Hydrogen bond - wikipedia Hydrogen bond Jump to : navigation , search AFM image of napthalenetetracarboxylic dimide molecules on silver - terminated silicon , interacting via hydrogen bonding , taken at 77 K. ( `` Hydrogen bonds '' in the top image are exaggerated by artifacts of the imaging technique . ) Model of hydrogen bonds ( 1 ) between molecules of water A hydrogen bond is an electrostatic attraction between two polar groups that occurs when a hydrogen ( H ) atom , covalently bound to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen ( N ) , oxygen ( O ) , or fluorine ( F ) , experiences the electrostatic field of another highly electronegative atom nearby . Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules ( intermolecular ) or within different parts of a single molecule ( intramolecular ) . Depending on the nature of the donor and acceptor atoms which constitute the bond , their geometry , and environment , the energy of a hydrogen bond can vary between 1 and 40 kcal / mol . This makes them somewhat stronger than a van der Waals interaction , and weaker than covalent or ionic bonds . This type of bond can occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins . Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water ( 100 ° C ) compared to the other group 16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen bonds . Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids . It also plays an important role in the structure of polymers , both synthetic and natural . In 2011 , an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence - based definition of hydrogen bonding , which was published in the IUPAC journal Pure and Applied Chemistry . This definition specifies : The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen atom from a molecule or a molecular fragment X -- H in which X is more electronegative than H , and an atom or a group of atoms in the same or a different molecule , in which there is evidence of bond formation . An accompanying detailed technical report provides the rationale behind the new definition . Recent work proves that the hydrogen bond ( O : H-O ) integrates both the inter-molecular O : H lone pair `` : '' nonbond and the intra-molecular H-O polar - covalent bond associated with O-O repulsive coupling . Contents ( hide ) 1 Bonding 2 History 3 Hydrogen bonds in water 3.1 Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water 4 Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins 5 Hydrogen bonds in polymers 6 Symmetric hydrogen bond 7 Dihydrogen bond 8 Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond 9 Dynamics probed by spectroscopic means 10 Hydrogen bonding phenomena 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Bonding ( edit ) An example of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in a self - assembled dimer complex reported by Meijer and coworkers . The hydrogen bonds are represented by dotted lines . Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in acetylacetone helps stabilize the enol tautomer . A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom will play the role of the hydrogen bond donor . This electronegative atom is usually fluorine , oxygen , or nitrogen . A hydrogen attached to carbon can also participate in hydrogen bonding when the carbon atom is bound to electronegative atoms , as is the case in chloroform , CHCl . An example of a hydrogen bond donor is the hydrogen from the hydroxyl group of ethanol , which is bonded to an oxygen . In a hydrogen bond , the electronegative atom not covalently attached to the hydrogen is named proton acceptor , whereas the one covalently bound to the hydrogen is named the proton donor . Examples of hydrogen bond donating ( donors ) and hydrogen bond accepting groups ( acceptors ) Cyclic dimer of acetic acid ; dashed green lines represent hydrogen bonds In the donor molecule , the electronegative atom attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus of the donor , and , by decentralizing the cloud , leaves the atom with a positive partial charge . Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules , the resulting charge , though only partial , represents a large charge density . A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a lone pair of electrons on another heteroatom , which then becomes the hydrogen - bond acceptor . The hydrogen bond is often described as an electrostatic dipole - dipole interaction . However , it also has some features of covalent bonding : it is directional and strong , produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum of the van der Waals radii , and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners , which can be interpreted as a type of valence . These covalent features are more substantial when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors . The partially covalent nature of a hydrogen bond raises the following questions : `` To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen nucleus belong ? '' and `` Which should be labeled ' donor ' and which ' acceptor ' ? '' Usually , this is simple to determine on the basis of interatomic distances in the X − H Y system , where the dots represent the hydrogen bond : the X − H distance is typically ≈ 110 pm , whereas the H Y distance is ≈ 160 to 200 pm . Liquids that display hydrogen bonding ( such as water ) are called associated liquids . Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak ( 1 -- 2 kJ mol ) to extremely strong ( 161.5 kJ mol in the ion HF − 2 ) . Typical enthalpies in vapor include : F − H : F ( 161.5 kJ / mol or 38.6 kcal / mol ) O − H : N ( 29 kJ / mol or 6.9 kcal / mol ) O − H : O ( 21 kJ / mol or 5.0 kcal / mol ) N − H : N ( 13 kJ / mol or 3.1 kcal / mol ) N − H : O ( 8 kJ / mol or 1.9 kcal / mol ) HO − H : OH + 3 ( 18 kJ / mol or 4.3 kcal / mol ; data obtained using molecular dynamics as detailed in the reference and should be compared to 7.9 kJ / mol for bulk water , obtained using the same molecular dynamics . ) Quantum chemical calculations of the relevant interresidue potential constants ( compliance constants ) revealed large differences between individual H bonds of the same type . For example , the central interresidue N − H N hydrogen bond between guanine and cytosine is much stronger in comparison to the N − H N bond between the adenine - thymine pair . The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength , temperature , and pressure . The bond strength itself is dependent on temperature , pressure , bond angle , and environment ( usually characterized by local dielectric constant ) . The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm . The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor . The following hydrogen bond angles between a hydrofluoric acid donor and various acceptors have been determined experimentally : Acceptor donor VSEPR geometry Angle ( ° ) HCN HF linear 180 H CO HF trigonal planar 120 H O HF pyramidal 46 H S HF pyramidal 89 SO HF trigonal 142 History ( edit ) In the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond , Linus Pauling credits T.S. Moore and T.F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond , in 1912 . Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide . The description of hydrogen bonding in its better - known setting , water , came some years later , in 1920 , from Latimer and Rodebush . In that paper , Latimer and Rodebush cite work by a fellow scientist at their laboratory , Maurice Loyal Huggins , saying , `` Mr. Huggins of this laboratory in some work as yet unpublished , has used the idea of a hydrogen kernel held between two atoms as a theory in regard to certain organic compounds . '' Hydrogen bonds in water ( edit ) Crystal structure of hexagonal ice . Gray dashed lines indicate hydrogen bonds The most ubiquitous and perhaps simplest example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules . In a discrete water molecule , there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom . Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them ; the simplest case , when only two molecules are present , is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system . When more molecules are present , as is the case with liquid water , more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons , each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule . This can repeat such that every water molecule is H - bonded with up to four other molecules , as shown in the figure ( two through its two lone pairs , and two through its two hydrogen atoms ) . Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice , helping to create an open hexagonal lattice . The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature ; thus , the solid phase of water floats on the liquid , unlike most other substances . Liquid water 's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form , relative to its low molecular mass . Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds , water has a very high boiling point , melting point , and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds . Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms , meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four . For example , hydrogen fluoride -- which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom -- can form only two bonds ; ( ammonia has the opposite problem : three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair ) . H − F H − F H − F The exact number of hydrogen bonds formed by a molecule of liquid water fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature . From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 ° C , it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds . At 100 ° C , this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density , while at 0 ° C , the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69 . A more recent study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds : 2.357 at 25 ° C. The differences may be due to the use of a different method for defining and counting the hydrogen bonds . Where the bond strengths are more equivalent , one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two polyatomic ions of opposite charge , specifically hydroxide ( OH ) and hydronium ( H O ) . ( Hydronium ions are also known as `` hydroxonium '' ions . ) H − O H O Indeed , in pure water under conditions of standard temperature and pressure , this latter formulation is applicable only rarely ; on average about one in every 5.5 × 10 molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule , in accordance with the value of the dissociation constant for water under such conditions . It is a crucial part of the uniqueness of water . Because water may form hydrogen bonds with solute proton donors and acceptors , it may competitively inhibit the formation of solute intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonds . Consequently , hydrogen bonds between or within solute molecules dissolved in water are almost always unfavorable relative to hydrogen bonds between water and the donors and acceptors for hydrogen bonds on those solutes . Hydrogen bonds between water molecules have an average lifetime of 10 seconds , or 10 picoseconds . Bifurcated and overcoordinated hydrogen bonds in water ( edit ) A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds , rather than one . This type of bonding is called `` bifurcated '' ( split in two or `` two - forked '' ) . It can exist , for instance , in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules . It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation . Acceptor - type hydrogen bonds ( terminating on an oxygen 's lone pairs ) are more likely to form bifurcation ( it is called overcoordinated oxygen , OCO ) than are donor - type hydrogen bonds , beginning on the same oxygen 's hydrogens . Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins ( edit ) The structure of part of a DNA double helix Hydrogen bonding between guanine and cytosine , one of two types of base pairs in DNA Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three - dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases . In these macromolecules , bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape , which helps determine the molecule 's physiological or biochemical role . For example , the double helical structure of DNA is due largely to hydrogen bonding between its base pairs ( as well as pi stacking interactions ) , which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication . In the secondary structure of proteins , hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens . When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions i and i + 4 , an alpha helix is formed . When the spacing is less , between positions i and i + 3 , then a 3 helix is formed . When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand , a beta sheet is formed . Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R - groups . ( See also protein folding ) . The role of hydrogen bonds in protein folding has also been linked to osmolyte - induced protein stabilization . Protective osmolytes , such as trehalose and sorbitol , shift the protein folding equilibrium toward the folded state , in a concentration dependent manner . While the prevalent explanation for osmolyte action relies on excluded volume effects , that are entropic in nature , recent circular dichroism ( CD ) experiments have shown osmolyte to act through an enthalpic effect . The molecular mechanism for their role in protein stabilization is still not well established , though several mechanism have been proposed . Recently , computer molecular dynamics simulations suggested that osmolytes stabilize proteins by modifying the hydrogen bonds in the protein hydration layer . Several studies have shown that hydrogen bonds play an important role for the stability between subunits in multimeric proteins . For example , a study of sorbitol dehydrogenase displayed an important hydrogen bonding network which stabilizes the tetrameric quaternary structure within the mammalian sorbitol dehydrogenase protein family . A protein backbone hydrogen bond incompletely shielded from water attack is a dehydron . Dehydrons promote the removal of water through proteins or ligand binding . The exogenous dehydration enhances the electrostatic interaction between the amide and carbonyl groups by de-shielding their partial charges . Furthermore , the dehydration stabilizes the hydrogen bond by destabilizing the nonbonded state consisting of dehydrated isolated charges . Hydrogen bonds in polymers ( edit ) Para-aramid structure A strand of cellulose ( conformation I ) , showing the hydrogen bonds ( dashed ) within and between cellulose molecules Many polymers are strengthened by hydrogen bonds in their main chains . Among the synthetic polymers , the best known example is nylon , where hydrogen bonds occur in the repeat unit and play a major role in crystallization of the material . The bonds occur between carbonyl and amine groups in the amide repeat unit . They effectively link adjacent chains to create crystals , which help reinforce the material . The effect is greatest in aramid fibre , where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear chains laterally . The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis , making the fibres extremely stiff and strong . Hydrogen bonds are also important in the structure of cellulose and derived polymers in its many different forms in nature , such as wood and natural fibres such as cotton and flax . The hydrogen - bond networks make both natural and synthetic polymers sensitive to humidity levels in the atmosphere because water molecules can diffuse into the surface and disrupt the network . Some polymers are more sensitive than others . Thus nylons are more sensitive than aramids , and nylon 6 more sensitive than nylon - 11 . Symmetric hydrogen bond ( edit ) A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms . The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal . It is an example of a three - center four - electron bond . This type of bond is much stronger than a `` normal '' hydrogen bond . The effective bond order is 0.5 , so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond . It is seen in ice at high pressure , and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure . It is also seen in the bifluoride ion ( F − H − F ) . Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure ( > GPa ) . Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one . Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure ( Ice X ) . Low - barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small . Dihydrogen bond ( edit ) The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond , which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms . These structures have been known for some time , and well characterized by crystallography ; however , an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond , ionic bond , and covalent bond remains unclear . Generally , the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms ( most notably in the nitrogen , and chalcogen groups ) . In some cases , these proton acceptors may be pi - bonds or metal complexes . In the dihydrogen bond , however , a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor , thus forming a hydrogen - hydrogen interaction . Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds , in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex / hydrogen donor system . Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond ( edit ) In 1999 , Isaacs et al. showed from interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent . However , this interpretation was challenged by Ghanty et al. , who concluded that considering electrostatic forces alone could explain the experimental results . Some NMR data on hydrogen bonds in proteins also indicate covalent bonding . Most generally , the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric - dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds . This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of , for example , covalent or ionic bonds ; however , hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon , since the interaction energy has a net negative sum . The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature . This remained a controversial conclusion until the late 1990s when NMR techniques were employed by F. Cordier et al. to transfer information between hydrogen - bonded nuclei , a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character . While much experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in water , for example , that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and molecular thermodynamics , the kinetic and dynamical properties of the hydrogen bond in dynamic systems remain unchanged . O : H-O bond cooperativity : Since 2012 , Sun et al proposed and intensively verified that the hydrogen bond ( O : H-O ) performs like an asymmetrical , short range , coupled oscillator pair . The O : H-O bond segmental disparity and the O-O repulsivity form the soul dictating the extraordinary adaptivity , cooperativity , recoverability , and sensitivity of water and ice . Under external excitation , the oxygen anions dislocate in the same direction but by different amounts along the O : H-O with respect to the H+ as the coordination origin . The O : H always relaxes more than the H-O in length . This theory has enabled resolution of multiple mysteries of water and ice . Dynamics probed by spectroscopic means ( edit ) The dynamics of hydrogen bond structures in water can be probed by the IR spectrum of OH stretching vibration . In the hydrogen bonding network in protic organic ionic plastic crystals ( POIPCs ) , which are a type of phase change material exhibiting solid - solid phase transitions prior to melting , variable - temperature infrared spectroscopy can reveal the temperature dependence of hydrogen bonds and the dynamics of both the anions and the cations . The sudden weakening of hydrogen bonds during the solid - solid phase transition seems to be coupled with the onset of orientational or rotational disorder of the ions . Hydrogen bonding phenomena ( edit ) Dramatically higher boiling points of NH , H O , and HF compared to the heavier analogues PH , H S , and HCl . Increase in the melting point , boiling point , solubility , and viscosity of many compounds can be explained by the concept of hydrogen bonding . Occurrence of proton tunneling during DNA replication is believed to be responsible for cell mutations . Viscosity of anhydrous phosphoric acid and of glycerol Dimer formation in carboxylic acids and hexamer formation in hydrogen fluoride , which occur even in the gas phase , resulting in gross deviations from the ideal gas law . Pentamer formation of water and alcohols in apolar solvents . High water solubility of many compounds such as ammonia is explained by hydrogen bonding with water molecules . Negative azeotropy of mixtures of HF and water Deliquescence of NaOH is caused in part by reaction of OH with moisture to form hydrogen - bonded H 3O − 2 species . An analogous process happens between NaNH and NH , and between NaF and HF . The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water is due to a crystal structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds . The presence of hydrogen bonds can cause an anomaly in the normal succession of states of matter for certain mixtures of chemical compounds as temperature increases or decreases . These compounds can be liquid until a certain temperature , then solid even as the temperature increases , and finally liquid again as the temperature rises over the `` anomaly interval '' Smart rubber utilizes hydrogen bonding as its sole means of bonding , so that it can `` heal '' when torn , because hydrogen bonding can occur on the fly between two surfaces of the same polymer . Strength of nylon and cellulose fibres . Wool , being a protein fibre , is held together by hydrogen bonds , causing wool to recoil when stretched . 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Jump up ^ Sun , C.Q. , et al. , Density , Elasticity , and Stability Anomalies of Water Molecules with Fewer than Four Neighbors . Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters , 2013 . 4 : p. 2565 - 2570 . Jump up ^ Sun , C.Q. , X . Zhang , and W.T. Zheng , Hidden force opposing ice compression . Chem Sci , 2012 . 3 : p. 1455 - 1460 . Jump up ^ Sun , C.Q. , et al. , Density and phonon - stiffness anomalies of water and ice in the full temperature range . Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters , 2013 . 4 : p. 3238 - 3244 . Jump up ^ Sun , C.Q. and Y. Sun , The Attribute of Water : Single Notion , Multiple Myths . Springer Ser . Chem. Phys . Vol. 113 . 2016 , Heidelberg : Springer - Verlag. 494 pp . Jump up ^ Huang , Y. , et al. , Hydrogen Bond Asymmetric Local Potentials in Compressed Ice . Journal of Physical Chemistry B , 2013 . 117 ( 43 ) : p. 13639 - 13645 . Jump up ^ Huang , Y.L. , et al. , Potential Paths for the Hydrogen - Bond Relaxing with ( H2O ) ( N ) Cluster Size . Journal of Physical Chemistry C , 2015 . 119 ( 29 ) : p. 16962 - 16971 . Jump up ^ Huang , Y.L. , et al. , Huang , Y.L. , et al. , Hydrogen - bond relaxation dynamics : Resolving mysteries of water ice . Coordination Chemistry Reviews , 2015 . 285 : p. 109 - 165 . Jump up ^ Zhang , X. , et al. , Water 's phase diagram : from the notion of thermodynamics to hydrogen - bond cooperativity . Progress in Solid State Chemistry , 2015 . 43 : p. 71 - 81 . Jump up ^ Cowan ML ; Bruner BD ; Huse N ; et al. ( 2005 ) . `` Ultrafast memory loss and energy redistribution in the hydrogen bond network of liquid H O '' . Nature . 434 ( 7030 ) : 199 -- 202 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 434 ... 199C . doi : 10.1038 / nature03383 . PMID 15758995 . ^ Jump up to : Luo , Jiangshui ; Jensen , Annemette H. ; Brooks , Neil R. ; Sniekers , Jeroen ; Knipper , Martin ; Aili , David ; Li , Qingfeng ; Vanroy , Bram ; Wübbenhorst , Michael ; Yan , Feng ; Van Meervelt , Luc ; Shao , Zhigang ; Fang , Jianhua ; Luo , Zheng - Hong ; De Vos , Dirk E. ; Binnemans , Koen ; Fransaer , Jan ( 2015 ) . `` 1 , 2 , 4 - Triazolium perfluorobutanesulfonate as an archetypal pure protic organic ionic plastic crystal electrolyte for all - solid - state fuel cells '' . Energy & Environmental Science . 8 ( 4 ) : 1276 . doi : 10.1039 / C4EE02280G . Jump up ^ Löwdin , P.O. ( 1963 ) . `` Proton Tunneling in DNA and its Biological Implications '' . Rev. Mod . Phys. 35 ( 3 ) : 724 . Bibcode : 1963RvMP ... 35 ... 724L . doi : 10.1103 / RevModPhys. 35.724 . Jump up ^ Law - breaking liquid defies the rules . Physicsworld.com ( September 24 , 2004 ) Further reading ( edit ) George A. Jeffrey . An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding ( Topics in Physical Chemistry ) . Oxford University Press , USA ( March 13 , 1997 ) . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509549 - 9 Chang Q Sun and Yi SunThe Attribute of Water : Single Notion , Multiple Myths ... Springer - Verlag , USA ( March , 2016 ) . ISBN 978 - 981 - 10 - 0178 - 9 External links ( edit ) The Bubble Wall ( Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory explaining cohesion , surface tension and hydrogen bonds ) isotopic effect on bond dynamics ( hide ) Chemical bonds Intramolecular ( strong ) Covalent By symmetry Sigma ( σ ) Pi ( π ) Delta ( δ ) Phi ( φ ) By multiplicity 1 ( single ) 2 ( double ) 3 ( triple ) 4 ( quadruple ) 5 ( quintuple ) 6 ( sextuple ) Miscellaneous Agostic Bent Coordinate ( dipolar ) Pi backbond Charge - shift Hapticity Conjugation Hyperconjugation Antibonding Resonant Electron deficiency 3c -- 2e 4c -- 2e Hypercoordination 3c -- 4e Aromaticity möbius super sigma homo spiro σ - bishomo spherical Y - Metallic Metal aromaticity Ionic Intramolecular ( weak ) van der Waals forces London dispersion Hydrogen Low - barrier Resonance - assisted Symmetric Dihydrogen bonds C -- H O interaction Noncovalent other Mechanical Halogen Chalcogen Aurophilicity Intercalation Stacking Cation -- pi Anion -- pi Salt bridge Intermolecular ( weak ) van der Waals forces London dispersion Hydrogen Low - barrier Resonance - assisted Symmetric Dihydrogen bonds C -- H O interaction Noncovalent other Mechanical Halogen Chalcogen Aurophilicity Intercalation Stacking Cation -- pi Anion -- pi Salt bridge NDL : 00571632 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_bond&oldid=818985810 '' Categories : Chemical bonding Hydrogen physics Supramolecular chemistry Intermolecular forces Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Aragonés Azərbaycanca Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Latviešu Македонски മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2018 , at 18 : 59 . 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Question: other than water what else has hydrogen bonds


Human hair color - wikipedia Human hair color Jump to : navigation , search `` Hair color '' redirects here . For hair color of horses , see Equine coat color . For hair colorants , see Hair coloring . A variety of the human hair colors . From top left , clockwise : black , brown , blonde , white , red . Hair color is the pigmentation of hair follicles due to two types of melanin : eumelanin and pheomelanin . Generally , if more eumelanin is present , the color of the hair is darker ; if less eumelanin is present , the hair is lighter . The darker a person 's natural hair color is , the more individual hair follicles they have on their scalp . Levels of melanin can vary over time causing a person 's hair color to change , and it is possible to have hair follicles of more than one color on the same person . Particular hair colors are associated with ethnic groups . Gray or white hair is associated with age . The Fischer -- Saller scale , named after Eugen Fischer and Karl Saller ( de ) , is used in physical anthropology and medicine to determine the shades of hair color . The scale uses the following designations : A ( very light blond ) , B to E ( light blond ) , F to L ( blond ) , M to O ( dark blond ) , P to T ( light brown to brown ) , U to Y ( dark brown / black ) and Roman numerals I to IV ( red ) and V to VI ( red blond ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Genetics and biochemistry of hair color 2 Natural hair colors 2.1 Image gallery 2.2 Black hair 2.3 Brown hair 2.4 Blond hair 2.5 Auburn hair 2.6 Red hair 2.7 Gray and white hair 3 Conditions affecting hair color 3.1 Aging or achromotrichia 3.2 Stress 3.3 Medical conditions 3.4 Artificial factors 3.5 Changes after death 4 Hair coloring 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Genetics and biochemistry of hair color ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Human genetic variation , Race and genetics , and Human genetic clustering Two types of pigment give hair its color : eumelanin and pheomelanin . Pheomelanin colors hair orange and red . All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair . Eumelanin , which has two subtypes of black or brown , determines the darkness of the hair color . A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair , whereas a higher concentration of brown eumelanin results in brown hair . High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair , while low concentrations result in white hair . Pheomelanin is more bio-chemically stable than black eumelanin , but less bio-chemically stable than brown eumelanin , so it breaks down more slowly when oxidized . This is why bleach gives darker hair a reddish tinge during the artificial coloring process . As the pheomelanin continues to break down , the hair will gradually become red , then orange , then yellow , and finally white . The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established . According to one theory , at least two gene pairs control human hair color . One phenotype ( brown / blonde ) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele . A person with a brown allele will have brown hair ; a person with no brown alleles will be blond . This explains why two brown - haired parents can produce a blond - haired child . However , this can only be possible if both parent are heterozygous in hair color - meaning that both of them have one dominant brown hair allele and one recessive allele for blond hair , but as dominant traits mask recessive ones the parents both have brown hair . The possibility of which trait may appear in an offspring can be determined with a Punnett square . The other gene pair is a non-red / red pair , where the non-red allele ( which suppresses production of pheomelanin ) is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive . A person with two copies of the red - haired allele will have red hair . The two - gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown , blond , or red ( for example , platinum blond versus dark blond / light brown ) , nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages . Several gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect . A person 's genotype for a multifactorial trait can interact with the environment to produce varying phenotypes ( see quantitative trait locus ) . Natural hair colors ( edit ) Natural hair color can be black , blond , brown , red , or white ; all natural hair colors including grey , white and lightest blond , are shades of brown . Image gallery ( edit ) Black hair Natural black hair Deepest brunette hair Dark brown hair Medium brown hair Lightest brown hair Natural brown hair Light brown hair Chestnut brown hair Light chestnut brown hair Auburn hair Copper hair Red hair Titian hair Strawberry blond hair Light blonde hair Dark blond hair Golden blond hair Medium blond hair Grey hair White hair White hair caused by albinism Black hair ( edit ) Main article : Black hair Black hair is the darkest hair color . It has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors . Brown hair ( edit ) Main article : Brown hair Brown hair is characterized by higher levels of eumelanin and lower levels of pheomelanin . Of the two types of eumelanin ( black and brown ) , brown - haired people have brown eumelanin ; they also usually have medium - thick strands of hair . Brown - haired girls or women are often known as brunette . Chestnut hair is a hair color which is a reddish shade of brown hair . In contrast to auburn hair , the reddish shade of chestnut is darker . Chestnut hair is common among the native peoples of Northern , Central , Western , and Eastern Europe . Blond hair ( edit ) Main article : Blond Blond ( or blonde for women ) hair ranges from nearly white ( platinum blond , tow - haired ) to a dark golden blonde . Strawberry blond , a mixture of blond and red hair , is a much rarer type containing the most pheomelanin . Blond hair can have almost any proportion of pheomelanin and eumelanin , but has only small amounts of both . More pheomelanin creates a more golden or strawberry blond color , and more eumelanin creates an ash or sandy blond color . Many children born with blond hair develop darker hair as they age , with the majority of natural blonds developing a hair color of a dark blond hue by the time they reach middle age . Pregnancy hormones hasten this process . Natural light blond hair is rare in adulthood , with claims of the world 's population ranging from 2 % naturally blond to 16 % in the US . Blond hair is most commonly found in Northern and Western Europeans and their descendants but can be found spread around most of Europe . Studies in 2012 showed that naturally blond hair of Melanesians is caused by a recessive mutation in tyrosinase - related protein 1 ( TYRP1 ) . In the Solomon Islands , 26 % of the population carry the gene ; however , it is absent outside of Oceania . Auburn hair ( edit ) Main article : Auburn hair Auburn hair ranges along a spectrum of light to dark red - brown shades . The chemicals which cause auburn hair are eumelanin ( brown ) and pheomelanin ( red ) , with a higher proportion of red - causing pheomelanin than is found in average brown hair . It is most commonly found in individuals of Northern and Western European descent . Red hair ( edit ) Main article : Red hair Red hair ranges from light strawberry blond shades to titian , copper and less commonly `` true '' red . It is caused by a variation in the Mc1r gene and is recessive . Red hair has the highest amounts of pheomelanin , around 67 % , and usually low levels of eumelanin . At 1 -- 2 % of the population , it is the least common hair color in the world . It is most prominently found in the British Isles . Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads ; 13 percent of the population has red hair and approximately 40 percent carries the recessive redhead gene . Gray and white hair ( edit ) `` White hair '' redirects here . For the Native American leader , see White Hair . For the fictional character , see Whitehair . Gray or white hair -- sometimes colloquially called `` salt and pepper '' when it is ' peppered ' throughout dark hair -- is not caused by a true gray or white pigment , but is due to a lack of pigmentation and melanin . The clear hairs appear as gray or white because of the way light is reflected from the hairs . Gray hair color typically occurs naturally as people age ( see Aging or achromotrichia below ) . For some people this can happen at a very young age , even as young as 10 . In some cases , gray hair may be caused by thyroid deficiencies , Waardenburg syndrome or a vitamin B deficiency . At some point in the human life cycle , cells that are located in the base of the hair 's follicles slow , and eventually stop producing pigment . Piebaldism is a rare autosomal dominant disorder of melanocyte development , which may cause a congenital white forelock . Caucasian people often begin to grow gray hairs in their mid-thirties while Asian people begin graying in their late thirties , but most African people retain their original hair color until their mid-forties . Graying is a gradual process ; according to a study by L'Oreal , overall , of those between 45 and 65 years old , 74 per cent had some grey hair , covering an average of 27 per cent of their head , and approximately 1 in 10 people had no gray hairs even after the age of 60 . Conditions affecting hair color ( edit ) Aging or achromotrichia ( edit ) Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow . Many blond , light brown , or red haired infants experience this . This is caused by genes being turned off and on during early childhood and puberty . Changes in hair color typically occur naturally as people age , eventually turning the hair gray and then white . This is called achromotrichia . Achromotrichia normally begins in the early to mid-twenties in men and late twenties in women . More than 60 percent of Americans have some gray hair by age 40 . The age at which graying begins seems almost entirely due to genetics . Sometimes people are born with gray hair because they inherit the trait . The order in which graying happens is usually : nose hair , hair on the head , beard , body hair , eyebrows . In non-balding individuals hair may grow faster once it turns gray . Several genes appear to be responsible for the process of graying . Bcl2 and Bcl - w were the first two discovered , then in 2016 , the IRF4 ( interferon regulatory factor 4 ) gene was announced after a study of 6,000 people living in five Latin American countries . However , it found that environmental factors controlled about 70 % of cases of hair graying . The change in hair color occurs when melanin ceases to be produced in the hair root and new hairs grow in without pigment . The stem cells at the base of hair follicles produce melanocytes , the cells that produce and store pigment in hair and skin . The death of the melanocyte stem cells causes the onset of graying . It remains unclear why the stem cells of one hair follicle may die well over a decade before those in adjacent follicles less than a millimeter apart . Graying of hair may be triggered by the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide . Abnormally low levels of the enzyme catalase , which breaks down hydrogen peroxide and relieves oxidative stress in patients suffering from vitiligo . Since vitiligo can cause eyelashes to turn white , the same process is believed to be involved in hair on the head ( and elsewhere ) due to aging . The anti-cancer drug imatinib has recently been shown to reverse the graying process . However , it is expensive and has potentially severe and deadly side effects , so it is not practical to use to alter a person 's hair color . Nevertheless , if the mechanism of action of imatinib on melanocyte stem cells can be discovered , it is possible that a safer and less expensive substitute drug might someday be developed . It is not yet known whether imatinib has an effect on catalase , or if its reversal of the graying process is due to something else . Stress ( edit ) Anecdotes report that stress , both chronic and acute , may induce achromotrichia earlier in individuals than it otherwise would have . Proponents point to survivors of disasters , such as Titanic survivor Harold Bride , or high - level politicians such as Bill Clinton or Barack Obama . There is some evidence for chronic stress causing premature achromotrichia , but no definite link has been established . It is known that the stress hormone cortisol accumulates in human hair over time , but whether this has any effect on hair color has not yet been resolved . Medical conditions ( edit ) Albinism is a genetic abnormality in which little or no pigment is found in human hair , eyes , and skin . The hair is often white or pale blond . However , it can be red , darker blond , light brown , or rarely , even dark brown . Vitiligo is a patchy loss of hair and skin color that may occur as the result of an auto - immune disease . In a preliminary 2013 study , researchers treated the buildup of hydrogen peroxide which causes this with a light - activated pseudo-catalase . This produced significant media coverage that further investigation may someday lead to a general non-dye treatment for grey hair . Malnutrition is also known to cause hair to become lighter , thinner , and more brittle . Dark hair may turn reddish or blondish due to the decreased production of melanin . The condition is reversible with proper nutrition . Werner syndrome and pernicious anemia can also cause premature graying . A 2005 uncontrolled study demonstrated that people 50 -- 70 years of age with dark eyebrows but gray hair are significantly more likely to have type II diabetes than those with both gray eyebrows and hair . Artificial factors ( edit ) A 1996 British Medical Journal study found that tobacco smoking may cause premature graying . Smokers were found to be four times more likely to begin graying prematurely , compared to nonsmokers . Gray hair may temporarily darken after inflammatory processes , after electron - beam - induced alopecia , and after some chemotherapy regimens . Much remains to be learned about the physiology of human graying . There are no special diets , nutritional supplements , vitamins , nor proteins that have been proven to slow , stop , or in any way affect the graying process , although many have been marketed over the years . However , French scientists treating leukemia patients with a new cancer drug noted an unexpected side effect : some of the patients ' hair color was restored to their pre-gray color . Changes after death ( edit ) The hair color of mummies or buried bodies can change . Hair contains a mixture of black - brown - yellow eumelanin and red pheomelanin . Eumelanin is less chemically stable than pheomelanin and breaks down faster when oxidized . It is for this reason that Egyptian mummies have reddish hair . The color of hair changes faster under extreme conditions . It changes more slowly under dry oxidizing conditions ( such as in burials in sand or in ice ) than under wet reducing conditions ( such as burials in wood or plaster coffins ) . Hair coloring ( edit ) Main article : Hair coloring A hairdresser colors a client 's hair . Hair color can be changed by a chemical process . Hair coloring is classed as `` permanent '' or `` semi-permanent '' . Permanent hair color means that the hair 's structure has been chemically altered until it is eventually cut away . This does not mean that the synthetic color will remain permanently . During the process , the natural color is removed , one or more shades , and synthetic color has been put in its place . All pigments wash out of the cuticle . Natural color stays in much longer and artificial will fade the fastest ( depending on the color molecules and the form of the dye pigments ) . Permanent hair color gives the most flexibility because it can make hair lighter or darker as well as changing tone and color , but there are negatives . Constant ( monthly or six - weekly ) maintenance is essential to match new hair growing in to the rest of the hair , and to remedy fading . A one - color permanent dye creates a flat , uniform color across the whole head , which can look unnatural and harsh , especially in a fair shade . To combat this , the modern trend is to use multiple colors -- usually one color as a base with added highlights or lowlights in other shades . Semi-permanent color washes out over a period of time -- typically four to six weeks , so root regrowth is less noticeable . The final color of each strand is affected by its original color and porosity , so there will be subtle variations in color across the head -- more natural and less harsh than a permanent dye . However , this means that gray and white hair will not dye to the same color as the rest of the head ( in fact , some white hair will not absorb the color at all ) . A few gray and white hairs will blend in sufficiently not to be noticeable , but as they become more widespread , there will come a point where a semi-permanent alone will not be enough . The move to 100 % permanent color can be delayed by using a semi-permanent as a base color , with permanent highlights . Semi-permanent hair color can not lighten hair . Hair can only be lightened using chemical lighteners , such as bleach . Bleaching is always permanent because it removes the natural pigment . `` Rinses '' are a form of temporary hair color , usually applied to hair during a shampoo and washed out again the next time the hair is washed . See also ( edit ) Human eye color Human skin color References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Change in Hair Pigmentation in Children from Birth to 5 Years in a European Population ( Longitudinal Study ) '' . Forensic Science Communications . Archived from the original on 2014 - 03 - 20 . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 19 . Jump up ^ Ito , S. ; Wakamatsu , K. ( 2011 ) . `` Diversity of human hair pigmentation as studied by chemical analysis of eumelanin and pheomelanin '' . Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 25 : 1369 -- 1380 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Race '' . Webspace.ship.edu . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Light - colored hair can be golden for women '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 13 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Melanesian blond hair is caused by an amino acid change in TYRP1 . Kenny EE , Timpson NJ , Sikora M , Yee MC , Moreno - Estrada A , Eng C , Huntsman S , Burchard EG , Stoneking M , Bustamante CD , Myles S ( May 2012 ) . `` Melanesian blond hair is caused by an amino acid change in TYRP1 '' . Science . 336 ( 6081 ) : 554 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1217849 . PMC 3481182 . PMID 22556244 . Jump up ^ In males , the supposedly recessive trait is often expressed in parts of the facial hair or beard . Valverde P , Healy E , Jackson I , Rees JL , Thody AJ ( November 1995 ) . `` Variants of the melanocyte - stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans '' . Nat . Genet. 11 ( 3 ) : 328 -- 30 . doi : 10.1038 / ng1195 - 328 . PMID 7581459 . Jump up ^ `` Scientists question whether rare reds are headed for extinction '' . Azcentral.com. 2005 - 05 - 05 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Genetics of Red Hair : What Causes Natural Red Hair ? '' . Brighthub.com. 2009 - 09 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Michigan twins featured in book about rare red hair '' . MLive.com . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Juangbhanich C , Nitidanhaprabhas P , Sirimachan S , Areekul S , Tanphaichitr VS ( June 1991 ) . `` Vitamin B deficiency : report of a childhood case '' . J Med Assoc Thai . 74 ( 6 ) : 348 -- 54 . PMID 1744541 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Weir , Sarah B. ( 2012 - 10 - 02 ) . `` Why does hair turn grey ? '' . Yahoo ! Lifestyle UK . Archived from the original on 2012 - 10 - 07 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ James , William ; Berger , Timothy ; Elston , Dirk ( 2005 ) . Andrews ' Diseases of the Skin : Clinical Dermatology . ( 10th ed . ) . Saunders . ISBN 0 - 7216 - 2921 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Premature Graying : Reasons , Options '' . WebMD . Jump up ^ Burford , Michelle ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` Gray Hair Myths and Facts '' . AOL Health . Archived from the original on 6 August 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2009 . Jump up ^ Copping , Jasper ( 30 September 2012 ) . `` Grey hair ' less prevalent than previously thought ' '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 22 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Giana , Bosa . `` What Causes Hair To Go White ? Let Us Find The Exact Reasons '' . gaizupath.com . Retrieved 16 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Understanding Genetics : Human Health and the Genome '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 24 . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Pandhi , D ; Khanna , D ( 2013 ) . `` Premature graying of hair '' . Indian journal of dermatology , venereology and leprology. 79 ( 5 ) : 641 -- 53 . doi : 10.4103 / 0378 - 6323.116733 . PMID 23974581 . Jump up ^ 鼻毛 に も 白髪 は 生える の ? ( in Japanese ) . Retrieved 3 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Ralph M Trüeb ( Jan -- Jun 2009 ) . `` Oxidative Stress in Ageing of Hair '' . Int J Trichology. 1 ( 1 ) : 6 . doi : 10.4103 / 0974 - 7753.51923 . PMC 2929555 . PMID 20805969 . Jump up ^ `` Research yields clues to why hair turns gray '' . Associated Press . Retrieved 5 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Carina Storrs , Special to CNN ( 1 March 2016 ) . `` First gray hair gene found , plucked out of research '' . CNN . Jump up ^ Nsikan Akpan ( 3 May 2013 ) . `` Cure For Gray Hair Is Almost Here , Vitiligo Study Claims '' . Medical Daily . Retrieved 17 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Etienne , Gabriel ; Cony - Makhoul , Pascale ; Mahon , François - Xavier ( 8 August 2002 ) . `` Imatinib Mesylate and Gray Hair '' . New England Journal of Medicine . 347 ( 6 ) : 446 -- 446 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJM200208083470614 . PMID 12167692 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cancer drug restores hair colour '' . BBC News . 2002 - 08 - 08 . Jump up ^ Saling , Joseph . `` The Effects of Stress on Your Hair '' . Web MD . Retrieved 14 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Ballantyne , Coco . `` Fact or Fiction ? : Stress Causes Grey Hair '' . Scientific American . Retrieved 14 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Robert Preidt ( 17 Apr 2013 ) . `` Seriously Stressed ? Hair Analysis Tells All , Study Finds '' . WebMD . Jump up ^ Bazian ( 7 May 2013 ) . `` No evidence of cure to prevent hair going grey '' . Filey and Hunmanby Mercury . Jump up ^ Department of Dermatology , Academic Teaching Hospital Dresden - Friedrichstadt ( 14 December 2005 ) . `` Eyebrow color in diabetics '' . Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Panonica Adriat. 14 ( 4 ) : 157 -- 60 . PMID 16435045 . Jump up ^ Mosley JG , Gibbs AC ( 1996 ) . `` Premature grey hair and hair loss among smokers : a new opportunity for health education ? '' . BMJ. 313 ( 7072 ) : 1616 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 313.7072. 1616 . PMC 2359122 . PMID 8991008 . Jump up ^ Cline DJ ( April 1988 ) . `` Changes in hair color '' . Dermatol Clin. 6 ( 2 ) : 295 -- 303 . PMID 3288386 . Jump up ^ `` Interactive Dig Hierakonpolis - Archaeological Hair '' . Archaeology.org . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Aguh , Crystal ; Okoye , Ginette ( 2016 - 12 - 06 ) . Fundamentals of Ethnic Hair : The Dermatologist 's Perspective . Springer . ISBN 9783319456959 . External links ( edit ) Media related to Human hair color at Wikimedia Commons Human hair List of hairstyles / facial hairstyles Classification by type Lanugo Androgenic Terminal Vellus by location Nose Ear Eyebrow Eyelash Underarm Chest Abdominal Pubic Leg Human hair color Hair color Black Blond Brown ( varieties : Chestnut Auburn ) Red ( varieties : Auburn Titian ) White / Grey Hair coloring Blue rinse Grecian Formula Hair dye stripping Hair highlighting Henna Hydrogen peroxide Blue hair Other Disappearing blonde gene Fischer -- Saller scale Fischer scale Melanocortin 1 receptor Hairstyles Afro Asymmetric cut Bald Bangs Beehive Big hair Blowout Bob cut Bouffant Bowl cut Braid or Plait Brush cut Bun ( odango ) Bunches Burr Businessman cut Butch cut Buzz cut Caesar cut Chignon Chonmage Chupryna Comb over Conk Cornrows Crew cut Crochet braids Croydon facelift Curly hair Curtained hair Devilock Dido flip Digital perm Dreadlocks Duck 's ass Extensions Feathered hair Finger wave Flattop Fontange French braid French twist Frosted tips Hair crimping Harvard clip High and tight Hime cut Historical Christian hairstyles Hi - top fade Induction cut Ivy League Jewfro Jheri curl Kinky hair Kiss curl Layered hair Liberty spikes Long hair Lob cut Marcelling Mod cut Mohawk Mullet 1950s 1980s Pageboy Part Payot Pigtail Pixie cut Pompadour Ponytail Punch perm Princeton Professional cut Queue Quiff Rattail Razor cut Regular haircut Regular taper cut Ringlets Shag ( Shaggy hair ) Shape - Up Shimada Short back and sides Short brush cut Short hair Spiky hair Straight hair Standard haircut Surfer hair Taper cut Tonsure Updo Undercut Waves Wings Facial hair Beard Chinstrap Designer stubble Goatee Moustache Fu Manchu handlebar horseshoe pencil toothbrush walrus Neckbeard Shenandoah ( Chin curtain ) Sideburns Soul patch Van Dyke Hair loss Cosmetic Removal waxing threading plucking chemical electric laser IPL Shaving head leg cream brush soap Razor electric safety straight other Alopecia areata totalis universalis Male - pattern hair loss Glabrousness Hypertrichosis Management Trichophilia Trichotillomania Pogonophobia Haircare Products Brush Clay Clipper Comb Conditioner Dryer Gel Hot comb Iron Mousse Pomade Relaxer Rollers Shampoo Spray Wax Haircare Techniques Backcombing Crimping Curly Girl Method Perm Shampoo and set Straightening Documentaries My Nappy Roots : A Journey Through Black Hair - itage ( 2008 ) Good Hair ( 2009 ) Related Topics Afro - textured hair ( Kinky hair ) Bearded lady Barber ( pole ) Eponymous hairstyle Frizz Good hair ( phrase ) Hairdresser Hair fetishism ( pubic ) Hair follicle Hair growth Hypertrichosis Trichotillomania Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_hair_color&oldid=815481267 '' Categories : Hair color Biological anthropology Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Interlanguage link template link number Articles needing additional references from December 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bosanski Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gàidhlig 贛 語 한국어 Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2017 , at 02 : 35 . 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Question: what percentage of the population is naturally blonde

from 2% naturally blond[3][self-published source] to 16% in the US


Alpine lake - wikipedia Alpine lake Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Alpine lake ( disambiguation ) . Alpine lakes and forest , Denali National Park , Alaska Alpine lakes are classified as lakes or reservoirs at high altitudes , usually starting around 5,000 feet ( 1524 metres ) in elevation above sea level or above the tree line . Alpine lakes are usually clearer than lakes at lower elevations due to the colder water which decreases the speed and amount of algae and moss growth in the water . Often these lakes are surrounded by varieties of pine trees , aspens , and other high altitude trees . Famous alpine lakes ( edit ) Lake Sevan , Armenia Crater Lake , USA Heaven Lake , North Korea / China Issyk Kul , Kyrgyzstan Lake Tahoe , USA Lake Titicaca , Peru / Bolivia ( Largest natural alpine lake in the world ) Yellowstone Lake , USA Lake Saiful Muluk , Pakistan Tenaya Lake , USA Lake Baikal , Russia Changu Lake , India 14,000 feet ASL See also ( edit ) Alpine tundra Alpine climate References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Ward , Henry B. ; Marsh , C. Dwight ; Birge , E.A. ( September 1904 ) . `` A Biological Reconnoissance of Some Elevated Lakes in the Sierras and the Rockies , with Reports on the Copepoda and on the Cladocera '' . Transactions of the American Microscopical Society . 25 : 127 . doi : 10.2307 / 3220874 . Jump up ^ Pérez , María Teresa ; Sommaruga , Ruben ( November 2006 ) . `` Differential effect of algal - and soil - derived dissolved organic matter on alpine lake bacterial community composition and activity '' . Limnology and Oceanography. 51 ( 6 ) : 2527 -- 2537 . doi : 10.4319 / lo. 2006.51. 6.2527 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alpine_lake&oldid=742101735 '' Categories : Montane ecology Lakes by type Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2016 Talk About Wikipedia Português Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 1 October 2016 , at 18 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: what is the definition of an alpine lake

lakes or reservoirs at high altitudes, usually starting around 5,000 feet (1524 metres) in elevation above sea level[1] or above the tree line


List of Miss America titleholders - Wikipedia List of Miss America titleholders Jump to : navigation , search Margaret Gorman , the first Miss America Pageant winner in 1921 Bess Myerson , Miss America 1945 Lee Meriwether Miss America 1955 Phyllis George , Miss America 1971 Vanessa L. Williams , Miss America 1984 Erika Harold , Miss America 2003 Nina Davuluri , Miss America 2014 Savvy Shields , Miss America 2017 Miss America is an annual competition open to women from the United States between the ages of 17 and 24 . Originating in 1921 as a beauty pageant , the competition now judges competitors ' talent performances and interviews in addition to their physical appearance . Contents ( hide ) 1 Winners 2 Winners by state 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Winners ( edit ) Year Crowned Winner State / District City Age Awards Talent Notes 1921 Sept. 8 , 1921 Gorman , Margaret Margaret Gorman District of Columbia Washington 16 Inter-City Beauty , Amateur Actually crowned `` The Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America '' ; was not titled `` Miss America '' in 1922 , when she returned to defend her title 1922 Sept. 7 , 1922 Campbell , Mary Mary Campbell Ohio Columbus 16 Only person to win twice ; also was 1st Runner - up at 1924 pageant 1923 Sept. 7 , 1923 17 1924 Sept. 6 , 1924 Malcomson , Ruth Ruth Malcomson Pennsylvania Philadelphia 18 1925 Sept. 11 , 1925 Lanphier , Fay Fay Lanphier California Oakland 19 1926 Sept. 10 , 1926 Smallwood , Norma Norma Smallwood Oklahoma Tulsa 18 Bather 's Revue Winner , Evening Gown Award 1927 Sept. 9 , 1927 Delander , Lois Lois Delander Illinois Joliet 17 1928 No pageants were held 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 Sept. 9 , 1933 Bergeron , Marian Marian Bergeron Connecticut West Haven 15 Prior to the organization 's change in age requirements , she became the youngest winner in history at the age of 151⁄2 . She held title for two years , since no competition was held in 1934 . To date , she is the only representative from a New England state to win . 1934 No pageant was held 1935 Sept. 7 , 1935 Leaver , Henrietta Henrietta Leaver Pennsylvania Pittsburgh 17 Vocal / Tap dance `` Living In a Great Big Way '' 1936 Sept. 12 , 1936 Coyle , Rose Rose Coyle Pennsylvania Philadelphia 22 Preliminary Talent Vocal / tap dance `` I Ca n't Escape From You '' & `` Truckin ' '' 1937 Sept. 11 , 1937 Cooper , Bette Bette Cooper New Jersey Bertrand Island 17 Evening Gown Award Vocal `` When the Poppies Bloom Again '' 1938 Sept. 10 , 1938 Meseke , Marilyn Marilyn Meseke Ohio Marion 21 Tap dance `` The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise '' Held the title of Miss Ohio twice ( 1931 & 1938 ) ; was 14 when she won the title Miss Ohio 1931 ( no Miss America competition in 1931 ) 1939 Sept. 9 , 1939 Donnelly , Patricia Patricia Donnelly Michigan Detroit 19 Vocal / Bass Fiddle `` To You '' & `` Ol ' Man Mose '' 1940 Sept. 7 , 1940 Burke , Frances Marie Frances Marie Burke Pennsylvania Philadelphia 19 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal / dance `` I Ca n't Love You Anymore '' 1941 Sept. 6 , 1941 LaPlanche , Rosemary Rosemary LaPlanche California Los Angeles 18 Preliminary Swimsuit Dance Placed 1st runner - up at Miss America 1940 ( Pageant now no longer allows contestants to compete for Miss America more than once ) 1942 Sept. 12 , 1942 Dennison , Jo - Carroll Jo - Carroll Dennison Texas Tyler 18 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Vocal / dance `` Deep in the Heart of Texas '' 1943 Sept. 11 , 1943 Bartel , Jean Jean Bartel California Los Angeles 19 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Vocal `` Night and Day '' 1944 Sept. 9 , 1944 Ramey , Venus Venus Ramey District of Columbia Washington 19 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Vocal / dance `` Take It Easy '' 1945 Sept. 8 , 1945 Myerson , Bess Bess Myerson New York New York City 21 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Piano & flute `` Piano Concerto In A Minor '' by Edvard Grieg & `` Summertime '' First Jewish - American Miss America First Miss New York crowned 1946 Sept. 7 , 1946 Buferd , Marilyn Marilyn Buferd California Los Angeles 21 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent ( tie ) Dramatic monologue Accent on Youth 1947 Sept. 6 , 1947 Walker , Barbara Jo Barbara Jo Walker Tennessee Memphis 21 Preliminary Talent Art display & vocal medley `` One Kiss '' & `` Un Bel Di '' from Madama Butterfly 1948 Sept. 11 , 1948 Shopp , BeBe BeBe Shopp Minnesota Hopkins 18 Preliminary Swimsuit Vibraharp `` Caprice Viennois '' by Fritz Kreisler 1949 Sept. 10 , 1949 Mercer , Jacque Jacque Mercer Arizona Litchfield Park 18 Preliminary Swimsuit ( tie ) , Preliminary Talent Dramatic reading Romeo and Juliet 1951 Sept. 9 , 1950 Betbeze , Yolande Yolande Betbeze Alabama Mobile 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Classical vocal `` Caro Nome '' from Rigoletto She is the reason for the creation of Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants 1952 Sept. 8 , 1951 Hutchins , Colleen Kay Colleen Kay Hutchins Utah Salt Lake City 25 Preliminary Talent Dramatic monologue `` Elizabeth the Queen '' by Maxwell Anderson 1953 Sept. 6 , 1952 Langley , Neva Jane Neva Jane Langley Georgia Macon 19 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Classical piano `` Toccata '' 1954 Sept. 12 , 1953 Ay , Evelyn Margaret Evelyn Margaret Ay Pennsylvania Ephrata 20 Preliminary Swimsuit Poetry recitation `` Footsteps '' from Leaves from a Grass - House by Don Blanding Last winner crowned before pageant is presented on television 1955 Sept. 11 , 1954 Meriwether , Lee Lee Meriwether California San Francisco 19 Preliminary Swimsuit Dramatic monologue Riders to the Sea Became an actress ( Batman ) 1956 Sept. 10 , 1955 Ritchie , Sharon Sharon Ritchie Colorado Denver 18 Recitation `` The Murder of Lidice '' by Edna St. Vincent Millay 1957 Sept. 8 , 1956 McKnight , Marian Marian McKnight South Carolina Manning 19 Comedy sketch `` The Monroe Doctrine '' 1958 Sept. 7 , 1957 Van Derbur , Marilyn Marilyn Van Derbur Colorado Denver 20 Organ `` Tea for Two '' & `` Tenderly '' 1959 Sept. 6 , 1958 Mobley , Mary Ann Mary Ann Mobley Mississippi Brandon 21 Preliminary Talent Vocal medley & dance `` Un Bel Di '' & `` There 'll Be Some Changes Made '' Became an actress ( Diff'rent Strokes ) and TV hostess 1960 Sept. 12 , 1959 Mead , Lynda Lee Lynda Lee Mead Natchez 20 Original dramatic act `` Schizophrenia '' 1961 Sept. 10 , 1960 Fleming , Nancy Nancy Fleming Michigan Montague 18 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent ( tie ) Presentation of dress design 1962 Sept. 9 , 1961 Fletcher , Maria Maria Fletcher North Carolina Asheville 19 Preliminary Swimsuit Tap dance to her vocal recording `` Somebody Loves Me '' First Miss North Carolina crowned 1963 Sept. 8 , 1962 Mayer , Jacquelyn Jacquelyn Mayer Ohio Sandusky 20 Broadway Vignette `` Wishing Upon a Star , '' `` My Favorite Things '' & The White Cliffs of Dover 1964 Sept. 7 , 1963 Axum , Donna Donna Axum Arkansas El Dorado 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal medley `` Quando me'n vo ' '' & `` I Love Paris '' 1965 Sept. 12 , 1964 Van Dyke , Vonda Kay Vonda Kay Van Dyke Arizona Phoenix 21 Miss Congeniality Ventriloquism & singing `` Together ( Wherever We Go ) '' Only Miss Congeniality award winner to be also crowned Miss America 1966 Sept. 11 , 1965 Bryant , Deborah Irene Deborah Irene Bryant Kansas Overland Park 19 Preliminary Swimsuit Dramatic interpretation `` The Miserable Miserliness of Midas Moneybags '' 1967 Sept. 10 , 1966 Jayroe , Jane Anne Jane Anne Jayroe Oklahoma Laverne 19 Preliminary Talent Vocal / orchestra conducting `` 1 - 2 - 3 '' 1968 Sept. 9 , 1967 Barnes , Debra Dene Debra Dene Barnes Kansas Moran 20 Preliminary Swimsuit Piano solo `` Born Free '' 1969 Sept. 7 , 1968 Ford , Judith Anne Judith Anne Ford Illinois Belvidere 18 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Acrobatic dance & trampoline `` The Blue Danube '' 1970 Sept. 6 , 1969 Eldred , Pamela Anne Pamela Anne Eldred Michigan West Bloomfield 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Ballet `` Love Theme '' from Romeo & Juliet 1971 Sept. 12 , 1970 George , Phyllis Ann Phyllis Ann George Texas Denton 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Piano medley Promises , Promises & `` Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' Became presenter of The NFL Today and First Lady of Kentucky 1972 Sept. 11 , 1971 Schaefer , Laurie Lea Laurie Lea Schaefer Ohio Bexley 22 Preliminary Swimsuit Semi-classical vocal `` And This Is My Beloved '' 1973 Sept. 9 , 1972 Meeuwsen , Terry Anne Terry Anne Meeuwsen Wisconsin De Pere 23 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Vocal `` He Touched Me '' from Drat ! The Cat ! Co-host of The 700 Club Sept. 8 , 1973 King , Rebecca Ann Rebecca Ann King Colorado Denver 23 Vocal `` If I Ruled the World '' Sept. 7 , 1974 Cothran , Shirley Shirley Cothran Texas Fort Worth 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Flute medley `` Bumble Boogie '' & `` Swingin ' Shepherd Blues '' 1976 Sept. 6 , 1975 Godin , Tawny Elaine Tawny Elaine Godin New York Yonkers 18 Original piano composition `` Images in Pastels '' 1977 Sept. 11 , 1976 Benham , Dorothy Kathleen Dorothy Kathleen Benham Minnesota Edina 20 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Classical vocal `` Adele 's Laughing Song '' from Die Fledermaus 1978 Sept. 10 , 1977 Perkins , Susan Susan Perkins Ohio Columbus 23 Preliminary Talent Vocal `` Good Morning Heartache '' 1979 Sept. 9 , 1978 Barker , Kylene Kylene Barker Virginia Galax 22 Gymnastics routine `` Gonna Fly Now '' & `` Feels So Good '' 1980 Sept. 8 , 1979 Prewitt , Cheryl Cheryl Prewitt Mississippi Ackerman 22 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal / Piano `` Do n't Cry Out Loud '' 1981 Sept. 6 , 1980 Powell , Susan Carol Susan Carol Powell Oklahoma Elk City 21 Preliminary Talent ( tie ) Classical vocal `` The Telephone Aria '' 1982 Sept. 12 , 1981 Ward , Grace Elizabeth Grace Elizabeth Ward Arkansas Cabot 20 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal `` After You 've Gone '' Sept. 18 , 1982 Maffett , Debra Debra Maffett California Anaheim 25 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Popular vocal `` Come In From the Rain '' Competed for Miss Texas title several times prior to competing and winning Miss California on her first attempt 1984 Sept. 17 , 1983 Williams , Vanessa Lynn Vanessa Lynn Williams New York Millwood 20 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Popular vocal `` Happy Days Are Here Again '' First African American Miss America Resigned on July 23 , 1984 due to backlash from nude photos unauthorized to be published in Penthouse magazine July 23 , 1984 Charles , Suzette Suzette Charles New Jersey Mays Landing 21 Preliminary Talent Popular vocal `` Kiss Me In the Rain '' Seven - week reign - the shortest served by any Miss America 1985 Sept. 8 , 1984 Wells , Sharlene Sharlene Wells Utah Salt Lake City 20 Preliminary Swimsuit Spanish vocal & Paraguyan harp `` Mis Noches Sin Ti '' The first foreign - born , bilingual Miss America , having been born in Asunción , Paraguay 1986 Sept. 14 , 1985 Akin , Susan Susan Akin Mississippi Meridian 21 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal `` You 're My World '' Sept. 13 , 1986 Cash , Kellye Kellye Cash Tennessee Memphis 21 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Piano / Vocal `` I 'll Be Home '' Grandniece of singer , Johnny Cash 1988 Sept. 19 , 1987 Rafko , Kaye Lani Rae Kaye Lani Rae Rafko Michigan Monroe 24 Preliminary Swimsuit Hawaiian - Tahitian dance President of Gabby 's Ladder , a bereavement program for children and their families 1989 Sept. 10 , 1988 Carlson , Gretchen Gretchen Carlson Minnesota Anoka 22 Preliminary Talent Classical violin `` Zigeunerweisen '' Former news anchor of Fox & Friends 1990 Sept. 16 , 1989 Turner , Debbye Debbye Turner Missouri Mexico 23 Preliminary Swimsuit Marimba medley `` Flight of the Bumblebee , '' `` Csárdás '' & `` Can - Can '' Medical Reporter and Anchor for CBS 's The Early Show First Miss Missouri crowned 1991 Sept. 8 , 1990 Vincent , Marjorie Marjorie Vincent Illinois Oak Park 25 Preliminary Talent Classical piano `` Fantaisie - Impromptu '' First Miss America winner of Haitian descent 1992 Sept. 14 , 1991 Sapp , Carolyn Suzanne Carolyn Suzanne Sapp Hawaii Kona 24 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal `` Ai n't Misbehavin ' '' 1993 Sept. 19 , 1992 Cornett , Leanza Leanza Cornett Florida Jacksonville 21 Vocal `` A New Life '' from Jekyll & Hyde Married ( and separated from ) Mark Steines 1994 Sept. 18 , 1993 Aiken , Kimberly Clarice Kimberly Clarice Aiken South Carolina Columbia 18 Vocal `` Summertime '' 1995 Sept. 17 , 1994 Whitestone , Heather Heather Whitestone Alabama Birmingham 21 Preliminary Swimsuit , Preliminary Talent Ballet en Pointe `` Via Dolorosa '' First deaf Miss America Sept. 16 , 1995 Smith , Shawntel Shawntel Smith Oklahoma Muldrow 24 Vocal `` The Woman in the Moon '' from A Star Is Born Executive vice president of administration of PBH Holdings . 1997 Sept. 14 , 1996 Holland , Tara Dawn Tara Dawn Holland Kansas Overland Park 23 Preliminary Swimsuit Classical vocal `` Où Va la Jeune Hindoue '' from Lakmé Video of her crowning was shown at beginning of 2006 film Little Miss Sunshine 1998 Sept. 13 , 1997 Shindle , Katherine Katherine Shindle Illinois Evanston 21 Preliminary Talent Vocal `` Do n't Rain on My Parade '' Performed in Legally Blonde on Broadway President of the Actors ' Equity Association 1999 Sept. 19 , 1998 Johnson , Nicole Nicole Johnson Virginia Roanoke 24 Vocal `` That 's Life '' Diabetes awareness advocate 2000 Sept. 18 , 1999 French , Heather Renee Heather Renee French Kentucky Maysville 24 Preliminary Swimsuit Vocal `` As If We Never Said Goodbye '' from Sunset Boulevard First Miss Kentucky crowned 2001 Oct. 14 , 2000 Baraquio , Angela Perez Angela Perez Baraquio Hawaii Honolulu 24 Preliminary Swimsuit Hula `` Theme '' from Mutiny on the Bounty First Filipino American and Asian American Miss America 2002 Sept. 22 , 2001 Harman , Katie Katie Harman Oregon Gresham 21 Preliminary Talent Classical vocal `` O mio babbino caro '' First Miss Oregon crowned 2003 Sept. 21 , 2002 Harold , Erika Erika Harold Illinois Urbana 22 Classical vocal `` Habanera '' Sept. 20 , 2003 Dunlap , Ericka Ericka Dunlap Florida Orlando 21 Vocal `` If I Could '' Finished in third place on The Amazing Race 15 with her then - husband , Brian Kleinschmidt 2005 Sept. 18 , 2004 Downs , Deidre Deidre Downs Alabama Birmingham 24 Vocal `` I 'm Afraid This Must Be Love '' Won Miss Alabama on her fifth try 2006 Jan. 21 , 2006 Berry , Jennifer Jennifer Berry Oklahoma Tulsa 22 Preliminary Talent Ballet en Pointe `` Within '' Won Miss Oklahoma on her fifth try 2007 Jan. 29 , 2007 Nelson , Lauren Lauren Nelson Lawton 20 Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness Vocal `` You 'll Be in My Heart '' 2008 Jan. 26 , 2008 Haglund , Kirsten Kirsten Haglund Michigan Farmington Hills 19 Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness Vocal `` Over the Rainbow '' Grandmother competed at Miss America as Miss Detroit 2009 Jan. 24 , 2009 Stam , Katie Katie Stam Indiana Seymour 22 Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness Vocal `` Via Dolorosa '' First Miss Indiana crowned Jan. 30 , 2010 Cameron , Caressa Caressa Cameron Virginia Fredericksburg 22 Preliminary Talent Vocal `` Listen '' from Dreamgirls 2011 Jan. 15 , 2011 Scanlan , Teresa Teresa Scanlan Nebraska Gering 17 Preliminary Talent Piano `` White Water Chopped Sticks '' by Calvin Jones Youngest Miss America winner since 1933 First Miss Nebraska crowned 2012 Jan. 14 , 2012 Kaeppeler , Laura Laura Kaeppeler Wisconsin Kenosha 23 Preliminary Talent Operatic vocal `` Il Bacio '' by Luigi Arditi 2013 Jan. 12 , 2013 Hagan , Mallory Mallory Hagan New York Brooklyn 23 Tap dance `` Get Up Offa That Thing '' by James Brown 2014 Sept. 15 , 2013 Davuluri , Nina Nina Davuluri Fayetteville 24 Bollywood Fusion dance `` Dhoom Tana '' from the film Om Shanti Om First Indian American winner First to perform a Bollywood dance at Miss America pageant 2015 Sept. 14 , 2014 Kazantsev , Kira Kira Kazantsev Manhattan 23 Vocal with plastic cup percussion `` Happy '' by Pharrell Williams 2016 Sept. 13 , 2015 Cantrell , Betty Betty Cantrell Georgia Warner Robins 20 Preliminary Talent Classical vocal `` Tu ? Tu ? Piccolo Iddio ! '' from Madama Butterfly 2017 Sept. 11 , 2016 Savvy Shields Arkansas Fayetteville 21 Preliminary Talent Jazz dance , `` They Just Keep Moving the Line '' from the NBC show Smash 2018 Sept. 10 , 2017 Cara Mund North Dakota Bismarck 23 Jazz Dance , `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' by Michael Jackson First Miss North Dakota crowned Winners by state ( edit ) State Number of Titles Won Year ( s ) Won Miss New York 6 1945 , 1976 , 1984 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 Miss Oklahoma 1926 , 1967 , 1981 , 1996 , 2006 , 2007 Miss California 1925 , 1941 , 1943 , 1946 , 1955 , 1983 Miss Ohio 1922 , 1923 , 1938 , 1963 , 1972 , 1978 Miss Michigan 5 1939 , 1961 , 1970 , 1988 , 2008 Miss Illinois 1927 , 1969 , 1991 , 1998 , 2003 Miss Pennsylvania 1924 , 1935 , 1936 , 1940 , 1954 Miss Mississippi 1959 , 1960 , 1980 , 1986 Miss Arkansas 1964 , 1982 , 2017 Miss Virginia 1979 , 1999 , 2010 Miss Alabama 1951 , 1995 , 2005 Miss Kansas 1966 , 1968 , 1997 Miss Minnesota 1948 , 1977 , 1989 Miss New Jersey 1932 , 1937 , 1984 Miss Texas 1942 , 1971 , 1975 Miss Colorado 1956 , 1958 , 1974 Miss Georgia 1953 , 2016 Miss Wisconsin 1973 , 2012 Miss Florida 1993 , 2004 Miss Hawaii 1992 , 2001 Miss South Carolina 1957 , 1994 Miss Tennessee 1947 , 1987 Miss Utah 1952 , 1985 Miss Arizona 1949 , 1965 Miss District of Columbia 1921 , 1944 Miss North Dakota 2018 Miss Nebraska 2011 Miss Indiana 2009 Miss Oregon 2002 Miss Kentucky 2000 Miss Missouri 1990 Miss North Carolina 1962 Miss Connecticut 1933 Notes Competed as Miss Columbus , Ohio Competed as Miss Tulsa , Oklahoma Competed as Miss Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Competed as Miss Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania Competed as Miss Greater Camden , New Jersey Competed as Miss Bertrand Island , New Jersey Competed as Miss Memphis , Tennessee The initial 1984 winner was forced to resign and give her title seven weeks prior to the end of her reign There have been no Miss America winners from the following eighteen states and two U.S. territories : Miss Alaska Miss Delaware Miss Idaho Miss Iowa Miss Louisiana Miss Maine Miss Maryland Miss Massachusetts Miss Montana Miss Nevada Miss New Hampshire Miss New Mexico Miss Puerto Rico Miss Rhode Island Miss South Dakota Miss Vermont Miss Virgin Islands Miss Washington Miss West Virginia Miss Wyoming Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ No `` Miss America 1950 '' was officially crowned . Since majority of titleholder 's reign occurs during year following coronation , the organization began referring to titleholder using upcoming year . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ American Experience : Miss America Jump up ^ `` Miss America : 1985 '' . Miss America . Archived from the original on June 5 , 2008 . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ http://hubmesh.com/mark-steines-annoyed-that-his-divorce-with-wife-leanza-cornett-is-taking-so-long.html External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miss America titleholders . Miss America official website Miss America 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Titleholders Award winners Outstanding Teen MAOT State pageants Miss America state pageants Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Virgin Islands Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Miss America titleholders 1921 -- 1939 Margaret Gorman ( 1921 ) Mary Campbell ( 1922 ) Mary Campbell ( 1923 ) Ruth Malcomson ( 1924 ) Fay Lanphier ( 1925 ) Norma Smallwood ( 1926 ) Lois Delander ( 1927 ) Marian Bergeron ( 1933 ) Henrietta Leaver ( 1935 ) Rose Coyle ( 1936 ) Bette Cooper ( 1937 ) Marilyn Meseke ( 1938 ) Patricia Donnelly ( 1939 ) 1940 -- 1959 Frances Marie Burke ( 1940 ) Rosemary LaPlanche ( 1941 ) Jo - Carroll Dennison ( 1942 ) Jean Bartel ( 1943 ) Venus Ramey ( 1944 ) Bess Myerson ( 1945 ) Marilyn Buferd ( 1946 ) Barbara Jo Walker ( 1947 ) BeBe Shopp ( 1948 ) Jacque Mercer ( 1949 ) Yolande Betbeze ( 1951 ) Colleen Kay Hutchins ( 1952 ) Neva Jane Langley ( 1953 ) Evelyn Margaret Ay ( 1954 ) Lee Meriwether ( 1955 ) Sharon Ritchie ( 1956 ) Marian McKnight ( 1957 ) Marilyn Van Derbur ( 1958 ) Mary Ann Mobley ( 1959 ) 1960 -- 1979 Lynda Lee Mead ( 1960 ) Nancy Fleming ( 1961 ) Maria Fletcher ( 1962 ) Jacquelyn Mayer ( 1963 ) Donna Axum ( 1964 ) Vonda Kay Van Dyke ( 1965 ) Deborah Bryant ( 1966 ) Jane Anne Jayroe ( 1967 ) Debra Dene Barnes ( 1968 ) Judith Anne Ford ( 1969 ) Pamela Eldred ( 1970 ) Phyllis Ann George ( 1971 ) Laurie Lea Schaefer ( 1972 ) Terry Meeuwsen ( 1973 ) Rebecca Ann King ( 1974 ) Shirley Cothran ( 1975 ) Tawny Elaine Godin ( 1976 ) Dorothy Benham ( 1977 ) Susan Perkins ( 1978 ) Kylene Barker ( 1979 ) 1980 -- 1999 Cheryl Prewitt ( 1980 ) Susan Powell ( 1981 ) Elizabeth Ward ( 1982 ) Debra Maffett ( 1983 ) Vanessa Williams / Suzette Charles ( 1984 ) Sharlene Wells ( 1985 ) Susan Akin ( 1986 ) Kellye Cash ( 1987 ) Kaye Lani Rae Rafko ( 1988 ) Gretchen Carlson ( 1989 ) Debbye Turner ( 1990 ) Marjorie Judith Vincent ( 1991 ) Carolyn Suzanne Sapp ( 1992 ) Leanza Cornett ( 1993 ) Kimberly Clarice Aiken ( 1994 ) Heather Whitestone ( 1995 ) Shawntel Smith ( 1996 ) Tara Dawn Holland ( 1997 ) Katherine Shindle ( 1998 ) Nicole Johnson ( 1999 ) 2000 -- 2019 Heather French ( 2000 ) Angela Perez Baraquio ( 2001 ) Katie Harman ( 2002 ) Erika Harold ( 2003 ) Ericka Dunlap ( 2004 ) Deidre Downs ( 2005 ) Jennifer Berry ( 2006 ) Lauren Nelson ( 2007 ) Kirsten Haglund ( 2008 ) Katie Stam ( 2009 ) Caressa Cameron ( 2010 ) Teresa Scanlan ( 2011 ) Laura Kaeppeler ( 2012 ) Mallory Hagan ( 2013 ) Nina Davuluri ( 2014 ) Kira Kazantsev ( 2015 ) Betty Cantrell ( 2016 ) Savvy Shields ( 2017 ) Cara Mund ( 2018 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Miss_America_titleholders&oldid=805665863 '' Categories : Lists of American women Lists of award winners Lists of women in beauty pageants Miss America winners Hidden categories : Use American English from July 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from July 2015 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 16 October 2017 , at 21 : 19 . 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Question: when was the last time miss texas won miss america