enlisted for six years , and in the later Volunteer Force , in which part - time soldiers served voluntarily and could quit their service with 14 days ' notice , except while embodied for training , war , or national emergency . The Militia , Volunteer force , and Yeomanry were merged into the Territorial Force ( later renamed the Territorial Army ) in Britain in 1907 , with the introduction of terms of service ( specific lengths of service for which volunteers enlisted ) , but this did not occur in Bermuda until the 1920s . Conscription into the Bermuda Militia Artillery and the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was discussed during the First World War , but had not been put into place before the cessation of hostilities . It was introduced during the Second World War , with conscripts serving full - time for the duration in the BMA , BVRC , the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers , or the Bermuda Militia Infantry . Those unable to serve full - time were directed into the Bermuda Home Guard . Although conscription ended with the war , a shortfall of volunteers led to its reintroduction to the BVRC in 1957 and the BMA in 1960 . Since the two units were amalgamated in 1965 , conscription has been retained , making the Bermuda Regiment the only conscripted force still serving under the British Crown . Conscription is for three years of part - time service , with the terms of service otherwise identical to those which originally applied to Territorial soldiers in Britain ( with a basic service requirement of one drill night per week , one weekend camp per month , and one two - week annual camp per year , not including embodiment for active service . Service is for home defence purposes , and soldiers can not be compelled to serve in overseas campaigns ) . Support for reintroduction of conscription ( edit ) In 2015 Prince Harry made a call for bringing back conscription . Following the launch of his 2009 film Harry Brown , English actor Michael Caine called for the reintroduction of national service in the UK to give young people `` a sense of belonging rather than a sense of violence '' . In popular culture ( edit ) Film and TV The following productions have content inspired by British conscription or National Service : Down Among the Z Men ( 1952 ) featuring The Goon Show comics . Queen and Country ( 2014 ) Character undergoes National Service training prior to Korean war . Privates ( 2013 ) Mini-series about soldiers at an Army base . Father Brown , Series 3 , The Sign of the Broken Sword. ( 2013 ) Crime - drama set on a 1950s Army base . Bad Lads Army ( 2002 - 06 ) Reality TV series . The Krays ( 1990 ) Barrack room scene . Stand Up , Virgin Soldiers ( 1977 ) Based on the novel of the same name . Get Some In ( 1975 - 78 ) TV sitcom set in an RAF base . The Virgin Soldiers ( 1969 ) Based on the novel of the same name . Idol on Parade ( 1959 ) Character undergoes two years National Service . Carry On Sergeant ( 1958 ) Comedy . The Army Game ( 1957 - 61 ) TV sitcom contemporary with National Service . Private 's Progress ( 1956 ) Film . Literature Baxter , D ; Two Years to Do , 1954 . - Memoir . Camp , W ; Idol on Parade , 1958 . Fiction . Ions , E ; Call to Arms : Interlude with the Military , 1972 . - Memoir . Lodge , D ; Ginger , You 're Barmy , 1962 . - Fiction . Thomas , L ; The Virgin Soldiers , 1966 . - Fiction . Thomas , L ; Stand Up , Virgin Soldiers , 1975 . Fiction . Weston , P ; A Stranger to Khaki : Memoir of a National Service Officer , 1997 . See also ( edit ) Military service Recruit training Alternative service Class Z Reserve Court - martial Demobilisation of the British Armed Forces after the Second World War Impressment References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Chelmsford , J.E. `` Clergy and Man - Power '' , The Times 15 April 1918 , p. 12 Jump up ^ Simkin , John ( August 2014 ) . `` Conscription '' . Spartacus Educational . Jump up ^ The British General Election of 1951 : Candidates and Parties , John Williams Jump up ^ Ministerial statement reported in The Times , Thursday , Apr 18 , 1957 ; pg. 4 ; Issue 53819 ; col E `` Defense Policy Approved / Conscription To End With 1939 Class '' Jump up ^ National Service ( RAF ) Association Jump up ^ Imperial War Museum . `` What was National Service ? '' . archive.iwm.org.UK . Retrieved 4 April 2013 . Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3084790/Harry-happy-warrior-Bring-national-service-says-Prince-reveals-encourage-George-Charlotte-join-Armed-Forces.html/ Jump up ^ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/prince-harry/11610690/Prince-Harry-calls-to-bring-back-National-Service.html/ Jump up ^ http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity-life/royals/prince-harry-throws-his-support-behind-national-service-and-reveals-he-is-happy-being-single/news-story/e6bd94dcb07f9f11b528330318802481/ Jump up ^ `` Put Young People In The Army , Says Caine '' . 2013 - 09 - 29 . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 14 . Further reading ( edit ) Broad , R ; Conscription in Britain 1939 - 64 , 2006 . Broad , R ; The Radical General : Sir Robert Adam and Britain 's New Model Army , 2013 . Carradice , P ; The Call Up , 2016 . Chambers , P ; ( ed ) , Called Up , 1955 . Coates , B ; National Service Fifty Years On , 2014 . Doyle , P ; National Service , 2012 . Hickman , T ; The Call Up : A History of National Service 1947 - 1963 , 2004 . Johnson , B.S ; All Bull : The National Servicemen , 1973 . McCutcheon , C ; ( ed ) , The National Serviceman 's Handbook , 2007 . Paul , E ; National Service , 2012 Pollard , R ; You and the Call Up , 1942 . Royle , T ; National Service : The Best Years of Their Lives , 2002 . Shindler , C ; National Service , 2012 . Thorne , T ; Brasso , Blanco and Bull , 2012 . Vinen , R ; National Service : A Generation in Uniform , 2014 External links ( edit ) British Armed Forces National Service Stories British Armed Forces National Service Stories -- Bill Wyman National Service Memoirs Parliamentary Archives : WW1 Conscription BBC History -- Conscription Introduced BBC History -- The Peacetime Conscripts : National Service in the Post-war Years BBC History -- WW2 People 's War -- Fact File : Reserved Occupations ( hide ) Conscription in Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=834481476 '' Categories : Conscription in the United Kingdom Public policy in the United Kingdom British Army recruitment Conscription by country Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from November 2014 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cymraeg Edit links This page was last edited on 5 April 2018 , at 23 : 31 . 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Question: when was national service abolished in the uk


Their Eyes Were Watching God - wikipedia Their Eyes Were Watching God Jump to : navigation , search For the television film adaptation , see Their Eyes Were Watching God ( film ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God First edition Author Zora Neale Hurston Country United States Language English Publisher J.B. Lippincott Publication date September 18 , 1937 OCLC 46429736 Their Eyes Were Watching God is a 1937 novel and the best known work by African - American writer Zora Neale Hurston . The novel narrates main character Janie Crawford 's `` ripening from a vibrant , but voiceless , teenage girl into a woman with her finger on the trigger of her own destiny . '' As a young woman , who is fair - skinned with long hair , she expects more out of life , but comes to realize that people must learn about life ' fuh theyselves ' ( for themselves ) , just as people can only go to God for themselves . Set in central and southern Florida in the early 20th century , the novel was initially poorly received , but today , it has come to be regarded as a seminal work in both African - American literature and women 's literature . TIME included the novel in its 2005 list of the 100 best English - language novels published since 1923 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Historical context 1.1 Racial Climate in the Early 1900s 1.2 Hurston , Racial Uplift , and the Harlem Renaissance 2 Plot synopsis 3 Themes 3.1 Gender Roles 3.2 Liberated Woman 3.3 Value of Women in a Relationship 3.4 Voice and Language 3.5 Race 4 Inspirations and influences 5 Reception 5.1 Initial reception 5.2 Rediscovery 6 Critical analysis 7 Adaptations for theater , film and radio 8 Notes 9 External links Historical context ( edit ) Racial climate in the early 1900s ( edit ) With legislation like the Jim Crow laws , enacted from 1890 to 1910 , many African - Americans were disfranchised . Groups like the Ku Klux Klan terrorized black citizens , leading to the steady decline of African - American political representation . Tenant farming and sharecropping systems constituted the de facto re-enslavement of African Americans in the South , where Hurston 's novel is based . Racism was gaining legitimacy in the decades leading up to Hurston 's writing of Their Eyes Were Watching God . Baptist preacher Thomas Dixon , Jr. wrote The Leopard 's Spots : A Romance of the White Man 's Burden in 1902 , asserting white supremacy amidst supposed African - American evil and corruption . The book was so popular that Dixon wrote a trilogy . His second novel , The Clansman , was adapted for the silent film The Birth of a Nation , portraying African - American men in an unintelligent , sexually aggressive light ( 1915 ) . During the Harlem Renaissance , African - American writers were urged to write toward an Uplift program , to improve the image of African - Americans in society . Hurston , Racial Uplift , and the Harlem Renaissance ( edit ) Where many of her fellow writers were participating first in W.E.B. Du Bois ' Uplift agenda and , later , in the Harlem Renaissance , Hurston refused to comply . The renaissance was meant to be a liberating response to the restrictive standards of the Racial Uplift program , encouraging writers and artists to expose racist oppression in American society . In an essay by Nick Aaron Ford , Hurston is quoted to have to said , `` Many Negroes criticise my book , because I did not make it a lecture on the race problem . '' When asked why she chose not to comment on the race problem in her novel , Hurston replied , `` Because I was writing a novel and not a treatise on sociology . ( ... ) I have ceased to think in terms of race ; I think only in terms of individuals . I am interested in you now , not as a Negro man but as a man . I am not interested in the race problem , but I am interested in the problems of individuals , white ones and black ones . '' Similar to Hurston , Wallace Thurman rejected both the traditional Uplift politics and the agenda of the `` New Negro '' . He organized a group of authors including Hurston to create their own magazine , FIRE ! ! , that would publish the African - American experience without any filters or censors . Hurston 's contributions , like Their Eyes Were Watching God , used vernacular southern African - American English . Hurston viewed her work as distinct from the work of fellow Harlem Renaissance writers she described as the `` sobbing school of Negrohood '' that portrayed the lives of black people as constantly miserable , downtrodden and deprived . Instead , Hurston celebrated the rural , southern African - American communities as she found them . In addition , Hurston refused to censor women 's sexuality , writing in beautiful innuendo to embrace the physical dimension of her main character 's romances . Completely rejecting the Uplift agenda , the magazine also included homoerotic work as well as portrayals of prostitution . Foreshadowing the African - American community 's response to Their Eyes Were Watching God , FIRE ! ! sold very poorly and was condemned as maligning the image of the community . A Baltimore Afro - American reviewer wrote that he `` just tossed the first issue of FIRE ! ! into the fire '' . Plot synopsis ( edit ) The main character Janie Crawford , an African - American woman in her early forties , tells the story of her life to her best friend Pheoby Watson through an extended flashback . Readers receive the story of her life in three major periods corresponding to her marriages to three very different men . The flashback in the book begins with Janie 's sexual awakening which she compares to a pear blossom in spring . Not long after , Janie allows a local boy , Johnny Taylor , to kiss her , which Janie 's grandmother , Nanny , witnesses . Nanny is an elderly woman who , as a slave , was raped by her owner and gave birth to a mixed - race daughter Leafy . Nanny escaped from her jealous mistress and found a good home after the end of the American Civil War . Nanny tried to create a good life for her daughter , but Leafy was raped by her school teacher and became pregnant with Janie . Shortly after Janie 's birth , Leafy began to drink and stay out at night . Eventually , she ran away , leaving her daughter Janie with Nanny . Nanny , afraid Janie 's life may follow Leafy 's or her own , transfers all the hopes she had for Leafy to Janie and arranges for Janie to marry Logan Killicks , an older farmer looking for a wife . Although Janie is not interested in either Logan or marriage , her grandmother wants her to have the stability she never had ; legal marriage to Killicks , Nanny believes , will give Janie opportunities . Nanny feels that Janie will be unable to take care of herself , so she must marry a man who will take care of her . Janie marries Logan Killicks . Janie 's image of the pear tree causes her to imagine that marriage must involve love -- in Janie 's pear tree scene , she sees bees pollinating a pear tree and believes that marriage is the human equivalent to this natural process . However , Killicks wants a domestic helper rather than a lover or partner ; he thinks Janie does not do enough around the farm and that she is ungrateful . Janie speaks to Nanny about how she feels , but Nanny , too , accuses her of being spoiled . And so , Janie 's idea of the pear tree is tarnished . Soon afterward , Nanny dies . Unhappy , disillusioned , and lonely , Janie chooses to leave Killicks and runs off with the glib Jody ( Joe ) Starks , who takes her to Eatonville , Florida . Finding the small town residents unambitious , Starks arranges to buy more land , establishes a general store which he has built by local residents , and is soon elected as mayor of the town . Janie soon realises that Starks wants her as a trophy wife , to reinforce his powerful position in town . He asks her to run the store , but forbids her from participating in the substantial social life that occurs on the store 's front porch . He treats her as his property , controlling what she wears and says , and criticizes her mistakes . He also begins to strike her occasionally . As time passes , he teases her in public about being old , even though she is only in her thirties . Eventually , she can not bear it and snaps back at Joe to look at himself . Starks hits her as hard as he can . Later , he gets sick , and refuses to let Janie see him . He does not realize that he has a failing kidney , a likely fatal illness . When Janie learns that he might die , she goes to talk to him . She tells him who she really is and says that he never knew because he would not let her be free . After Starks dies , Janie becomes financially independent through his estate . She is beset with suitors , some of whom are men of some means or have prestigious occupations , and all of whom she turns down . She meets a young drifter and gambler named Vergible Woods who goes by the name `` Tea Cake '' . Tea Cake plays the guitar for her and initially treats her with kindness and respect . At first Janie is doubtful of his affections , as she is older and has wealth , but eventually falls in love with him . Deciding to run away with him , Janie has a friend look after the store , and the two head to Jacksonville to marry . They move to the Everglades region ( `` the muck '' ) where they find work planting and harvesting beans . While their relationship has its ups and downs , including mutual bouts of jealousy and an episode in which Tea Cake whips Janie in order to demonstrate his possession of her , Janie realizes she now has the marriage with love that she 's always wanted ; her image of the pear tree blossom is revived . However , the area is hit by the great Okeechobee hurricane , and in the chaos of surviving , Tea Cake is bitten by a rabid dog while saving Janie from drowning , and he contracts the disease . While the disease runs its course , he becomes increasingly jealous and unpredictable despite Janie 's best efforts . He ultimately tries to shoot Janie with his pistol , and she is forced to shoot him first with a rifle in self - defense . She is charged with murder . At the trial , Tea Cake 's black male friends show up to oppose her , but a group of local white women arrive to support Janie . The all - white jury acquits Janie , and she gives Tea Cake a lavish funeral . Tea Cake 's friends are apologetic and forgive her , wanting her to remain in the Everglades . However , she decides to return to Eatonville . As she expected , the residents gossip about her when she arrives back in town . The story ends where it started , and Janie finishes telling her story to Pheoby . Themes ( edit ) Gender roles ( edit ) The novel explores traditional gender roles and the relationship between men and women . Nanny believes that Janie should marry a man not for love but for ' protection ' . Janie 's first two husbands : Logan Killicks and Jody Starks both believe Janie should be defined by her marriage to them . Both men want her to be domesticated and silent . Her speech , or silence , is defined by her physical locations , most often . For example , Joe forces her silence in the store , a public -- and therefore , male -- space . Joe says , `` ... Muh wife do n't know nothin ' bout no speech - makin ' . Ah never married her for nothin ' lak dat . She 's uh woman and her place is in de home . '' Janie is also forbidden from socialising with the men on the porch . Her place is seen as in the home and not out on the porch , a public space which can be defined as male . Tea Cake is Janie 's last husband who treats her as more of an equal than Killicks and Starks did , by talking to her and playing checkers with her . Despite his equal treatment in the beginning , Tea Cake does hit Janie in order to show his possession over her . Thus , Janie 's life seems defined by her relation to male - centric spaces . Liberated woman ( edit ) Janie is searching for her own identity throughout the novel . She is seen as separated from the other women in the novel who follow the traditions in place and do not find a life independent of men . Janie 's womanliness is a source of jealousy for both Starks and Tea Cake who shame her for her looks . Starks orders Janie to cover her hair as other men found it a source of attraction . Similarly , Tea Cake is conscious of Janie 's lighter skin and her appeal to Mrs. Turner 's brother . Janie finds her independence as a woman after the death of Tea Cake . She returns to Eatonville with her hair down and she sits on her own porch chatting with her friend Pheoby . She has overcome the traditional roles of a woman by the end of the novel , thereby cultivating an image of the `` liberated black woman . '' Value of women in a relationship ( edit ) Throughout the novel , Hurston vividly displays how African American women are valued , or devalued , in their marital relationships . By doing so , she takes the reader on a journey through Janie 's life and her marriages . Janie formed her initial idea of marriage off the image of unity she witnessed between a pear tree and a bee . This image and expectation sets Janie up for disappointment when it finally came time to marry . From her marriage to Logan Killicks to Tea Cake , Janie was forced to acknowledge where she stood as a female in her relationship . Starting with her marriage to Logan , Janie was put in a place where she was expected to work . On top of all the physical labor expected from her , Janie endured physical beatings from her male counterpart . Hoping for more value , Janie decides to leave Logan and run off with Joe Starks . However , in reaction to this decision , she 's only faced with more beating and devaluement . Joe expected her stay in the home , work in the kitchen , and when she was in public , Janie was expected to cover her hair and avoid conversation with the locals . With one last hope , Janie engaged in a marriage with Tea Cake , a much younger soul , and things finally seemed to look up for her , even though she was still expected to help in the fields and tend to her womanly duties . Overall , throughout her marriages , Janie experienced the hardships that most African American women went through at that time . From the physical labor to the physical beatings , Janie was presented with the life that a woman was expected to live . ( See detailed argument and synopsis in Addison Gayle , Jr. 's article , `` The Outsider '' ) Voice and language ( edit ) Janie is the narrator and protagonist of her own story . She spends the novel seeking a voice for herself which she achieves in the end of her story . Later in her life , Janie is able to sit on her own porch and chat just like the men . Throughout the novel , there is a strong use of dialect and colloquial language which reiterates that this is a story of a black woman from the South . Race ( edit ) While the novel is written about black people in the South , it is not primarily a book about racism . Nanny is the first character to mention the notion of slavery . `` Ah was born back due in slavery so it was n't for me to fulfil my dreams of whut a woman oughta be and to do . Dat 's one of de hold - backs of slavery . '' The novel , while mentioning the issue of racism between the white and black communities , depicts the treatment of minorities within the black community . Starks is compared to as the master of the plantation due to his huge house in the centre of the town . `` The rest of town looked like servants ' quarters surrounding the ' big house ' . Starks becomes a figure of authority in the town due to his access to money and his determination to create the first black town . However his plans of creating a town in which blacks can live as equals creates a hierarchy between the townsfolk . `` Us talks about de white man keepin ' us down ! Shucks ! He do n't have tuh . Us keeps our own selves down . '' The divide between the black community is not only seen in Eatonville . When Janie marries Tea Cake and moves to the Everglades she becomes friendly with a woman named Mrs. Turner . Mrs. Turner compliments Janie on her light skin and her Caucasian features . She disagrees with Janie 's marriage to Tea Cake , since he is darker skinned with more African features . Mrs. Turner tries to get Janie to leave Tea Cake and marry her brother , Mr. Turner . This results in Tea Cake 's jealousy and distrust of Mrs. and Mr. Turner . Inspirations and influences ( edit ) Perhaps the strongest inspiration for Hurston 's writing of Their Eyes Were Watching God was her former lover Percival Punter . Hurston writes in her autobiography that the romance between Janie and Tea Cake was inspired by a tumultuous love affair . She described falling in love with the man as `` a parachute jump '' . Like Janie in the novel , Hurston was significantly older than her lover . Like Tea Cake , Punter was sexually dominant and sometimes violent . Hurston wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God three weeks after the tumultuous conclusion of her relationship with Punter . She wrote in her autobiography that she had `` tried to embalm all the tenderness of ( her ) passion for him . '' With this emotional inspiration , Hurston went on to paint the picture of Their Eyes Were Watching God using her personal experience and research as a template . In 1927 , a decade before writing Their Eyes Were Watching God , Hurston traveled south to collect folk songs and folk tales through an anthropological research fellowship arranged by her Barnard College mentor Franz Boas . The all - black Eatonville of Their Eyes Were Watching God is based on the all - black town of the same name in which Hurston grew up . The town 's weekly announced in 1889 , `` Colored People of the United States : Solve the great race problem by securing a home in Eatonville , Florida , a Negro city governed by negroes . '' The hurricane that symbolizes the climax of Hurston 's story also has an historical inspiration ; in 1928 , `` a hurricane ravaged both coastal and inland areas of Florida , bringing torrential rains that broke the dikes of Lake Okeechobee '' . Scholars of the African diaspora note the cultural practices common to the Caribbean , Africa , and the United States in Their Eyes Were Watching God . Hurston wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God while on a Guggenheim Fellowship in Haiti to research Obeah practices in the West Indies . Reception ( edit ) Initial reception ( edit ) Hurston 's political views in Their Eyes Were Watching God were met with resistance from several leading Harlem Renaissance authors . Novelist and essayist Richard Wright condemned Their Eyes Were Watching God , writing in a review for New Masses ( 1935 ) : Miss Hurston seems to have no desire whatsoever to move in the direction of serious fiction ... ( She ) can write ; but her prose is cloaked in that facile sensuality that has dogged Negro expression since the days of Phyllis Wheatley ... Her characters eat and laugh and cry and work and kill ; they swing like a pendulum eternally in that safe and narrow orbit in which America likes to see the Negro live : between laughter and tears . Ralph Ellison said the book contained a `` blight of calculated burlesque . '' Alain Locke writes in a review : `` when will the Negro novelist of maturity , who knows how to tell a story convincingly -- which is Miss Hurston 's cradle gift , come to grips with motive fiction and social document fiction ? '' The New Republic 's Otis Ferguson wrote : `` it is n't that this novel is bad , but that it deserves to be better '' . But he went on to praise the work for depicting `` Negro life in its naturally creative and unselfconscious grace '' . Not all African - American critics had negative things to say about Hurston 's work . Carter G. Woodson , founder of The Journal of Negro History wrote , `` Their Eyes Were Watching God is a gripping story ... the author deserves great praise for the skill and effectiveness shown in the writing of this book . '' The critic noted Hurston 's anthropological approach to writing , `` She studied them until she thoroughly understood the working of their minds , learned to speak their language '' . Meanwhile , reviews of Hurston 's book in the mainstream white press were largely positive , although they did not translate into significant retail sales . Writing for The New York Times , Ralph Thompson states : `` the normal life of Negroes in the South today -- the life with its holdovers from slave times , its social difficulties , childish excitements , and endless exuberances ... compared to this sort of story , the ordinary narratives of Negroes in Harlem or Birmingham seem ordinary indeed . '' For the New York Herald Tribune , Sheila Hibben described Hurston as writing `` with her head as with her heart '' creating a `` warm , vibrant touch '' . She praised Their Eyes Were Watching God as filled with `` a flashing , gleaming riot of black people , with a limitless sense of humor , and a wild , strange sadness '' . New York Times critic Lucille Tompkins described Their Eyes Were Watching God : `` It is about Negroes ... but really it is about every one , or at least every one who is n't so civilized that he has lost the capacity for glory . '' Rediscovery ( edit ) As universities across the country developed Black Studies programs in the 1970s and 1980s , they created greater space for Black literature and academia . Several prominent academics , including Henry Louis Gates , Jr. and Addison Gayle , Jr. , established a new `` Black Aesthetic '' that `` placed the sources of contemporary black literature and culture in the communal music and oral folk tradition '' . This new respect coupled with a growing Black feminism led by Mary Helen Washington , Audre Lorde , Alice Walker , and others would create the space for the rediscovery of Hurston . Hurston first achieved a level of mainstream institutional support in the 1970s . Walker published an essay , `` Looking for Zora , '' in Ms. magazine in 1975 . In that work , she described how the Black community 's general rejection of Hurston was like `` throwing away a genius '' . The National Endowment for the Humanities went on to award Robert Hemenway two grants for his work to write Hurston 's biography . The 1977 biography was followed in 1978 by the re-issue of Their Eyes Were Watching God . In 1975 , the Modern Language Association held a special seminar focusing on Hurston . In 1981 professor Ruth Sheffey of Baltimore 's Morgan State University founded the Zora Neale Hurston Society . Hurston had attended the school , then known as Morgan Academy , in 1917 . In 1978 , Harper and Row leased its rights to Their Eyes Were Watching God to the University of Illinois Press . However , the printing was so profitable that Harper and Row refused to renew the leasing contract and instead reprinted its own new edition . This new edition sold its total print of 75,000 in less than a month . The New York Times 's Virginia Heffernan explains that the book 's `` narrative technique , which is heavy on free - indirect discourse , lent itself to poststructuralist analysis '' . With so many new disciplines especially open to the themes and content of Hurston 's work , Their Eyes Were Watching God achieved growing prominence in the last several decades . It is now firmly established in the literary canon . Critical analysis ( edit ) In Maria J. Johnson 's article `` ' The World in a Jug and the Stopper in ( Her ) Hand ' : Their Eyes Were Watching God as Blues Performance , '' she states that Hurston 's novel takes a similar structure and aesthetic to blues culture . Johnson also shows how the contrast of Hurston 's images , such as the pleasure and pain dynamic of the bee , can be seen in songs by singers like Bessie Smith . The article `` The Cognitive Construction of the Self in Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God '' , by Patrick S. Bernard , highlights the connection between the construction of self and cognition in Hurston 's novel . According to Bernard , cognition is the inner essence of an individual that embodies the idea of `` thinking , seeing , speaking , and knowing '' , but is often determined by one 's exterior environment . Janie , the protagonist , uses her cognitive skills in order to find her identity and throughout the novel develops her cognition further . While Janie is living in a sexist society , she continues to rise above her opposition , specifically that of her three husbands . Bernard demonstrates this , In a conversation with Jody , Janie defends ' womenfolk , ' disagreeing with the sexist claim that God made men `` different '' because they turn `` out so smart '' ( 70 ) . When she states that men `` do n't know half as much as you think you do , '' Jody interrupts her saying , ' you getting too moufy Janie ... Go fetch me de checker - board and de checkers ' ( 70 - 71 ) so that he and the other men could play ( Bernard 9 ) . The comment from Jody , Janie 's second husband , attempts to suppress her voice and manipulate her thoughts . Rather than acting submissive to Jody , Janie for a brief moment contends with Jody by telling him how men misunderstand women . Jody fears that Janie 's thinking will lead to her gaining more knowledge and naturally to speaking her mind , eventually leading to Janie achieving the power of knowledge to recognize and change the mistreatment and unfairness she has been receiving . Bernard proposes the idea that Jody 's relationship with Janie represents society 's assumption that women are of limited cognition . This assumption positions women in subservient roles that limit their ways of thinking , speaking , and seeing . In addition to bringing up Janie 's relationship with Jody , Bernard emphasizes how her relationships with her other husbands influenced her cognition . He points out the fact that Logan Killicks , Janie 's first husband , mistreated her by severing any beginning form of self - construction by treating her as an infant . Bernard also brings forth the idea that Janie 's construction of selfhood blossoms when Tea Cake , her third husband , allows her to participate in experiences unimaginable to her . While Logan Killicks gives her no opportunity of expressing herself , Jody overpowers her expressive voice ; Tea Cake allows her construction of self to mature link between self construction and cognition . Bernard 's main point therefore is that self - construction is influenced by cognition , that is , knowing , thinking , seeing and speaking are important to the construction of self in Zora Neale Hurston 's novel . In `` The Hierarchy Itself : Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God and the Sacrifice of Narrative Authority , '' Ryan Simmons argues that Hurston made a statement against models of authority that supplant an oppressive system with other oppressive systems and offered an alternative . By models of authority , Simmons means the narrative voice of the author and Janie 's narrative voice . Hurston represented the different ideologies of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois through the characters of Logan Killicks and Joe ( `` Jody '' ) Starks . Like Washington , Logan models the path of `` gradual progress '' that would not threaten the white - dominated sphere of power and Hurston presents his practices as a tradeoff between liberty and modest prosperity . Joe models the path advocated by Du Bois , which is one of assertion of dignity and less compromise . However , the issue shown by Joe 's eventual isolation from the community dialogue he helped establish and Janie 's overpowering of him through a usurpation of authority , Hurston shows that the weakness with Joe 's approach is that it mirrors that of white suppression . Instead , Hurston introduces a third way of achieving self - autonomy through Tea Cake . He represents an independence from reliance on communal validation , and instead serves as a mirror for Janie to discover her narrative power . In relation to the author 's narrative power , Tea Cake is the epitome of a good reader , one that is receptive to the transformative message of the text . Language is the understanding and sharpening of one 's identity while communication comes second . In Hurston 's innovative narrative , she is attempting to fulfill the `` ideal narrative '' , which is one that nurtures and changes both the reader and the author . Adaptations for Theater , film and radio ( edit ) In 1983 , the graduate repertory Hilberry Theater at Wayne State University produced To Gleam It Around , To Show My Shine , which is based on Their Eyes Were Watching God . The play was written by Bonnie Lee Moss Rattner and directed by Von Washington . In 1988 , To Gleam It Around , To Show My Shine was produced by the Crossroads Theatre in New Brunswick , New Jersey . The production was enhanced by an award from The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ' Fund for New American Plays . Denise Nicholas played Janie , Novella Nelson played Pheoby . Rick Khan directed . Writing in The New York Times on October 16 , 1988 , in a review entitled `` Luminous ' Drama On Black Woman 's Struggle '' , Alvin Klein said , of `` the dialogue that is so pure and lyrical , it positively sings and pierces the heart . Out of an unutterably beautiful book , a luminous play has evolved . '' In 2003 , To Gleam It Around , To Show My Shine a.k.a. Eatonville was to have opened at the ATA ( American Theatre for Actors ) in co-production with Amas Musical Theatre and Sage Hill Productions , with a score composed by Wynton Marsalis . ( see `` Wynton Marsalis Pens Music for Rattner 's ' Eatonville ' '' , Playbill , August 21 , 2003 . ) In 2012 , the new artistic director of the State Theater of Maryland , the Centerstage in Baltimore , chose to produce `` Gleam '' a.k.a. `` To Gleam It Around , To Show My Shine '' written by Bonnie Lee Moss Rattner . The play was directed by Marion McClinton . The production was enhanced by a grant of $55,000 from the National Endowment of the Arts . Writing in `` DC Theatre Scene , '' Debbie Jackson says `` Gleam hits a glorious stride at the Centerstage in Baltimore mainly because of the well - tuned script by Bonnie Lee Moss Rattner in the capable hands of director Marion McClinton . '' ( January 18 , 2012 ) Andrea Appleton writing in the `` Citypaper '' on 1 / 20 / 2012 , wrote a headline that states `` Gleam : A classic novel comes to breathtaking life . '' Donna Owen writing in Grio ( 1 / 18 / 2012 ) says GLEAM `` practically leaps off the stage with power , witty dialect , and poignancy . '' Oprah Winfrey served as executive producer of the made - for - TV adaptation Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005 . Harpo Productions sponsored the film directed by Darnell Martin and with a screenplay written by Suzan - Lori Parks , Misan Sagay , and Bobby Smith , Jr . The show was broadcast on ABC on March 6 , 2005 , at 9 pm . Catering to its TV audience , the film largely avoided the more controversial themes of race , gender , and power . Karen Valby of Entertainment Weekly comments , `` While the book chews on meaty questions of race and identity , the movie largely resigns itself to the realm of sudsy romance . '' New York Times critic Virginia Heffernan writes , `` the film is less a literary tribute than a visual fix of Harlequin Romance : Black Southern Series -- all sensual soft - core scenes and contemporary , accessible language . '' In 2011 , the novel was adapted into a radio play for BBC World Drama , dramatized by Patricia Cumper . The play first aired on February 19 , 2011 . In 2012 , a live radio play performance of Their Eyes Were Watching God written by Arthur Yorinks was broadcast on February 29 and March 1 to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the book 's publication . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ National Endowment for the Arts website . Jump up ^ Henry Louis Gates , Jr. , Zora Neale Hurston : Critical Perspectives Past and Present ( New York : Amistad , 1993 ) , p. xi . Jump up ^ `` All Time 100 Novels '' . Time . October 16 , 2005 . ^ Jump up to : ↑ King . The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston , p. 20 . Jump up ^ The Crisis , Vol. 32 , October 1926 : pp. 290 -- 297 . ^ Jump up to : Bloom , Harold ( 1986 ) . Modern Critical Views : Zora Neale Hurston . New York : Chelsea House Publishers . p. 8 . ISBN 0 - 87754 - 627 - 4 . Jump up ^ King . The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston . p. 28 . Jump up ^ Bray , Rosemary L. `` Renaissance for a Pioneer of Black Pride '' . New York Times , 02 09 , 1990 . Jump up ^ King . The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston . p. 29 . Jump up ^ Baltimore Afro - American review , cited in Harris , E. `` Renaissance Men . '' The Advocate , 07 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston '' . Plot Summary , Book Notes , Summary . BookRags.com. 18 Aug 2010 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora ( 1937 ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God . USA : University of Illinois Press . pp. Page 20 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora ( 1937 ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God . USA : University of Illinois Press . pp. Page 53 . Jump up ^ Bloom , Harold ( 1986 ) . Modern Critical Views : Zora Neale Hurston . New York : Chelsea House Publishers . pp. 29 -- 33 , 40 . ISBN 0 - 87754 - 627 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bloom , Harold ( 1986 ) . Modern Critical Views : Zora Neale Hurston . New York : Chelsea House Publishers . pp. 35 -- 46 . ISBN 0 - 87754 - 627 - 4 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora ( 1937 ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God . USA : University of Illinois Press . pp. Page 21 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora ( 1937 ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God . USA : University of Illinois Press . pp. Page 58 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora ( 1937 ) . Their Eyes Were Watching God . USA : University of Illinois Press . pp. Page 48 . Jump up ^ King . The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston . p. 25 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Zora . Dust Tracks on a Road : An Autobiography . New York : J.B. Lippincott , 1942 , p. 205 . as cited in Bloom , Harrold . Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . New York : Infobase Publishing , 2009 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Bloom , Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Hurston , Dust Tracks on a Road , p. 188 . as cited in Bloom , Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God , p. 15 . Jump up ^ King , The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston . p. 7 . Jump up ^ The Eatonville Speaker , 1889 . cited in Lester , Neal . Understanding Their Eyes Were Watching God . London : The Greenwood Press , 1999 , p. 148 . Jump up ^ Bloom , Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Wall , Cheryl A. Their Eyes Were Watching God - A Casebook . New York : Oxford University Press , 2000 . p. 6 . Jump up ^ Miles , Diana . `` Diana Miles on Female Identity and Rebirth '' . Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . Edited by Harrold Bloom . New York : Infobase Publishing , 2009 , p. 66 . Jump up ^ Wright , Richard . Review in New Masses , October 5 , 1935 . cited in Bloom , Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Ellison , Ralph . As cited in Burt , Daniel . The Novel 100 . Checkmark Books , 2003 , p. 366 . Jump up ^ Locke , Alain . Opportunity , 06 01 , 1938 . ( accessed April 18 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Ferguson , Otis . The New Republic , 13 October 1937 . ( accessed April 18 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Forrest , Ethel . `` Book Reviews '' The Journal of Negro History . January 1 , 1938 . ( Accessed April 12 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Thompson , Ralph . `` Books of the Times . '' The New York Times . October 6 , 1937 . accessed March 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hibben , Sheila . `` Book Review '' . New York Herald Tribune , 09 - 26 , 1937 . As cited in Bloom , Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . p. 16 . Jump up ^ Tompkins , Lucille . `` Book Review . '' The New York Times . September 26 , 1937 . As cited in King , The Cambridge Introduction to Zora Neale Hurston . p. 113 . ^ Jump up to : Spencer , Stephen . `` On Hurston 's Contribution to the Canon . '' Bloom 's Guides - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . Edited by Harrold Bloom . New York : Infobase Publishing , 2009 , p. 87 . ^ Jump up to : Carby , Hazel . `` The Politics of Fiction , Anthropology , and the Folk : Zora Neale Hurston . '' Bloom 's Interpretations - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . Edited by Harrold Bloom . New York : Infobase Publishing , 2008 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Bray , Rosemary L. `` Renaissance for a Pioneer of Black Pride . '' The New York Times , 02 09 , 1990 . Jump up ^ Carby , Hazel . `` The Politics of Fiction , Anthropology , and the Folk : Zora Neale Hurston . '' Bloom 's Interpretations - Zora Neale Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God . Edited by Harrold Bloom . New York : Infobase Publishing , 2008 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ Heffernan , Virginia . `` A Woman on a Quest , via Hurston and Oprah . '' The New York Times . March 5 , 2005 . ( accessed April 3 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Johnson , Maria J. `` ' The World in a Jug and the Stopper in ( Her ) Hand ' : Their Eyes Were Watching God as Blues Performance '' . African American Review , 32 ( 3 ) 1998 : 401 - 414 . MLA International Bibliography . EBSCO . October 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bernard ' , Patrick . `` The Cognitive Construction of the Self in Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God '' . Purdue University . Jump up ^ Simmons , Ryan . `` The Hierarchy Itself : Hurston 's Their Eyes Were Watching God and the Sacrifice of Narrative Authority '' . African American Review 36.2 ( Summer 2002 ) : 181 - 93 . Print . Jump up ^ Valby , Karen . `` Review of film Their Eyes Were Watching God . '' Entertainment Weekly . November 25 , 2005 . ( accessed March 28 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Heffernan , Virginia . `` A Woman on a Quest , via Hurston and Oprah '' The New York Times . March 4 , 2005 . ( accessed April 5 , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ `` Their Eyes Were Watching God '' . BBC World Drama . BBC World Service . 2011 . Retrieved February 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Itzkoff , Dave . `` Radio Play of ' Their Eyes Were Watching God ' Is Set '' The New York Times , February 8 , 2012 . ( accessed March 25 , 2012 ) . External links ( edit ) Describes Hurston 's participation in the Harlem Renaissance ; also summary , analysis , themes , and essays from `` Their Eyes Were Watching God '' `` Their Eyes Were Watching God '' : Folk Speech and Figurative Language Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Their_Eyes_Were_Watching_God&oldid=836794475 '' Categories : 1937 American novels African - American novels J.B. Lippincott & Co. books Novels by Zora Neale Hurston Novels set in Florida Modernist novels American novels adapted into films Hidden categories : Pages to import images to Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית Кыргызча 日本 語 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 21 : 51 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: who was the main character in their eyes were watching god


Spinal fusion - wikipedia Spinal fusion Jump to : navigation , search Spinal fusion Fusion of L5 and S1 ICD - 9 - CM 81.0 MeSH D013123 MedlinePlus 002968 ( edit on Wikidata ) Spinal fusion , also called spondylodesis or spondylosyndesis , is a neurosurgical or orthopedic surgical technique that joins two or more vertebrae . This procedure can be performed at any level in the spine ( cervical , thoracic , or lumbar ) and prevents any movement between the fused vertebrae . There are many types of spinal fusion and each technique involves using bone grafting - either from the patient ( autograft ) , donor ( allograft ) , or artificial bone substitutes - to help the bones heal together . Additional hardware ( screws , plates , or cages ) is often used to hold the bones in place while the graft fuses the two vertebrae together . Spinal fusion is most commonly performed to relieve the pain and pressure on the spinal cord that results when a disc ( cartilage between two vertebrae ) wears out ( degenerative disc disease ) . Other common pathological conditions that are treated by spinal fusion include spinal stenosis , spondylolisthesis , spondylosis , spinal fractures , scoliosis , and kyphosis . Like any surgery , complications may include infection , blood loss , and nerve damage . Fusion also changes the normal motion of the spine and results in more stress on the vertebrae above and below the fused segments . As a result , long - term complications include degeneration at these adjacent spine segments . Contents ( hide ) 1 Medical uses 2 Contraindications 3 Epidemiology 4 Costs 5 Technique 5.1 Cervical spine 5.2 Thoracic spine 5.3 Lumbar spine 6 Risks 6.1 During surgery 6.2 Within a few days 6.3 Weeks to years following surgery 7 Recovery 8 Usage 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Medical uses ( edit ) Spinal fusion can be used to treat a variety of conditions affecting any level of the spine - lumbar , cervical and thoracic . In general , spinal fusion is performed to decompress and stabilize the spine . The most common cause of pressure on the spinal cord / nerves is degenerative disc disease . Other common causes include disc herniation , spinal stenosis , trauma , and spinal tumors . Spinal stenosis results from bony growths ( osteophytes ) or thickened ligaments that cause narrowing of the spinal canal over time . This causes leg pain with increased activity , a condition called neurogenic claudication . Pressure on the nerves as they exit the spinal cord ( radiculopathy ) causes pain in the area where the nerves originated ( leg for lumbar pathology , arm for cervical pathology ) . In severe cases , this pressure can cause neurologic deficits , like numbness , tingling , bowel / bladder dysfunction , and paralysis . Lumbar and cervical spinal fusions are more commonly performed than thoracic fusions . Degeneration happens more frequently at these levels due to increased motion and stress . The thoracic spine is more immobile , so most fusions are performed due to trauma or deformities like scoliosis and kyphosis . Herniated disc pressing on spinal nerves . Conditions where spinal fusion may be considered include the following : Degenerative disc disease Spinal disc herniation Discogenic pain Spinal tumor Vertebral fracture Scoliosis Kyphosis ( e.g. , Scheuermann 's disease ) Spondylolisthesis Spondylosis Posterior rami syndrome Other degenerative spinal conditions Any condition that causes instability of the spine Contraindications ( edit ) Bone morphogenetic protein ( rhBMP ) should not be routinely used in any type of anterior cervical spine fusion , such as with anterior cervical discectomy and fusion . There are reports of this therapy causing soft tissue swelling , which in turn can cause life - threatening complications due to difficulty swallowing and pressure on the respiratory tract . Epidemiology ( edit ) According to a report by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality ( AHRQ ) , approximately 488,000 spinal fusions were performed during U.S. hospital stays in 2011 ( a rate of 15.7 stays per 10,000 population ) , which accounted for 3.1 % of all operating room procedures . This was a 70 percent growth in procedures from 2001 . Lumbar fusions are the most common type of fusion performed ~ 210,000 per year . 24,000 thoracic fusions and 157,000 cervical fusions are performed each year . A 2008 analysis of spinal fusions in the United States reported the following characteristics : Average age for someone undergoing a spinal fusion was 54.2 years - 53.3 years for primary cervical fusions , 42.7 years for primary thoracic fusions , and 56.3 years for primary lumbar fusions 45.5 % of all spinal fusions were on men 83.8 % were white , 7.5 % black , 5.1 % Hispanic , 1.6 % Asian or Pacific Islander , 0.4 % Native American Average length of hospital stay was 3.7 days - 2.7 days for primary cervical fusion , 8.5 days for primary thoracic fusion , and 3.9 days for primary lumbar fusion In - hospital mortality was 0.25 % Costs ( edit ) Costs associated with spinal fusion vary depending on the medical institution , insurance , type of surgery and the overall health of the patient . Total costs typically include labs , medications , room & board , medical supplies , recovery room , operating room services , physical therapy , imaging , and hospital charges . The average total hospital costs for spinal fusions increased from $24,676 in 1998 to $81,960 in 2008 . The average total costs of common fusion procedures are listed below : $34,943 - Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion ( ACDF ) for someone with severe obesity and diabetes ( 2005 - 2008 ) $25,633 - ACDF for someone without obesity and diabetes ( 2005 - 2008 ) $65,782 - Lumbar decompression and fusion ( LDF ) for someone with diabetes and depression ( 2005 - 2008 ) $52,249 - LDF for someone without diabetes or depression ( 2005 - 2008 ) $80,095 - Upper thoracic level primary spinal fusion ( 2003 - 2013 ) $55,547 - Revision of previous fusion surgery due to adjacent segment disease ( 2003 - 2013 ) Technique ( edit ) There are many types of spinal fusion techniques . Each technique varies depending on the level of the spine and the location of the compressed spinal cord / nerves . After the spine is decompressed , bone graft or artificial bone substitute is packed between the vertebrae to help them heal together . In general , fusions are done either on the anterior ( stomach ) , posterior ( back ) , or both sides of the spine . Today , most fusions are supplemented with hardware ( screws , plates , rods ) because they have been shown to have higher union rates than non-instrumented fusions . Minimally invasive techniques are also becoming more popular . These techniques use advanced image guidance systems to insert rods / screws into the spine through smaller incisions , allowing for less muscle damage , blood loss , infections , pain , and length of stay in the hospital . The following list gives examples of common types of fusion techniques performed at each level of the spine : Anterior approach to cervical spine . Cervical spine ( edit ) Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion ( ACDF ) Anterior cervical corpectomy and fusion Posterior cervical decompression and fusion Thoracic spine ( edit ) Anterior decompression and fusion Posterior instrumentation and fusion -- many different types of hardware can be used to help fuse the thoracic spine including sublaminar wiring , pedicle and transverse process hooks , pedicle screw - rod systems , vertebral body plate systems . Lumbar spine ( edit ) Posterolateral Fusion - bone graft is placed between the transverse processes in the back of the spine . These vertebrae are then fixed in place with screws and / or wire through the pedicles of each vertebra attaching to a metal rod on each side of the vertebrae . Interbody Fusion - the entire intervertebral disc between vertebrae is removed and bone graft is placed in the space between the vertebra . A plastic or titanium device may be placed between the vertebra to maintain spine alignment and disc height . The types of interbody fusion are : Anterior lumbar interbody fusion ( ALIF ) -- the disc is accessed from an anterior abdominal incision Posterior lumbar interbody fusion ( PLIF ) -- the disc is accessed from a posterior incision Transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion ( TLIF ) -- the disc is accessed from a posterior incision on one side of the spine Transpsoas interbody fusion ( DLIF or XLIF ) -- the disc is accessed from an incision through the psoas muscle on one side of the spine Oblique lateral lumbar interbody fusion ( OLLIF ) -- the disc is accessed from an incision through the psoas muscle obliquely Stabilization rods used after spinal fusion surgery . Risks ( edit ) Spinal fusion is a high risk surgery and complications can be serious , including death . In general , there is a higher risk of complications in older people with elevated body mass index ( BMI ) , other medical problems , poor nutrition and nerve symptoms ( numbness , weakness , bowel / bladder issues ) before surgery . Complications also depend on the type / extent of spinal fusion surgery performed . There are three main time periods where complications typically occur : During surgery ( edit ) Patient positioning on operating table Blood loss Damage to nerves and surrounding structures during procedure Insertion of spinal hardware Harvesting of bone graft ( if autograft is used ) Within a few days ( edit ) Wound infections - risk factors include old age , obesity , diabetes , smoking , prior surgery Deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) Pulmonary embolism ( PE ) Urinary retention Malnutrition Neurologic deficit Weeks to years following surgery ( edit ) Infection Deformity - loss of height , alignment , and failure of fusion Pseudarthrosis - nonunion between fused bone segments . Risk factors include tobacco use , nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use , osteoporosis , revision procedures , decreased immune system . Adjacent segment disease - degeneration of vertebrae above / below the fused segments due to increased stress and motion . Epidural fibrosis - scarring of the tissue that surrounds the spinal cord Arachnoiditis - inflammation of the thin membrane surrounding the spinal cord , usually caused by infection or contrast dye . Recovery ( edit ) Recovery following spinal fusion is extremely variable , depending on individual surgeon 's preference and the type of procedure performed . The average length of hospital stay for spinal fusions is 3.7 days . Some patients can go home the same day if they undergo a simple cervical spinal fusion at an outpatient surgery center . Minimally invasive surgeries are also significantly reducing the amount of time spent in the hospital . Recovery typically involves both restriction of certain activities and rehabilitation training . Restrictions following surgery largely depend on surgeon preference . A typical timeline for common restrictions after a lumbar fusion surgery are listed below : Walking - most people are out of bed and walking the day after surgery Sitting - can begin at 1 -- 6 weeks following surgery Lifting - it is generally recommended to avoid lifting until 12 weeks Driving - usually can begin at 3 -- 6 weeks Return to sedentary work - usually between 3 -- 6 weeks Return to manual work - between 7 -- 12 weeks Rehabilitation after spinal fusion is not mandatory . There is some evidence that it improves functional status and low back pain so some surgeons may recommend it . Usage ( edit ) According to a report by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality ( AHRQ ) , approximately 488,000 spinal fusions were performed during U.S. hospital stays in 2011 ( a rate of 15.7 stays per 10,000 population ) , which accounted for 3.1 % of all operating room procedures . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Chou , Roger ( March 11 , 2016 ) . `` Subacute and Chronic Low Back Pain : Surgical Treatment '' . UpToDate . ^ Jump up to : Rajaee , Sean ( 2012 ) . `` Spinal Fusion in the United States '' . Spine. 37 : 67 -- 76 . ^ Jump up to : Agulnick , Marc ( 2017 ) . Orthopaedic Surgery Essentials : Spine . Two Commerce Square , 2001 Market Street , Philadelphia , PA 19103 USA : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . p. 343 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 49631 - 854 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Rajaee , Sean S. ; Bae , Hyun W. ; Kanim , Linda E.A. ; Delamarter , Rick B. `` Spinal Fusion in the United States '' . Spine. 37 ( 1 ) : 67 -- 76 . doi : 10.1097 / brs. 0b013e31820cccfb . ^ Jump up to : North American Spine Society ( February 2013 ) , `` Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question '' , Choosing Wisely : an initiative of the ABIM Foundation , North American Spine Society , retrieved 25 March 2013 , which cites Schultz , Daniel G. ( July 1 , 2008 ) . `` Public Health Notifications ( Medical Devices ) - FDA Public Health Notification : Life - threatening Complications Associated with Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein in Cervical Spine Fusion '' . fda.gov . Retrieved 25 March 2014 . Woo , EJ ( Oct 2012 ) . `` Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein - 2 : adverse events reported to the Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience database '' . The Spine Journal . 12 ( 10 ) : 894 -- 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. spinee. 2012.09. 052 . PMID 23098616 . ^ Jump up to : Weiss AJ , Elixhauser A , Andrews RM ( February 2014 ) . `` Characteristics of Operating Room Procedures in U.S. Hospitals , 2011 '' . HCUP Statistical Brief # 170 . Rockville , MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality . Jump up ^ Weiss AJ , Elixhauser A ( March 2014 ) . `` Trends in Operating Room Procedures in U.S. Hospitals , 2001 -- 2011 '' . HCUP Statistical Brief # 171 . Rockville , MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality . ^ Jump up to : Walid , M. Sami ; Robinson , Joe Sam ( 2011 - 01 - 14 ) . `` Economic impact of comorbidities in spine surgery '' . Journal of Neurosurgery : Spine. 14 ( 3 ) : 318 -- 321 . doi : 10.3171 / 2010.11. SPINE10139 . ISSN 1547 - 5654 . ^ Jump up to : Theologis , Alexander A. ; Miller , Liane ; Callahan , Matt ; Lau , Darryl ; Zygourakis , Corinna ; Scheer , Justin K. ; Burch , Shane ; Pekmezci , Murat ; Chou , Dean ( 2016 - 08 - 15 ) . `` Economic Impact of Revision Surgery for Proximal Junctional Failure After Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery '' . Spine. 41 ( 16 ) : E964 -- E972 . doi : 10.1097 / brs. 0000000000001523 . ISSN 1528 - 1159 . ^ Jump up to : Phan , Kevin ; Rao , Prashanth J. ; Mobbs , Ralph J. ( 2015 - 08 - 01 ) . `` Percutaneous versus open pedicle screw fixation for treatment of thoracolumbar fractures : Systematic review and meta - analysis of comparative studies '' . Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 135 : 85 -- 92 . doi : 10.1016 / j. clineuro. 2015.05. 016 . ISSN 1872 - 6968 . PMID 26051881 . Jump up ^ McGregor , Alison H. ; Dicken , Ben ; Jamrozik , Konrad ( 2006 - 05 - 31 ) . `` National audit of post-operative management in spinal surgery '' . BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 7 : 47 . doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2474 - 7 - 47 . ISSN 1471 - 2474 . PMC 1481518 . PMID 16737522 . ^ Jump up to : Shields , Lisa B.E. ; Clark , Lisa ; Glassman , Steven D. ; Shields , Christopher B. ( 2017 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Decreasing hospital length of stay following lumbar fusion utilizing multidisciplinary committee meetings involving surgeons and other caretakers '' . Surgical Neurology International . 8 . doi : 10.4103 / 2152 - 7806.198732 . ISSN 2229 - 5097 . PMC 5288986 . PMID 28217384 . ^ Jump up to : McGregor , Alison H. ; Probyn , Katrin ; Cro , Suzie ; Doré , Caroline J. ; Burton , A. Kim ; Balagué , Federico ; Pincus , Tamar ; Fairbank , Jeremy ( 2013 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Rehabilitation following surgery for lumbar spinal stenosis '' . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews ( 12 ) : CD009644 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD009644. pub2 . ISSN 1469 - 493X . PMID 24323844 . Further reading ( edit ) Cervical Spinal Fusion . WebMD . A Patient 's Guide to Anterior Cervical Fusion . University of Maryland Medical Center . Boatright , K.C. and S.D. Boden . Chapter 12 : Biology of Spine Fusion . In : Lieberman , J. , et al. , Eds . Bone Regeneration and Repair . Totowa , New Jersey : Humana Press . 2005 . pp. 225 -- 239 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89603 - 847 - 9 . Holmes , C.F. , et al. Chapter 9 : Cervical Spine Injuries . In : Schenck , R.F. , AAOS . Athletic Training in Sports Medicine . Jones & Bartlett Publishers . 2005 . pp. 197 -- 218 . ISBN 0 - 89203 - 172 - 7 Camillo , F.X. Chapter 36 : Arthrodesis of the Spine . In : Canale , S.T. and J.H. Beaty. Campbell 's Operative Orthopaedics 2 . ( 11th Ed . ) . Philadelphia : Mosby. 2007 . pp. 1851 -- 1874 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 323 - 03329 - 9 . Williams , K.D. and A.L. Park . Chapter 39 : Lower Back Pain and Disorders of Intervertebral Discs . In : Canale , S.T. and J.H. Beaty. Campbell 's Operative Orthopaedics 2 . ( 11th Ed . ) . Philadelphia : Mosby. 2007 . pp. 2159 -- 2224 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 323 - 03329 - 9 . Weyreuther , M. , et al. , Eds . Chapter 7 : The Postoperative Spine . MRI Atlas : Orthopedics and Neurosurgery -- The Spine . trans . B. Herwig . Berlin : Springer - Verlag. 2006 . pp. 273 -- 288 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 33533 - 7 . Tehranzadehlow , J. , et al. ( 2005 ) . Advances in spinal fusion . Seminars in Ultrasound , CT , and MRI 26 ( 2 ) : 103 -- 113 . Resnick , D.K. , et al. Surgical Management of Low Back Pain ( 2nd Ed . ) . Rolling Meadows , Illinois : American Association of Neurosurgeons. 2008 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60406 - 035 - 5 . Oblique Lateral Lumbar Interbody Fusion ( OLLIF ) : Technical Notes and Early Results of a Single Surgeon Comparative Study . NIH . External links ( edit ) Wheeless , C.R. , et al. , Eds . Fusion of the Spine . Wheeless ' Textbook of Orthopaedics . Division of Orthopedic Surgery . Duke University Medical Center . Spinal Fusion . American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons . June 2010 . Accessed 1 June 2013 . Spinasanta , S. What is Spinal Instrumentation and Spinal Fusion ? SpineUniverse . September 2012 . Accessed 1 June 2013 . Spinal fusion . Encyclopedia of Surgery . Accessed 1 June 2013 . ( hide ) Orthopedic surgery , operations / surgeries and other procedures on bones and joints ( ICD - 9 - CM V3 76 -- 81 , ICD - 10 - PCS 0P -- S ) Bones Facial Jaw reduction Dentofacial osteotomy Genioplasty / Mentoplasty Chin augmentation Orthognathic surgery Spine Coccygectomy Laminotomy Laminectomy Laminoplasty Corpectomy Facetectomy Foraminotomy Vertebral fixation Percutaneous vertebroplasty Upper extremity Acromioplasty Lower extremity Femoral head ostectomy Astragalectomy Distraction osteogenesis Ilizarov apparatus General Ostectomy Bone grafting Osteotomy Epiphysiodesis Reduction Internal fixation External fixation Tension band wiring Cartilage Articular cartilage repair Microfracture surgery Knee cartilage replacement therapy Autologous chondrocyte implantation Joints Spine Arthrodesis Spinal fusion Intervertebral discs Discectomy Annuloplasty Arthroplasty Upper extremity Shoulder surgery Shoulder replacement Bankart repair Weaver -- Dunn procedure Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction Hand surgery Brunelli procedure Lower extremity Hip resurfacing Hip replacement Rotationplasty Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction Knee replacement / Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty Ankle replacement Broström procedure Triple arthrodesis General Arthrotomy Arthroplasty Synovectomy Arthroscopy Replacement joint imaging : Arthrogram Arthrocentesis Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spinal_fusion&oldid=821834754 '' Categories : Neurosurgical procedures Orthopedic surgical procedures Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch فارسی Nederlands Polski Русский ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 22 : 19 . 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Question: what does it mean to fuse the spine