Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - wikipedia Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Jump to : navigation , search Economy of Democratic Republic of Congo Kinshasa , capital and economic center of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Currency Congolese Franc ( CDF ) Fiscal year Calendar Year Trade organisations AU , African Development Bank , SADC , World Bank , IMF , WTO , Group of 77 Statistics GDP $68.691 billion ( PPP ) ( 2016 est . ) Rank : 114 ( 2012 est . ) GDP growth 9 % ( 2015 est . ) GDP per capita $754 ( PPP ) ( 2015 est . ) Rank : 186 ( 2012 est . ) GDP by sector agriculture ( 44.2 % ) industry ( 22.6 % ) services ( 33.1 % ) ( 2012 est . ) Inflation ( CPI ) 4.1 % ( 2015 est . ) Population below poverty line 70 % ( 2011 est . ) Labour force 35.86 million ( 2012 est . ) Labour force by occupation N / A Unemployment N / A Main industries mining ( copper , cobalt , gold , diamonds , coltan , zinc , tin , tungsten ) , mineral processing , consumer products ( including textiles , plastics , footwear , cigarettes , processed foods , beverages ) , metal products , lumber , cement , commercial ship repair Ease - of - doing - business rank 184th ( 2017 ) External Exports $8.872 billion ( 2012 est . ) Export goods gold , diamonds , copper , cobalt , coltan , zinc , tin , tungsten , crude oil , wood products , coffee Main export partners China 53.4 % Zambia 24.5 % Belgium 5.6 % ( 2012 est . ) Imports $8.187 billion ( 2012 est . ) Import goods machinery , transportation equipment , fuel , food Main import partners South Africa 21.4 % China 15.1 % Belgium 7.9 % Zambia 7.5 % Zimbabwe 6.1 % Kenya 5.1 % France 4.9 % ( 2012 est . ) Gross external debt $6.089 billion ( 31 December 2012 est . ) Public finances Revenues $5.941 billion ( 2014 est . ) Expenses $5.537 billion ( 2012 est . ) Foreign reserves $1.633 billion ( 31 December 2012 est . ) Main data source : CIA World Fact Book All values , unless otherwise stated , are in US dollars . Sparsely populated in relation to its area , the Democratic Republic of the Congo is home to a vast potential of natural resources and mineral wealth . Its untapped deposits of raw minerals are estimated to be worth in excess of US $24 trillion . Despite this , the economy has declined drastically since the mid-1980s . At the time of its independence in 1960 , the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa . It boasted a thriving mining sector and its agriculture sector was relatively productive . Since then , corruption , war and political instability have been a severe detriment to further growth , today leaving DRC with a GDP per capita among the world 's lowest . Contents ( hide ) 1 Economic Implications of Conflicts 2 Economic history 2.1 After Leopold 2.2 Zaire 2.3 1990s 2.4 2000s 2.4. 1 Special Economic Zone 3 Economic implications of instability 4 International Relations 4.1 World Bank 4.1. 1 Ease of Doing Business Rank ( EDBR ) 4.2 International Monetary Fund 5 Sectors 5.1 Agriculture 5.2 Fishing 5.3 Forestry 5.4 Mining 5.5 Copper and Cobalt 5.6 Informal sector 6 Transport 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Economic implications of conflicts ( edit ) The two recent conflicts ( the First and Second Congo Wars ) , which began in 1996 , have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue , have increased external debt , and have resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war , and associated famine and disease . Malnutrition affects approximately two thirds of the country 's population . Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy , accounting for 57.9 % of GDP in 1997 . In 1996 , agriculture employed 66 % of the work force . Rich in minerals , the Democratic Republic of the Congo has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction , which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades , but particularly in the 1990s . The economy of the third largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining . However , much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data . In 2006 Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index , tying Bangladesh , Chad , and Sudan with a 2.0 rating . President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001 . The conflicts in the DRC were over water , minerals , and other resources . Political agendas have worsened the economy , as in times of crisis , the elite benefit while the general populace suffers . This is worsened as a result of corrupt national and international corporations . The corporations instigate and allow the fighting for resources because they benefit from it . A large proportion of fatalities in the country are attributed to a lack of basic services , which is a reflection of the treatment of the citizens of the DRC . The influx of refugees since the war in 1998 only serves to worsen the issue of poverty . Money of the taxpayers in the DRC is often misappropriated by the corrupt leaders of the country , who often use the money to benefit themselves instead of the citizens of the DRC . The DRC is consistently rated the lowest on the UN Human Development Index . Economic history ( edit ) Evolution of the DRC 's GDP . After leopold ( edit ) Forced labor was important for the rural sector . The corporations that dominated the economy were mostly owned by Belgium , but British capital also played an important role . Independence caused the Congo to become the most industrialized country in Sub-Saharan Africa , after South Africa . The 1950s were a period of rising income and expectations . Congo was said to have the best public health system in Africa , but there was also a huge wealth disparity . Belgian companies favored workers in certain areas more and exported them to work in different areas , restricting opportunities for others . Favored groups also received better education and were able to secure jobs for people in the same ethnic group which increased tensions . In 1960 there were only 16 university graduates out of a population of 20 million . Belgium still had economic power and independence gave little opportunity for improvement . Common refrains included `` no elite , no trouble '' and `` before independence = after independence '' . When the Belgians left , most of the government officials and educated residents left with them . Before independence there were just 3 out of 5000 government jobs held by Congolese people . The resulting loss of institutional knowledge and human capital crippled the government . Congolese exports in 2006 . Zaire ( edit ) After the Congo crisis , Mobutu arose as the country 's sole ruler and stabilized the country politically . Economically , however , the situation continued to decline , and by 1979 , the purchasing power was only 4 % of that from 1960 . Starting in 1976 the IMF provided stabilizing loans to the dictatorship . Much of the money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle . This was not a secret as the 1982 report by IMF 's envoy Erwin Blumenthal documented . He stated , it is `` alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations , its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions , of friendly governments , and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire 's economy '' . Blumenthal indicated that there was `` no chance '' that creditors would ever recover their loans . Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled , stolen , or `` wasted on elephant projects '' . `` Structural adjustment programmes '' implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care , education , and infrastructure . 1990s ( edit ) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) Trust Fund for the Congo . Poor infrastructure , an uncertain legal framework , corruption , and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth . A number of International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold . Faced with continued currency depreciation , the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions , a position it later adjusted . The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions , while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure . Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors , continued low prices of key exports , and post-coup instability . Although depreciated , congolese francs have been stable for few years ( Ndonda , 2014 ) 2000s ( edit ) Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops . A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan , and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms . Special economic Zone ( edit ) The DRC is embarking on the establishment of special economic zones ( SEZ ) to encourage the revival of its industry . The first SEZ was planned to come into being in 2012 in N'Sele , a commune of Kinshasa , and will focus on agro-industries . The Congolese authorities also planned to open another zone dedicated to mining ( Katanga ) and a third dedicated to cement ( in the Bas - Congo ) . There are three phases to the program that each have their own objectives . Phase I was the precursor to the actual investment in the Special Economic Zone where policymakers agreed to the framework , the framework was studied for its establishment , and to predict the potential market demand for the land . Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone , finding good sites for businesses , and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment . Stage two of Phase II has n't been started yet and it involves assisting the government in creating framework for the country , creating an overall plan for the site , figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be , and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment . Phase III involves the World Bank creating a transaction phase that will keep everything competitive . The program is looking for options to hand over the program to the World Bank which could be very beneficial for the western part of the country . Economic implications of instability ( edit ) Ongoing conflicts dramatically reduced government revenue and increased external debt . As Reyntjens wrote , `` Entrepreneurs of insecurity are engaged in extractive activities that would be impossible in a stable state environment . The criminalization context in which these activities occur offers avenues for considerable factional and personal enrichment through the trafficking of arms , illegal drugs , toxic products , mineral resources and dirty money . '' Ethnic rivalries were made worse because of economic interests and looting and coltan smuggling took place . Illegal monopolies formed in the country where they used forced labor for children to mine or work as soldiers . National parks were overrun with people looking to exploit minerals and resources . Increased poverty and hunger from the war and that increased the hunting of rare wildlife . Education was denied when the country was under foreign control and very few people make money off the minerals in the country . The national resources are not the root cause for the continued fighting in the region , however , the competition has become an incentive to keep fighting. ( 1 ) The DRC 's level of economic freedom is one of the lowest in the world , putting it in the repressed category . The armed militias fight with the government in the eastern section of the country over the mining sector or the corruption of the government , and weak policies lead to the instability of the economy . Human rights abuses also ruin economic activity ; the DRC has a 7 % unemployment rate , but still has one of the lowest GDP 's per capita in the world . A major problem for people trying to start their own companies is that the minimum amount of capital needed to launch the company is 5 times the average annual income , and prices are regulated by the government , which almost forces people to have to work for the larger , more corrupt businesses ; otherwise , they wo n't have work . It is hard for the DRC to encourage foreign trade because of the regulatory barriers . International relations ( edit ) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) Trust Fund for the Congo . Poor infrastructure , an uncertain legal framework , corruption , and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth . A number of International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold . Faced with continued currency depreciation , the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions , a position it later adjusted . The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions , while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure . Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors , continued low prices of key exports , and post-coup instability. 125 companies in 2003 contributed to the conflict in DRC showing the corruption . World Bank ( edit ) With the help of the International Development Association the DRC has worked toward the reestablishment of social services . This is done by giving 15 million people access to basic health services and giving bed nets to prevent malaria from spreading to people . With the Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Program more than 107,000 adults and 34,000 child soldiers stood down their militarized posture . The travel time from Lubumbashi to Kasomeno in Katanga went down from seven days to two hours because of the improved roads which led to the decrease of prices of main goods by 60 % . With the help of the IFC , KfW , and the EU the DRC improved its businesses by reducing the time it took to create a business by 51 % , reducing the time it took to get construction permits by 54 % , and reducing the number of taxes from 118 to 30 . Improvements in health have been noticeable specifically that deliveries attended by trained staff jumped from 47 to 80 % . In education 14 million textbooks were provided to children , completion rates of school have increased , and higher education was made available to students that chose to pursue it . Ease of doing business rank ( edbr ) ( edit ) The Democratic Republic of Congo ranks 183 on the low end of the ease of doing business scale as ranked by the World Bank . This measures the difficulties of starting a business , enforcing contracts , paying taxes , resolving insolvency , protecting investors , trading across borders , getting credit , getting electricity , dealing with construction permits and registering property ( World Bank 2014 : 8 ) . Noticeable changes in the Ease of doing business rank from 2015 to 2016 are an 83 rank increase in the ability to start businesses from 172 to 89 . Another noticeable change was the rank of dealing with construction permits which increased from 157 to 131 . International Monetary Fund ( edit ) The IMF plans on giving the DRC a $1 billion loan after its two - year suspension after it failed to give details about a mining deal from one of its state owned mines and an Israeli billionaire , Dan Gertler . The loan may be necessary for the country because there will be elections in December 2016 for the next president and the cost of funding this would range around $1.1 billion . The biggest problem with the vote is getting a country of 68 million people the size of Western Europe to polling stations with less than 1,860 miles of paved roads . Sectors ( edit ) Agriculture ( edit ) Main article : Agriculture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy , accounting for 57.9 % of the GDP in 1997 . Main cash crops include coffee , palm oil , rubber , cotton , sugar , tea , and cocoa . Food crops include cassava , plantains , maize , groundnuts , and rice . In 1996 , agriculture employed 66 % of the work force . Fishing ( edit ) The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa 's forests and a river system that could provide hydro - electric power to the entire continent , according to a United Nations report on the country 's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa . Fish are the single most important source of animal protein in the DRC . Total production of marine , river , and lake fisheries in 2003 was estimated at 222,965 tons , all but 5,000 tons from inland waters . PEMARZA , a state agency , carries on marine fishing . Forestry ( edit ) See also : Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Forests cover 60 percent of the total land area . There are vast timber resources , and commercial development of the country 's 61 million hectares ( 150 million acres ) of exploitable wooded area is only beginning . The Mayumbe area of Bas - Congo was once the major center of timber exploitation , but forests in this area were nearly depleted . The more extensive forest regions of the central cuvette and of the Ubangi River valley have increasingly been tapped . Roundwood removals were estimated at 72,170,000 m in 2003 , about 95 percent for fuel . Some 14 species are presently being harvested . Exports of forest products in 2003 totalled $25.7 million . Foreign capital is necessary in order for forestry to expand , and the government recognizes that changes in tax structure and export procedures will be needed to facilitate economic growth . Mining ( edit ) Main article : Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Graphical depiction of DRCongo 's product exports in 28 color - coded categories . Rich in minerals , the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction , which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades , but particularly in the 1990s . Although the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining , is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from long - term `` uncertain legal framework , corruption , and a lack of transparency in government policy . '' The informal sector . In her book entitled The Real Economy of Zaire , MacGaffey described a second , often illegal economy , `` system D , '' which is outside the official economy ( MacGaffey 1991 : 27 ) . and therefore is not reflected in the GDP . exploitation of mineral substances as MIBA EMAXON and De Beers The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining . The Congo is the world 's largest producer of cobalt ore , and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds . The Congo has 70 % of the world 's coltan , and more than 30 % of the world 's diamond reserves. , mostly in the form of small , industrial diamonds . The coltan is a major source of tantalum , which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones . In 2002 , tin was discovered in the east of the country , but , to date , mining has been on a small scale . Smuggling of the conflict minerals , coltan and cassiterite ( ores of tantalum and tin , respectively ) , has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo . Copper and cobalt ( edit ) Katanga Mining Limited , a London - based company , owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant , which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year , making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world . After a major rehabilitation program , the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008 . Informal sector ( edit ) Much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data . Transport ( edit ) All aboard - a train from Lubumbashi arriving in Kindu on a newly refurbished line . Main article : Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult . The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction , and the distances are enormous across this vast country . Furthermore , chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under - investment over many years . On the other hand , the Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways , and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two - thirds of the country . See also ( edit ) Democratic Republic of the Congo portal Economy portal Democratic Republic of the Congo List of companies based in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo References ( edit ) This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html . Jump up ^ `` Ease of Doing Business in Congo , Dem Rep '' . Doingbusiness.org . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Export Partners of Democratic Republic of Congo '' . CIA World Factbook. 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Import Partners of Democratic Republic of Congo '' . CIA World Factbook. 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Centre National d'Appui au Développement et à la Participation Paysanne CENADEP ( 23 October 2009 ) . Province orientale : le diamant et l'or quelle part dans la reconstruction socio - économique de la Province ? ( Report ) . Archived from the original on 25 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Seema Shekhawat ( January 2009 ) . Governance Crisis and Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Working Paper No. 6 . Mumbai : Centre for African Studies , University of Mumbai . Retrieved 23 March 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Dublin - Research and Markets Jump up ^ J. Graf Lambsdorff ( 2006 ) . `` Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 '' . Transparency International . Archived from the original on 16 April 2011 . Retrieved 21 January 2008 . Jump up ^ Werve , Jonathan ( 2006 ) . The Corruption Notebooks 2006 . p. 57 . Jump up ^ `` The Democratic Republic of Congo -- Global Issues '' . www.globalissues.org . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Joe Trapido : Africa 's Leaky Giant . New Left Review 92 , March - April 2015 '' . newleftreview.org . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : David van Reybrouck . Congo : The Epic History of a People . HarperCollins , 2012 . p. 374ff . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 220011 - 2 . Jump up ^ Georges Nzongola - Ntalaja . The Crisis in Zaire : Myths and Realities . Africa World Press , 1986 . p. 226 . ISBN 0 - 86543 - 023 - 3 . Jump up ^ Aikins Adusei ( 30 May 2009 ) . `` IMF and World Bank : Agents of Poverty or Partners of Development ? '' . Modern Ghana . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Le `` paradis '' où le droit fera la loi , L'Echo , novembre 2010 ( in French ) Jump up ^ `` Democratic Republic of Congo Economy : Population , GDP , Inflation , Business , Trade , FDI , Corruption '' . www.heritage.org . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` News & Broadcast - Democratic Republic of Congo : Country Results Profile '' . web.worldbank.org . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Economy Profile : Democratic Republic of Congo ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Washington , DC : ( World Bank : The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development www.worldbank.org ) . 2013 . Retrieved 2013 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Doing Business in Congo , Rep. - World Bank Group '' . www.doingbusiness.org . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Beith , Malcolm ; Richardson , Paul . `` IMF Ready to Lend $1 Billion to Democratic Republic of Congo '' . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Democratic Republic of the Congo economic and strategic significance Jump up ^ Janet MacGaffey ( 1991 ) . The Real Economy of Zaire : The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth . London : James Currey . p. 175 . Jump up ^ `` Cobalt : World Mine Production , By Country '' . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` DR Congo poll crucial for Africa '' BBC News . 16 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Polgreen , Lydia ( 16 November 2008 ) . `` Congo 's Riches , Looted by Renegade Troops '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 27 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Katanga Project Update and 2Q 2008 Financials , Katanga Mining Limited , '' . 8 12 08 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) External links ( edit ) Janet MacGaffey ( 1991 ) . The Real Economy of Zaire : The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth . London : James Currey . p. 175 . Seema Shekhawat ( January 2009 ) . Governance Crisis and Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Working Paper No. 6 . Mumbai : Centre for African Studies , University of Mumbai . Retrieved 23 March 2013 . Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) Democratic Republic of the Congo latest trade data on ITC Trade Map First Blood Diamonds , Now Blood Computers ? by Elizabeth Dias , Time Magazine , 24 July 2009 Oasis Kodila Tedika et Francklin Kyayima Muteba , The sources of growth in DRC before independence . A cointegration analysis , CRE Working paper , n ° 02 / 10 , juin 2010 Exenberger , Andreas / Hartmann , Simon ( 2007 ) : The Dark Side of Globalization . The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration : Lesson from the Congo , Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31 - 2007 7yjmyry Doing Business in Congo , Dem . Rep. 2013 ( Report ) . World Bank . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 25 . Polgreen , Lydia ( 16 November 2008 ) . `` Congo 's Riches , Looted by Renegade Troops '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 27 March 2010 . Democratic Republic of the Congo articles History Early history Colonization ( 1867 -- 85 ) Congo Free State ( 1885 -- 1908 ) Belgian Congo ( 1908 -- 60 ) World War II Congo - Léopoldville ( 1960 -- 65 ) Congo Crisis ( 1960 -- 65 ) Zaire ( 1965 -- 97 ) First Congo War ( 1996 -- 98 ) Second Congo War ( 1998 -- 2003 ) 2000s Transitional Government ( 2003 -- 06 ) M23 rebellion ( 2012 -- 13 ) Geography Cities Conservation Deforestation Ecoregions Mountains Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife Former place names Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Court of Cassation Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Law enforcement Military National Assembly Political parties President Prime Minister Senate Economy Agriculture Central Bank Energy Franc ( currency ) Mining Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Corruption Demographics Education Health Languages Religion Social issues Women Culture Cinema Cuisine Flag Football Media Music Public holidays Outline Index Portal Economy of Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Western Sahara Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&oldid=833857697 '' Categories : African Union member economies World Trade Organization member economies Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Hidden categories : Articles with French - language external links CS1 errors : dates Use dmy dates from July 2012 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the World Factbook Articles with Curlie links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Asturianu Català Español Français Galego Ido Occitan Português Русский Українська 中文 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 April 2018 , at 19 : 09 . 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Kaa - wikipedia Kaa Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Kaa ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Kaa The Jungle Book character Kaa ( left ) , as illustrated in the 1895 edition of The Two Jungle Books First appearance `` Kaa 's Hunting '' Last appearance `` The Spring Running '' Created by Rudyard Kipling Information Species Indian rock python Gender Male Kaa is a fictional character from The Jungle Book stories written by Rudyard Kipling . Kaa is one of Mowgli 's mentors and friends . Contents ( hide ) 1 Kipling 's Mowgli Stories 2 Disney films 2.1 Disney animated films 2.2 1994 live - action film 2.3 2016 live - action film 3 Other appearances 4 References 5 See also 6 External links Kipling 's Mowgli stories ( edit ) First introduced in the story `` Kaa 's Hunting '' in The Jungle Book , Kaa is a huge and powerful snake , more than 100 years old and still in his prime . In `` Kaa 's Hunting '' , Bagheera and Baloo enlist Kaa 's help to rescue Mowgli when the man - cub is kidnapped by Bandar - log ( monkeys ) and taken to an abandoned human city called the Cold Lairs . Kaa breaks down the wall of the building in which Mowgli is imprisoned in and uses his serpentine hypnosis to draw the monkeys toward his waiting jaws . Bagheera and Baloo are also hypnotized , but Mowgli is immune because he is human and breaks the spell on his friends . In The Second Jungle Book , Kaa appears in the first half of the story `` The King 's Ankus '' . After Kaa and Mowgli spend some time relaxing , bathing and wrestling , Kaa persuades Mowgli to visit a treasure chamber guarded by an old cobra beneath the same Cold Lairs . The cobra tries to kill Mowgli but its poison has dried up . Mowgli takes a jeweled item away as a souvenir , not realizing the trouble it will cause them , and Kaa departs . In `` Red Dog '' , Mowgli asks Kaa for help when his wolf pack is threatened by rampaging dholes ( the red dogs of the title ) . Kaa goes into a trance so that he can search his century - long memory for a stratagem to defeat the dogs : `` For a long hour Mowgli lay back among the coils , while Kaa , his head motionless on the ground , thought of all that he had seen and known since the day he came from the egg . The light seemed to go out of his eyes and leave them like stale opals , and now and again he made little stiff passes with his head , right and left , as though he were hunting in his sleep . Mowgli dozed quietly , for he knew that there is nothing like sleep before hunting , and he was trained to take it at any hour of the day or night . Then he felt Kaa 's back grow bigger and broader below him as the huge python puffed himself out , hissing with the noise of a sword drawn from a steel scabbard ; `` I have seen all the dead seasons , '' Kaa said at last , `` and the great trees and the old elephants , and the rocks that were bare and sharp - pointed ere the moss grew . Art thou still alive , Manling ? '' '' With Kaa 's help Mowgli tricks the dholes into attacking prematurely . Kaa takes no part in the resulting battle ( obliquely citing his loyalty to the boy rather than to the wolves , who often caused Mowgli grief ) but Mowgli and the wolves finally kill all the dholes , though not without grievous losses . In `` The Spring Running '' , as the teenage Mowgli reluctantly prepares to leave the jungle for the last time , Kaa tells Mowgli that `` it is hard to cast the skin , '' but Mowgli knows he must cast the skin of his old life in order to grow a new one . Kaa , Baloo and Bagheera sing for Mowgli in `` The Outsong '' , a poem and the ending of `` The Spring Running '' . Disney films ( edit ) Disney animated films ( edit ) In the 1967 Disney film , Kaa is markedly different from the Kipling character . Rather than being a mentor , he appears as a minor antagonist who twice manages to trap Mowgli in his coils in an attempt to eat him . He does this through the use of hypnotic eyes as opposed to the original version , in which he uses a serpentine dance to control his prey . Both of his attempts to eat Mowgli end in comical failure because he is interrupted right before he can swallow him . Kaa is depicted as cowardly , attempting to curry favor with Shere Khan whenever he is around . Voice actor Sterling Holloway decided to give Kaa a lisp , a condition that composers the Sherman Brothers brought into the character 's song in The Jungle Book , `` Trust in Me '' . This particular version of Kaa drew inspiration from previous Disney characters that followed a similar trope , such as Tick - Tock the Crocodile from Peter Pan and the Wolf from The Sword in the Stone . Both are fixated on a specific character ( namely Captain Hook and Wart , respectively ) as food and comically attempt to eat them throughout the film , without success . In The Jungle Book 2 , Kaa - now voiced by Jim Cummings - reappears in a smaller role . He is first seen attempting to eat the man - cub as Baloo and Mowgli reprise `` The Bare Necessities '' , but is thwarted each time . He eventually gives up , swearing he will `` never again associate with man - cubs '' . Kaa then comes across Shanti , who is lost in the jungle in search for Mowgli . He successfully hypnotizes her and attempts to eat her , but is stopped by Ranjan . He is last seen being interrogated by Shere Khan about Mowgli 's whereabouts , lying to the tiger that the boy is heading for the swamp . 1994 live - action film ( edit ) A far more menacing incarnation of the character appeared in the 1994 live - action adaptation . He was brought to life using an actual anaconda , but the bulk of his appearances were made using a mixture of CGI and animatronics . In the film , Kaa seems to serve King Louie , killing any intruders to the city when Louie summons him . Kaa attacks Mowgli inside the monkey city by tackling him into the moat and attempting to drown him , but Mowgli wounds him with a bejewelled dagger , forcing the python to flee in a pool of his own blood . By the time Mowgli returns to the city with Captain William Boone ( the main villain of the film ) and Kitty , Kaa has fully healed from their prior confrontation . After defeating Boone , Mowgli flees with Kitty when he hears King Louie summoning the python . Boone starts gathering as much treasure as he can , but notices that the monkeys have gone silent ; Kaa suddenly appears , then scares the injured Boone into the moat , where the heavy load of treasure he is carrying weighs him straight to the bottom . Desperately trying to struggle free , Boone sees the skeletal remains of Kaa 's past victims just seconds before the villain finally meets his death by the python . 2016 live - action film ( edit ) Kaa appeared in Walt Disney Pictures ' live - action adaptation of the animated film , directed by Jon Favreau . This version of Kaa is female and is voiced by Scarlett Johansson . This film 's Kaa ( like the previous Disney incarnations voiced by Sterling Holloway , Hal Smith , and Jim Cummings ) desires to eat Mowgli . Luring him in by promising to keep him safe , she hypnotizes him and reveals that the boy came to live in the jungle when Shere Khan killed his father as they were travelling between villages and Bagheera found him . She also reveals to him the power of the `` Red Flower '' ( fire ) and its dangers in her vision . During her storytelling , she attempts to devour him , but Baloo spots and rescues Mowgli , denying her of her meal . She is not seen again for the rest of the film , though during the end credits , she is heard singing `` Trust in Me '' . In an interview , Johansson elaborated on Kaa , saying that she uses both her voice and hypnotic gaze to entrance Mowgli so that he can not resist her embrace . She also says Kaa uses her story - telling to seduce and entrap Mowgli and describes Kaa as a `` window into Mowgli 's past '' . She notes that the way Kaa moves is `` very alluring '' , describing it as `` almost coquettish '' . Johansson also sings the song `` Trust in Me '' in the film ; she described her thoughts on the song : `` It 's a strange melody . We wanted it to be a lullaby , but it has a very mysterious sound . '' Other appearances ( edit ) In the 1967 Adventures of Mowgli Soviet cartoons , Kaa was voiced by Vladimir Ushakov . This version of the serpent , like the cartoons in general , is faithful to the original books . In the 1989 Japanese anime series Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli , Kaa 's personality is closer to the books than the Disney series . Kaa appeared in the short - lived 1996 animated TV series Jungle Cubs , this time seen as a friend of the other animals when they were cubs . He was voiced by Jim Cummings , who reprised this role in episodes of the animated television series Disney 's House of Mouse , the 2002 direct - to - video animated film Mickey 's House of Villains , and The Jungle Book 2 . Kaa also made an appearance as the snake charmer Karait 's pet python in the 1997 live - action film The Second Jungle Book : Mowgli & Baloo . Ubisoft and Disney Interactive Studios released the 2000 video game The Jungle Book Groove Party for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 video game consoles . The game featured Kaa as a character and also featured Kaa singing `` A Mood for Food '' . In the 2010 cgi animated television series , Kaa is given a more ferocious personality than in the books , but at the same time he is friends and allies with Mowgli , Bagheera , and Baloo . A mentor - like and heroic version will be voiced by Cate Blanchett in the upcoming live - action film , Mowgli , directed by Andy Serkis . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sherman , Robert B . The Jungle Book audio commentary . The Jungle Book - Platinum Edition Jump up ^ Annika Harris ( March 21 , 2016 ) . `` First Look : Lupita Nyong'o , Idris Elba & Others In ' The Jungle Book ' '' . UPTOWN Magazine . Jump up ^ `` Kaa the Wily Python '' . The Philadelphia Inquirer. April 3 , 2016 . See also ( edit ) Children 's literature portal External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kaa . ( hide ) Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book Books The Jungle Book ( 1894 ) The Second Jungle Book ( 1895 ) All the Mowgli Stories ( 1933 ) Mowgli stories `` Mowgli 's Brothers '' `` Kaa 's Hunting '' `` Tiger ! Tiger ! '' `` Letting in the Jungle '' `` Red Dog '' Other stories `` Rikki - Tikki - Tavi '' `` Toomai of the Elephants '' `` The White Seal '' Characters Mowgli Baloo Bagheera Akela Raksha Kaa Hathi Shere Khan Bandar - log King Louie Disney franchise Film The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) The Jungle Book ( 1994 ) The Jungle Book : Mowgli 's Story ( 1998 ) The Jungle Book 2 ( 2003 ) The Jungle Book ( 2016 ) Television TaleSpin ( 1990 -- 91 ) Jungle Cubs ( 1996 -- 1998 ) Soundtrack `` Colonel Hathi 's March '' `` The Bare Necessities '' `` I Wan'na Be like You '' `` Trust in Me '' `` That 's What Friends Are For '' `` My Own Home '' `` Jungle Jungle Baat Chali Hai '' Video games The Jungle Book ( 1993 ) The Jungle Book Groove Party ( 2000 ) Other The Jungle Book : Alive with Magic Colonel Hathi 's Pizza Outpost Other adaptations Film Elephant Boy ( 1937 ) Jungle Book ( 1942 ) Elephant Boy ( 1973 ) Adventures of Mowgli ( 1973 ) The Second Jungle Book : Mowgli & Baloo ( 1997 ) Mowgli 's First Adventure : In Search of the Elephant Eye Diamond ( 1998 ) Mowgli ( 2018 ) Television Mowgli 's Brothers ( 1976 ) Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli ( 1989 -- 90 ) episodes Mowgli : The New Adventures of the Jungle Book ( 1998 ) The Jungle Book ( 2010 -- ) Other The Third Jungle Book ( 1992 ) A dzsungel könyve Djungelboken Related Law of the jungle Mowgli syndrome The Graveyard Book ( 2008 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaa&oldid=820536956 '' Categories : Characters in British novels of the 19th century Fictional characters introduced in 1894 Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators Fictional snakes The Jungle Book characters Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from April 2008 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano עברית Nederlands Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2018 , at 05 : 27 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: what type of snake is kaa in jungle book


Martian polar ice caps - wikipedia Martian polar ice caps Jump to : navigation , search North polar cap in 1999 South polar cap in 2000 The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km / h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth - like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water - ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser - like eruptions of CO gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider - like pattern of radial channels under the ice . Contents ( hide ) 1 Freezing of atmosphere 2 Layers 3 North polar cap 4 South polar cap 4.1 Swiss cheese appearance 4.2 Starburst channels or spiders 4.3 Layers 5 Polar ice cap deuterium enrichment 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 External links 9 References Freezing of atmosphere ( edit ) Research based on slight changes in the orbits of spacecraft around Mars over 16 years found that when one hemisphere experiences winter , approximately 3 trillion to 4 trillion tons of carbon dioxide freezes out of the atmosphere onto the northern and southern polar caps . This represents 12 to 16 percent of the mass of the entire Martian atmosphere . These observations support predictions from the Mars Global Reference Atmospheric Model -- 2010 . Layers ( edit ) Both polar caps show layered features , called polar - layered deposits , that result from seasonal melting and deposition of ice together with dust from Martian dust storms . Information about the past climate of Mars may be eventually revealed in these layers , just as tree ring patterns and ice core data do on Earth . Both polar caps also display grooved features , probably caused by wind flow patterns . The grooves are also influenced by the amount of dust . The more dust , the darker the surface . The darker the surface , the more melting . Dark surfaces absorb more light energy . There are other theories that attempt to explain the large grooves . Layers in northern ice cap , as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Layers exposed . Close view of layers exposed . Layers visible along edge of northern ice cap . North polar cap ( edit ) The bulk of the northern ice cap consists of water ice ; it also has a thin seasonal veneer of dry ice , solid carbon dioxide . Each winter the ice cap grows by adding 1.5 to 2 m of dry ice . In summer , the dry ice sublimates ( goes directly from a solid to a gas ) into the atmosphere . Mars has seasons that are similar to Earth 's , because its rotational axis has a tilt close to our own Earth 's ( 25.19 ° for Mars , 23.44 ° for Earth ) . During each year on Mars as much as a third of Mars ' thin carbon dioxide ( CO ) atmosphere `` freezes out '' during the winter in the northern and southern hemispheres . Scientists have even measured tiny changes in the gravity field of Mars due to the movement of carbon dioxide . The ice cap in the north is of a lower altitude ( base at - 5000 m , top at - 2000 m ) than the one in the south ( base at 1000 m , top at 3500 m ) . It is also warmer , so all the frozen carbon dioxide disappears each summer . The part of the cap that survives the summer is called the north residual cap and is made of water ice . This water ice is believed to be as much as three kilometers thick . The much thinner seasonal cap starts to form in the late summer to early fall when a variety of clouds form . Called the polar hood , the clouds drop precipitation which thickens the cap . The north polar cap is symmetrical around the pole and covers the surface down to about 60 degrees latitude . High resolution images taken with NASA 's Mars Global Surveyor show that the northern polar cap is covered mainly by pits , cracks , small bumps and knobs that give it a cottage cheese look . The pits are spaced close together relative to the very different depressions in the south polar cap . Both polar caps show layered features that result from seasonal melting and deposition of ice together with dust from Martian dust storms . These polar layered deposits lie under the permanent polar caps . Information about the past climate of Mars may be eventually revealed in these layers , just as tree ring patterns and ice core data do on Earth . Both polar caps also display grooved features , probably caused by wind flow patterns and sun angles , although there are several theories that have been advanced . The grooves are also influenced by the amount of dust . The more dust , the darker the surface . The darker the surface , the more melting . Dark surfaces absorb more light energy . One large valley , Chasma Boreale runs halfway across the cap . It is about 100 km wide and up to 2 km deep -- that 's deeper than Earth 's Grand Canyon . When the tilt or obliquity changes the size of the polar caps change . When the tilt is at its highest , the poles receive far more sunlight and for more hours each day . The extra sunlight causes the ice to melt , so much so that it could cover parts of the surface in 10 m of ice . Much evidence has been found for glaciers that probably formed when this tilt - induced climate change occurred . Research reported in September 2009 and published in Icarus shows that the ice rich layers of the ice cap match models for Martian climate swings . NASA 's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 's radar instrument can measure the contrast in electrical properties between layers . The pattern of reflectivity reveals the pattern of material variations within the layers . Radar produced a cross-sectional view of the north - polar layered deposits of Mars . High - reflectivity zones , with multiple contrasting layers , alternate with zones of lower reflectivity . Patterns of how these two types of zones alternate can be correlated to models of changes in the tilt of Mars . Since the top zone of the north - polar layered deposits -- the most recently deposited portion -- is strongly radar - reflective , the researchers propose that such sections of high - contrast layering correspond to periods of relatively small swings in the planet 's tilt because the Martian axis has not varied much recently . Dustier layers appear to be deposited during periods when the atmosphere is dustier . Research , published in January 2010 using HiRISE images , says that understanding the layers is more complicated than was formerly believed . The brightness of the layers does not just depend on the amount of dust . The angle of the sun together with the angle of the spacecraft greatly affect the brightness seen by the camera . This angle depends on factors such as the shape of the trough wall and its orientation . Furthermore , the roughness of the surface can greatly change the albedo ( amount of reflected light ) . In addition , many times what one is seeing is not a real layer , but a fresh covering of frost . All of these factors are influenced by the wind which can erode surfaces . The HiRISE camera did not reveal layers that were thinner than those seen by the Mars Global Surveyor . However , it did see more detail within layers . Radar measurements of the north polar ice cap found the volume of water ice in the layered deposits of the cap was 821,000 cubic kilometers ( 197,000 cubic miles ) . That 's equal to 30 % of the Earth 's Greenland ice sheet . ( The layered deposits overlie an additional basal deposit of ice . ) The radar is on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . SHARAD radar data when combined to form a 3D model reveal buried craters . These may be used to date certain layers . In February 2017 , ESA released a new view of Mars 's North Pole . It was a mosaic made from 32 individual orbits of the Mars Express . South polar cap ( edit ) The south polar permanent cap is much smaller than the one in the north . It is 400 km in diameter , as compared to the 1100 km diameter of the northern cap . Each southern winter , the ice cap covers the surface to a latitude of 50 ° . Part of the ice cap consists of dry ice , solid carbon dioxide . Each winter the ice cap grows by adding 1.5 to 2 meters of dry ice from precipitation from a polar - hood of clouds . In summer , the dry ice sublimates ( goes directly from a solid to a gas ) into the atmosphere . During each year on Mars as much as a third of Mars ' thin carbon dioxide ( CO ) atmosphere `` freezes out '' during the winter in the northern and southern hemispheres . Scientists have even measured tiny changes in the gravity field of Mars due to the movement of carbon dioxide . In other words , the winter buildup of ice changes the gravity of the planet . Mars has seasons that are similar to Earth 's because its rotational axis has a tilt close to our own Earth 's ( 25.19 ° for Mars , 23.45 ° for Earth ) . The south polar cap is higher in altitude and colder than the one in the north . The residual southern ice cap is misplaced . That is , it is not centered on the south pole . However , the south seasonal cap is centered near the geographic pole . Studies have shown that the off center cap is caused by much more snow falling on one side than the other . On the western hemisphere side of the south pole a low pressure system forms because the winds are changed by the Hellas Basin . This system produces more snow . On the other side , there is less snow and more frost . Snow tends to reflect more sunlight in the summer , so not much melts or sublimates ( Mars climate causes snow to go directly from a solid to a gas ) . Frost , on the other hand has a rougher surface and tends to trap more sunlight , resulting in more sublimation . In other words , areas with more of the rougher frost are warmer . Research , published in April 2011 , described a large deposit of frozen carbon dioxide near the south pole . Most of this deposit probably enters Mars ' atmosphere when the planet 's tilt increases . When this occurs , the atmosphere thickens , winds get stronger , and larger areas on the surface can support liquid water . Analysis of data showed that if these deposits were all changed into gas , the atmospheric pressure on Mars would double . There are three layers of these deposits ; each is capped with a 30 - meter layer of water ice that prevents the CO from sublimating into the atmosphere . In sublimation a solid material goes directly into a gas phase . These three layers are linked to periods when the atmosphere collapsed when the climate changed . A large field of eskers exist around the south pole , called the Dorsa Argentea Formation , it is believed to be the remains of a giant ice sheet . This large polar ice sheet is believed to have covered about 1.5 million square kilometers . That area is twice the area of the state of Texas . Main article : Dorsa Argentea Formation Swiss cheese appearance ( edit ) Main article : Swiss cheese features While the north polar cap of Mars has a flat , pitted surface resembling cottage cheese , the south polar cap has larger pits , troughs and flat mesas that give it a Swiss cheese appearance . The upper layer of the Martian south polar residual cap has been eroded into flat - topped mesas with circular depressions . Observations made by Mars Orbiter Camera in 2001 have shown that the scarps and pit walls of the south polar cap had retreated at an average rate of about 3 meters ( 10 feet ) since 1999 . In other words , they were retreating 3 meters per Mars year . In some places on the cap , the scarps retreat less than 3 meters a Mars year , and in others it can retreat as much as 8 meters ( 26 feet ) per Martian year . Over time , south polar pits merge to become plains , mesas turn into buttes , and buttes vanish forever . Between 2001 and 2005 , two additional Mars years elapsed . The round shape is probably aided in its formation by the angle of the sun . In the summer , the sun moves around the sky , sometimes for 24 hours each day , just above the horizon . As a result , the walls of a round depression will receive more intense sunlight than the floor ; the wall will melt far more than the floor . The walls melt and recede , while the floor remains the same . Later research with the powerful HiRISE shat that the pits are in a 1 - 10 meter thick layer of dry ice that is sitting on a much larger water ide cap . Pits have been observed to begin with small areas along faint fractures . The circular pits have steep walls that work to focus sunlight , thereby increasing erosion . For a pit to develop a steep wall of about 10 cm and a length of over 5 meters in necessary . The pictures below show why it is said the surface resembles Swiss cheese ; one can also observe the differences over a two - year period . Changes in south polar surface from 1999 to 2001 , as seen by Mars Global Surveyor . ' Swiss cheese ' ice formations as seen by MGS . Swiss cheese - like ice formations as seen by MGS , showing layers . Close - up of Swiss cheese terrain , as seen by MGS . HiRISE view of south polar terrain . Starburst channels or spiders ( edit ) Main article : Geyser ( Mars ) Starburst channels are patterns of channels that radiate out into feathery extensions . They are caused by gas which escapes along with dust . The gas builds up beneath translucent ice as the temperature warms in the spring . Typically 500 meters wide and 1 meter deep , the spiders may undergo observable changes in just a few days . One model for understanding the formation of the spiders says that sunlight heats dust grains in the ice . The warm dust grains settle by melting through the ice while the holes are annealed behind them . As a result , the ice becomes fairly clear . Sunlight then reaches the dark bottom of the slab of ice and changes the solid carbon dioxide ice into a gas which flows toward higher regions that open to the surface . The gas rushes out carrying dark dust with it . Winds at the surface will blow the escaping gas and dust into dark fans that we observe with orbiting spacecraft . The physics of this model is similar to ideas put forth to explain dark plumes erupting from the surface of Triton . Research , published in January 2010 using HiRISE images , found that some of the channels in spiders grow larger as they go uphill since gas is doing the erosion . The researchers also found that the gas flows to a crack that has occurred at a weak point in the ice . As soon as the sun rises above the horizon , gas from the spiders blows out dust which is blown by wind to form a dark fan shape . Some of the dust gets trapped in the channels . Eventually frost covers all the fans and channels until the next spring when the cycle repeats . Star burst channels caused by escaping CO gas , as seen by HiRISE . Such channels , also called spiders , may be about 500 m in diameter and 1 m deep . Spider on the second Martian day of spring , as seen by HiRISE . Same spider 14 Martian days later , as seen by HiRISE . Notice increased dark fans caused by outgassing of carbon dioxide carrying dark material . Wide view of plumes , as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Many of the plumes show spiders when enlarged . Spiders , as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Plumes and spiders , as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Layers ( edit ) Chasma Australe , a major valley , cuts across the layered deposits in the South Polar cap . On the 90 E side , the deposits rest on a major basin , called Prometheus . Some of the layers in the south pole also show polygonal fracturing in the form of rectangles . It is thought that the fractures were caused by the expansion and contraction of water ice below the surface . Polar ice cap deuterium enrichment ( edit ) Evidence that Mars once had enough water to create a global ocean at least 137 m deep has been obtained from measurement of the HDO to H O ratio over the north polar cap . In March 2015 , a team of scientists published results showing that the polar cap ice is about eight times as enriched with deuterium , heavy hydrogen , as water in Earth 's oceans . This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times as large as that stored in today 's polar caps . The water for a time may have formed an ocean in the low - lying Vastitas Borealis and adjacent lowlands ( Acidalia , Arcadia and Utopia planitiae ) . Had the water ever all been liquid and on the surface , it would have covered 20 % of the planet and in places would have been almost a mile deep . This international team used ESO 's Very Large Telescope , along with instruments at the W.M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility , to map out different isotopic forms of water in Mars 's atmosphere over a six - year period . Gallery ( edit ) Ice cap images This HiRISE image shows layers running roughly up and down , with faint polygonal fracturing ( mostly rectangular ) . South polar layers , as seen by THEMIS . Close - up of layers in wall of McMurdo crater , as seen by HiRISE . Layers exposed in a valley on the north polar ice cap as observed by Mars Odyssey . Click on image to enlarge to see clouds of dust caused by winds coming off the cap . Chasma Boreale streamlined feature , as seen by HiRISE . Chasma Boreale , as seen by HiRISE . Steep scarp , as seen by HiRISE . North polar layers on the side of a valley , as seen by HiRISE . Layers erode differently , depending on what direction they face . On one side they are straight , as if cut by a knife . Chasma Boreale channels , as seen by HiRISE . See also ( edit ) Carbon dioxide Climate of Mars Dorsa Argentea Formation Geyser ( Mars ) Mare Australe quadrangle Swiss cheese features Phoenix ( spacecraft ) SHARAD Sublimation External links ( edit ) http://seg.org/podcast/Post/4604/Episode-10-Remote-sensing-on-Mars Podcast describing the use of SHARAD radar data to explore the ice caps https://sharad.psi.edu/~than/SHARAD/3D/movies/SHARAD_PB3D_depth_20161223.mp4 High - resolution movie showing the interior of the north polar ice cap in 3D , as determined with SHARAD radar data https://sharad.psi.edu/~than/SHARAD/3D/movies/SHARAD_PA3D_depth_20170105.mp4 High - resolution movie showing the interior of the south polar ice cap in 3D , as determined with SHARAD radar data References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mellon , J.T. ; Feldman , W.C. ; Prettyman , T.H. ( 2003 ) . `` The presence and stability of ground ice in the southern hemisphere of Mars '' . Icarus . 169 ( 2 ) : 324 -- 340 . Bibcode : 2004Icar ... 169 ... 324M . doi : 10.1016 / j. icarus. 2003.10. 022 . Jump up ^ Hess , S. ; Henry , R. ; Tillman , J. ( 1979 ) . `` The seasonal variation of atmospheric pressure on Mars as affected by the south polar cap '' . Journal of Geophysical Research . 84 : 2923 -- 2927 . Bibcode : 1979JGR ... 84.2923 H . doi : 10.1029 / JB084iB06p02923 . Jump up ^ `` Mars Rovers Spot Water - Clue Mineral , Frost , Clouds '' . NASA . December 13 , 2004 . Retrieved 2006 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ Darling , David . `` Mars , polar caps '' . Encyclopedia of Astrobiology , Astronomy , and Spaceflight . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` MIRA 's Field Trips to the Stars Internet Education Program '' . Mira. or . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ Carr , Michael H. ; Head , James W. ( 2003 ) . `` Oceans on Mars : An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate '' . Journal of Geophysical Research . 108 ( 5042 ) : 24 . Bibcode : 2003JGRE ... 108.5042 C . doi : 10.1029 / 2002JE001963 . Jump up ^ Phillips , Tony . `` Mars is Melting , Science at NASA '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 02 - 24 . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ Plaut , J.J. ; et al. ( 2007 ) . `` Subsurface Radar Sounding of the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars '' . Science . 316 ( 5821 ) : 92 -- 5 . Bibcode : 2007Sci ... 316 ... 92P . PMID 17363628 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1139672 . Jump up ^ Smith , Isaac B. ; Holt , J.W. ( 2010 ) . `` Onset and migration of spiral troughs on Mars revealed by orbital radar '' . Nature . 465 ( 4 ) : 450 -- 453 . Bibcode : 2010Natur. 465 ... 450S . PMID 20505722 . doi : 10.1038 / nature09049 . Jump up ^ `` Mystery Spirals on Mars Finally Explained '' . Space.com. 26 May 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` NASA Findings Suggest Jets Bursting From Martian Ice Cap '' . Jet Propulsion Laboratory . NASA . August 16 , 2006 . Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 11 . Jump up ^ Kieffer , H.H. ( 2000 ) . `` Annual Punctuated CO2 Slab - ice and Jets on Mars '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 06 . Jump up ^ G. Portyankina , ed. ( 2006 ) . `` Simulations of Geyser - type Eruptions in Cryptic Region of Martian South '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 11 . Jump up ^ Kieffer , Hugh H. ; Christensen , Philip R. ; Titus , Timothy N. ( May 30 , 2006 ) . `` CO2 jets formed by sublimation beneath translucent slab ice in Mars ' seasonal south polar ice cap '' . Nature . 442 ( 7104 ) : 793 -- 796 . Bibcode : 2006Natur. 442 ... 793K . PMID 16915284 . doi : 10.1038 / nature04945 . Jump up ^ Steigerwald , Bill ( March 2016 ) . `` New gravity map gives best view yet inside Mars '' . NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center . Sciencedaily.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ Genova , Antonio ; Goossens , Sander ; et al. ( July 2016 ) , `` Seasonal and static gravity field of Mars from MGS , Mars Odyssey and MRO radio science '' , Icarus , 272 : 228 -- 245 , Bibcode : 2016Icar ... 272 ... 228G , doi : 10.1016 / j. icarus. 2016.02. 050 ^ Jump up to : http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mars/places/mars_polar_regions.html&edu=high ^ Jump up to : Barlow , Nadine G. ( 2008 ) . Mars : an introduction to its interior , surface and atmosphere . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . pp. . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 85226 - 5 . Jump up ^ Laser Altimeter Provides First Measurements of Seasonal Snow Depth on Mars . December 06 , 2001 . Jump up ^ Faure , Gunter ; Mensing , Teresa M. ( 2007 - 05 - 04 ) . Introduction to Planetary Science : The Geological Perspective . Springer Science & Business Media . ISBN 9781402055447 . Jump up ^ Fishbaugh , K. ( 2001 ) . `` Comparison of the North and South Polar Caps of Mars : New Observations from MOLA Data and Discussion of Some Outstanding Questions '' . 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