Sedimentary rock - wikipedia Sedimentary rock Jump to : navigation , search Middle Triassic marginal marine sequence of siltstones ( reddish layers at the cliff base ) and limestones ( brown rocks above ) , Virgin Formation , southwestern Utah , USA Sedimentary rocks on Mars , investigated by NASA 's Curiosity Mars rover Steeply dipping sedimentary rock strata along the Chalous Road in northern Iran Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth 's surface and within bodies of water . Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle in place . The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment . Before being deposited , the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area , and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , mass movement or glaciers , which are called agents of denudation . Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension . The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth 's crust is extensive ( 73 % of the Earth 's current land surface ) , but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8 % of the total volume of the crust . Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks . Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata , forming a structure called bedding . The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering , for example in the construction of roads , houses , tunnels , canals or other structures . Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal , fossil fuels , drinking water or ores . The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the Earth 's history , including palaeogeography , paleoclimatology and the history of life . The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology . Sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences , such as pedology , geomorphology , geochemistry and structural geology . Sedimentary rocks have also been found on Mars . Contents ( hide ) 1 Classification based on origin 1.1 Clastic sedimentary rocks 1.1. 1 Conglomerates and breccias 1.1. 2 Sandstones 1.1. 3 Mudrocks 1.2 Biochemical sedimentary rocks 1.3 Chemical sedimentary rocks 1.4 `` Other '' sedimentary rocks 2 Compositional classification schemes 3 Deposition and transformation 3.1 Sediment transport and deposition 3.2 Transformation ( Diagenesis ) 4 Properties 4.1 Color 4.2 Texture 4.3 Mineralogy 4.4 Fossils 4.5 Primary sedimentary structures 4.6 Secondary sedimentary structures 5 Sedimentary environments 5.1 Sedimentary facies 6 Sedimentary basins 6.1 Influence of astronomical cycles 7 Sedimentation rates 8 Stratigraphy 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Bibliography 11 External links Classification based on origin Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation : clastic sedimentary rocks , biochemical ( biogenic ) sedimentary rocks , chemical sedimentary rocks , and a fourth category for `` other '' sedimentary rocks formed by impacts , volcanism , and other minor processes . Clastic sedimentary rocks Main article : Clastic rock Claystone deposited in Glacial Lake Missoula , Montana , United States . Note the very fine and flat bedding , common for distal lacustrine deposition . Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of other rock fragments that were cemented by silicate minerals . Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz , feldspar , rock ( lithic ) fragments , clay minerals , and mica ; any type of mineral may be present , but they in general represent the minerals that exist locally . Clastic sedimentary rocks , are subdivided according to the dominant particle size . Most geologists use the Udden - Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions : gravel ( > 2 mm diameter ) , sand ( 1 / 16 to 2 mm diameter ) , and mud ( clay is < 1 / 256 mm and silt is between 1 / 16 and 1 / 256 mm ) . The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme ; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel , sandstones are made mostly of sand , and mudrocks are made mostly of the finest material . This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites , arenites , and lutites , respectively , in older literature . The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape ( conglomerates and breccias ) , composition ( sandstones ) , grain size or texture ( mudrocks ) . Conglomerates and breccias Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel , while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel . Sandstones Sedimentary rock with sandstone in Malta Sandstone classification schemes vary widely , but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme , which uses the relative abundance of quartz , feldspar , and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains . Composition of framework grains The relative abundance of sand - sized framework grains determines the first word in a sandstone name . Naming depends on the dominance of the three most abundant components quartz , feldspar , or the lithic fragments that originated from other rocks . All other minerals are considered accessories and not used in the naming of the rock , regardless of abundance . Quartz sandstones have > 90 % quartz grains Feldspathic sandstones have < 90 % quartz grains and more feldspar grains than lithic grains Lithic sandstones have < 90 % quartz grains and more lithic grains than feldspar grains Abundance of muddy matrix material between sand grains When sand - sized particles are deposited , the space between the grains either remains open or is filled with mud ( silt and / or clay sized particle ) . `` Clean '' sandstones with open pore space ( that may later be filled with matrix material ) are called arenites . Muddy sandstones with abundant ( > 10 % ) muddy matrix are called wackes . Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition ( quartz - , feldspathic - , and lithic - ) and the amount of matrix ( wacke or arenite ) . For example , a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly ( > 90 % ) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains , a lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix , etc . Although the Dott classification scheme is widely used by sedimentologists , common names like greywacke , arkose , and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature . Mudrocks Lower Antelope Canyon was carved out of the surrounding sandstone by both mechanical weathering and chemical weathering . Wind , sand , and water from flash flooding are the primary weathering agents . Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50 % silt - and clay - sized particles . These relatively fine - grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air , and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension . Most authors presently use the term `` mudrock '' to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud . Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones , composed dominantly of silt - sized particles ; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt - and clay - sized particles ; and claystones , composed mostly of clay - sized particles . Most authors use `` shale '' as a term for a fissile mudrock ( regardless of grain size ) although some older literature uses the term `` shale '' as a synonym for mudrock . Biochemical sedimentary rocks Outcrop of Ordovician oil shale ( kukersite ) , northern Estonia Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue . Examples include : Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as corals , mollusks , and foraminifera . Coal , formed from plants that have removed carbon from the atmosphere and combined it with other elements to build their tissue . Deposits of chert formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons of microscopic organisms such as radiolaria and diatoms . Chemical sedimentary rocks Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate . Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals , such as halite ( rock salt ) , sylvite , barite and gypsum . `` Other '' sedimentary rocks This fourth miscellaneous category includes rocks formed by Pyroclastic flows , impact breccias , volcanic breccias , and other relatively uncommon processes . Compositional classification schemes Alternatively , sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy : Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks , are dominantly composed of silicate minerals . The sediment that makes up these rocks was transported as bed load , suspended load , or by sediment gravity flows . Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided into conglomerates and breccias , sandstone , and mudrocks . Carbonate sedimentary rocks are composed of calcite ( rhombohedral CaCO 3 ) , aragonite ( orthorhombic CaCO 3 ) , dolomite ( CaMg ( CO 3 ) 2 ) , and other carbonate minerals based on the CO 2 − 3 ion . Common examples include limestone and dolostone . Evaporite sedimentary rocks are composed of minerals formed from the evaporation of water . The most common evaporite minerals are carbonates ( calcite and others based on CO 2 − 3 ) , chlorides ( halite and others built on Cl − ) , and sulfates ( gypsum and others built on SO 2 − 4 ) . Evaporite rocks commonly include abundant halite ( rock salt ) , gypsum , and anhydrite . Organic - rich sedimentary rocks have significant amounts of organic material , generally in excess of 3 % total organic carbon . Common examples include coal , oil shale as well as source rocks for oil and natural gas . Siliceous sedimentary rocks are almost entirely composed of silica ( SiO 2 ) , typically as chert , opal , chalcedony or other microcrystalline forms . Iron - rich sedimentary rocks are composed of > 15 % iron ; the most common forms are banded iron formations and ironstones . Phosphatic sedimentary rocks are composed of phosphate minerals and contain more than 6.5 % phosphorus ; examples include deposits of phosphate nodules , bone beds , and phosphatic mudrocks . Deposition and transformation Sediment transport and deposition Cross-bedding and scour in a fine sandstone ; the Logan Formation ( Mississippian ) of Jackson County , Ohio Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air , ice , wind , gravity , or water flows carrying the particles in suspension . This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area . The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area . The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland ( the source area of the sediment ) . However , some sedimentary rocks , such as evaporites , are composed of material that form at the place of deposition . The nature of a sedimentary rock , therefore , not only depends on the sediment supply , but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed . Transformation ( diagenesis ) Pressure solution at work in a clastic rock . While material dissolves at places where grains are in contact , that material may recrystallize from the solution and act as cement in open pore spaces . As a result , there is a net flow of material from areas under high stress to those under low stress , producing a sedimentary rock becomes more compact and harder . Loose sand can become sandstone in this way . Main article : diagenesis The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical , physical , and biological changes , exclusive of surface weathering , undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition . Some of those processes cause the sediment to consolidate into a compact , solid substance from the originally loose material . Young sedimentary rocks , especially those of Quaternary age ( the most recent period of the geologic time scale ) are often still unconsolidated . As sediment deposition builds up , the overburden ( lithostatic ) pressure rises , and a process known as lithification takes place . Sedimentary rocks are often saturated with seawater or groundwater , in which minerals can dissolve , or from which minerals can precipitate . Precipitating minerals reduce the pore space in a rock , a process called cementation . Due to the decrease in pore space , the original connate fluids are expelled . The precipitated minerals form a cement and make the rock more compact and competent . In this way , loose clasts in a sedimentary rock can become `` glued '' together . When sedimentation continues , an older rock layer becomes buried deeper as a result . The lithostatic pressure in the rock increases due to the weight of the overlying sediment . This causes compaction , a process in which grains mechanically reorganize . Compaction is , for example , an important diagenetic process in clay , which can initially consist of 60 % water . During compaction , this interstitial water is pressed out of pore spaces . Compaction can also be the result of dissolution of grains by pressure solution . The dissolved material precipitates again in open pore spaces , which means there is a net flow of material into the pores . However , in some cases , a certain mineral dissolves and does not precipitate again . This process , called leaching , increases pore space in the rock . Some biochemical processes , like the activity of bacteria , can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis . Fungi and plants ( by their roots ) and various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis . Burial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and temperature , which stimulates certain chemical reactions . An example is the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal . When temperature and pressure increase still further , the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism , the process that forms metamorphic rock . Properties A piece of a banded iron formation , a type of rock that consists of alternating layers with iron ( III ) oxide ( red ) and iron ( II ) oxide ( grey ) . BIFs were mostly formed during the Precambrian , when the atmosphere was not yet rich in oxygen . Moories Group , Barberton Greenstone Belt , South Africa Color The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron , an element with two major oxides : iron ( II ) oxide and iron ( III ) oxide . Iron ( II ) oxide ( FeO ) only forms under low oxygen ( anoxic ) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour . Iron ( III ) oxide ( Fe O ) in a richer iron environment is often found in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour . In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere , and oxidation is an important process , giving the rock a red or orange colour . Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called red beds . However , a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate . The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey . Organic material is formed from dead organisms , mostly plants . Normally , such material eventually decays by oxidation or bacterial activity . Under anoxic circumstances , however , organic material can not decay and leaves a dark sediment , rich in organic material . This can , for example , occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes . There is little water mixing in such environments , as a result oxygen from surface water is not brought down , and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay . Dark rocks , rich in organic material , are therefore often shales . Texture Diagram showing well - sorted ( left ) and poorly sorted ( right ) grains The size , form and orientation of clasts ( the original pieces of rock ) in a sediment is called its texture . The texture is a small - scale property of a rock , but determines many of its large - scale properties , such as the density , porosity or permeability . The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the fabric of the rock . Between the clasts , the rock can be composed of a matrix ( a cement ) that consists of crystals of one or more precipitated minerals . The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin ; fine , calcareous mud only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water . The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale , though alternative scales are sometimes used . The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume , and is always an average value -- a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes . The statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock . When all clasts are more or less of the same size , the rock is called ' well - sorted ' , and when there is a large spread in grain size , the rock is called ' poorly sorted ' . Diagram showing the rounding and sphericity of grains The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock . Coquina , a rock composed of clasts of broken shells , can only form in energetic water . The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters : Surface texture describes the amount of small - scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape . rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain . ' Sphericity ' describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere . ' Grain form ' describes the three dimensional shape of the grain . Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture , consisting entirely of crystals . To describe such a texture , only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary . Mineralogy Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz ( especially siliciclastic rocks ) or calcite ( especially carbonate rocks ) . In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks , a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals . However , the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock . Minerals in a sedimentary rock can have formed by precipitation during sedimentation or by diagenesis . In the second case , the mineral precipitate can have grown over an older generation of cement . A complex diagenetic history can be studied by optical mineralogy , using a petrographic microscope . Carbonate rocks dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite , aragonite or dolomite . Both the cement and the clasts ( including fossils and ooids ) of a carbonate sedimentary rock can consist of carbonate minerals . The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area , the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral . The resistance of rock forming minerals to weathering is expressed by Bowen 's reaction series . In this series , quartz is the most stable , followed by feldspar , micas , and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred . The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area , the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited . In most sedimentary rocks , mica , feldspar and less stable minerals have been reduced to clay minerals like kaolinite , illite or smectite . Fossils Fossil - rich layers in a sedimentary rock , Año Nuevo State Reserve , California Main articles : fossil and fossilisation Among the three major types of rock , fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock . Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks , sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants . Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification . Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers , bacteria , rotting and erosion , but sedimentation can contribute to exceptional circumstances where these natural processes are unable to work , causing fossilisation . The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high ( so that a carcass is quickly buried ) , in anoxic environments ( where little bacterial activity occurs ) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton . Larger , well - preserved fossils are relatively rare . Burrows in a turbidite , made by crustaceans , San Vincente Formation ( early Eocene ) of the Ainsa Basin , southern foreland of the Pyrenees Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons . Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones , shells , and the woody tissue of plants . Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized , and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare . Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils , examples of which are burrows , footprints , etc . As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock , fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock . A shell consisting of calcite can , for example , dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity . In the same way , precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels , vascular tissue or other soft tissues . This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition , a process called permineralization . The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates ( especially calcite ) , forms of amorphous silica ( chalcedony , flint , chert ) and pyrite . In the case of silica cements , the process is called lithification . At high pressure and temperature , the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed . The fossil , in the end , consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form , graphite . This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation . It is particularly important for plant fossils . The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal . Primary sedimentary structures Cross-bedding in a fluviatile sandstone , Middle Old Red Sandstone ( Devonian ) on Bressay , Shetland Islands A flute cast , a type of sole marking , from the Book Cliffs of Utah Ripple marks formed by a current in a sandstone that was later tilted ( Haßberge , Bavaria ) Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into ' primary ' structures ( formed during deposition ) and ' secondary ' structures ( formed after deposition ) . Unlike textures , structures are always large - scale features that can easily be studied in the field . Sedimentary structures can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell which side originally faced up where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers . Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata . A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture . Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other . The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding . Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick . Finer , less pronounced layers are called laminae , and the structure it forms in a rock is called lamination . Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick . Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature , this is not always the case . In some environments , beds are deposited at a ( usually small ) angle . Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock , a structure called cross-bedding . Cross-bedding forms when small - scale erosion occurs during deposition , cutting off part of the beds . Newer beds then form at an angle to older ones . The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination , where all sedimentary layering is parallel . Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply , caused , for example , by seasonal changes in rainfall , temperature or biochemical activity . Laminae that represent seasonal changes ( similar to tree rings ) are called varves . Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term laminite . When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all , their structural character is called massive bedding . Graded bedding is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains . This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing . Larger , heavier clasts in suspension settle first , then smaller clasts . Although graded bedding can form in many different environments , it is a characteristic of turbidity currents . The surface of a particular bed , called the bedform , can be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment , too . Examples of bed forms include dunes and ripple marks . Sole markings , such as tool marks and flute casts , are groves dug into a sedimentary layer that are preserved . These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition . Ripple marks also form in flowing water . There are two types of ripples : symmetric and asymmetric . Environments where the current is in one direction , such as rivers , produce asymmetric ripples . The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current . Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where currents reverse directions , such as tidal flats . Mudcracks are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface . Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or point bars along rivers . Secondary sedimentary structures Halite crystal mold in dolomite , Paadla Formation ( Silurian ) , Saaremaa , Estonia Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition . Such structures form by chemical , physical and biological processes within the sediment . They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition . Some can be used as way up criteria . Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils . Preserved tracks and burrows are examples of trace fossils ( also called ichnofossils ) . Such traces are relatively rare . Most trace fossils are burrows of molluscs or arthropods . This burrowing is called bioturbation by sedimentologists . It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited . On the other hand , the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other ( primary ) structures in the sediment , making a reconstruction more difficult . Chert concretions in chalk , Middle Lefkara Formation ( upper Paleocene to middle Eocene ) , Cyprus Secondary structures can also form by diagenesis or the formation of a soil ( pedogenesis ) when a sediment is exposed above the water level . An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a stylolite . Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock . This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock , or the formation of concretions . Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock . Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock , such as around fossils , inside burrows or around plant roots . In carbonate based rocks such as limestone or chalk , chert or flint concretions are common , while terrestrial sandstones can have iron concretions . Calcite concretions in clay are called septarian concretions . After deposition , physical processes can deform the sediment , producing a third class of secondary structures . Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers , such as between sand and clay , can result in flame structures or load casts , formed by inverted diapirism . While the clastic bed is still fluid , diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer . Sometimes , density contrasts can result or grow when one of the lithologies dehydrates . Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration , while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense . On the other hand , when the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses a critical point , the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through , forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes . The same process can form mud volcanoes on the surface where they broke through upper layers . Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year . Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above . Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures . Density contrasts can also cause small - scale faulting , even while sedimentation progresses ( synchronous - sedimentary faulting ) . Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope , such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope . Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump , producing fissures and folding . The resulting structures in the rock are syn - sedimentary folds and faults , which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks . Sedimentary environments The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the sedimentary environment . Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes and circumstances . The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place , but also on the environment itself . A marine environment means that the rock was formed in a sea or ocean . Often , a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments . Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface . Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the continental shelf . The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments , as wave activity diminishes with depth . This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments . When the sediment is transported from the continent , an alternation of sand , clay and silt is deposited . When the continent is far away , the amount of such sediment deposited may be small , and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms . Especially in warm climates , shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks . The shallow , warm water is an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons . When these organisms die , their skeletons sink to the bottom , forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone . Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs , where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms . In deep marine environments , the water current working the sea bottom is small . Only fine particles can be transported to such places . Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms . At 4 km depth , the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically ( the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline ) . Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves , as a result no limestone can be formed below this depth . Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of silica ( such as radiolarians ) are not as soluble and still deposit . An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite . When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination , for example at the continental slopes , the sedimentary cover can become unstable , causing turbidity currents . Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quite deep marine environment and can cause the geologically speaking instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment , such as sand and silt . The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite . The coast is an environment dominated by wave action . At a beach , dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel , often mingled with shell fragments , is deposited , while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension . Tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide . They are often cross-cut by gullies , where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger . Where rivers enter the body of water , either on a sea or lake coast , deltas can form . These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river . Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic sediment ( in contrast to chemical ) . A sedimentary rock formed on land has a continental sedimentary environment . Examples of continental environments are lagoons , lakes , swamps , floodplains and alluvial fans . In the quiet water of swamps , lakes and lagoons , fine sediment is deposited , mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals . In rivers , the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material . Besides transport by water , sediment can in continental environments also be transported by wind or glaciers . Sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is always very well sorted , while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting . Aeolian deposits can be quite striking . The depositional environment of the Touchet Formation , located in the Northwestern United States , had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of rhythmite layers . Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material , especially from aeolian processes . The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers of the Touchet Formation , and thus provided evidence of the events that intervened over time among the forty - one layers that were deposited . Sedimentary facies Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions . A beach , where sand and gravel is deposited , is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore , where finer sediments are deposited at the same time . Behind the beach , there can be dunes ( where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand ) or a lagoon ( where fine clay and organic material is deposited ) . Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits . The typical rock formed in a certain environment is called its sedimentary facies . When sedimentary strata accumulate through time , the environment can shift , forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location . On the other hand , when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally , the lithology ( the type of rock ) and facies eventually change . Shifting sedimentary facies in the case of transgression ( above ) and regression of the sea ( below ) Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways : the most common are by the lithology ( for example : limestone , siltstone or sandstone ) or by fossil content . Coral for example only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies . Facies determined by lithology are called lithofacies ; facies determined by fossils are biofacies . Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time . Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the sea level drops , when the surface rises due to tectonic forces in the Earth 's crust or when a river forms a large delta . In the subsurface , such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies . This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age , a phenomenon described by Walther 's Law . The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called transgression . In the case of transgression , deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies , a succession called onlap . Regression is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea . With regression , shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies , a situation called offlap . The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the palaeogeography . A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography . Sedimentary basins Main article : sedimentary basin Places where large - scale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary basins . The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin , the so - called accommodation space . The depth , shape and size of a basin depend on tectonics , movements within the Earth 's lithosphere . Where the lithosphere moves upward ( tectonic uplift ) , land eventually rises above sea level , so that and erosion removes material , and the area becomes a source for new sediment . Where the lithosphere moves downward ( tectonic subsidence ) , a basin forms and sedimentation can take place . When the lithosphere keeps subsiding , new accommodation space keeps being created . A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin . Rift basins are elongated , narrow and deep basins . Due to divergent movement , the lithosphere is stretched and thinned , so that the hot asthenosphere rises and heats the overlying rift basin . Apart from continental sediments , rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits . When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere , the rift grows and the sea can enter , forming marine deposits . When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again , its density rises , causing isostatic subsidence . If this subsidence continues long enough , the basin is called a sag basin . Examples of sag basins are the regions along passive continental margins , but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents . In sag basins , the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a vicious circle . The total thickness of the sedimentary infill in a sag basins can thus exceed 10 km . A third type of basin exists along convergent plate boundaries -- places where one tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere . The subducting plate bends and forms a fore - arc basin in front of the overriding plate -- an elongated , deep asymmetric basin . Fore - arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites . Such infill is called flysch . When the convergent movement of the two plates results in continental collision , the basin becomes shallower and develops into a foreland basin . At the same time , tectonic uplift forms a mountain belt in the overriding plate , from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin . Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies . At the same time , the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt . The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back - arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse . Cyclic alternation of competent and less competent beds in the Blue Lias at Lyme Regis , southern England Influence of astronomical cycles In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature . This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment . Most of these cyclic changes are caused by astronomic cycles . Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the spring tide every two weeks . On a larger time - scale , cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by Milankovitch cycles : cyclic changes in the orientation and / or position of the Earth 's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun . There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known , lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years . Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth 's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth 's climate . An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years ( the Quaternary period ) , which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles . Climate change can influence the global sea level ( and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins ) and sediment supply from a certain region . Eventually , small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation . Sedimentation Rates The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location . A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day , while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate . A distinction can be made between normal sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes . The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like mass movements , rock slides or flooding . Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once . In some sedimentary environments , most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes , even though the environment is usually a quiet place . Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal , ongoing sedimentation . In many cases , sedimentation occurs slowly . In a desert , for example , the wind deposits siliciclastic material ( sand or silt ) in some spots , or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material , but in most places eolian erosion dominates . The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material , but also on how well the material consolidates . Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition . Stratigraphy The Permian through Jurassic stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern Utah that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as Capitol Reef National Park and Canyonlands National Park . From top to bottom : Rounded tan domes of the Navajo Sandstone , layered red Kayenta Formation , cliff - forming , vertically jointed , red Wingate Sandstone , slope - forming , purplish Chinle Formation , layered , lighter - red Moenkopi Formation , and white , layered Cutler Formation sandstone . Picture from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area , Utah . That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition . There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities . These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down , or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away . Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth . They contain fossils , the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals . Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock . The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock . Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time . Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because , unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks , they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains . See also Back - stripping Deposition ( geology ) Dunham classification Erosion Growth fault List of minerals List of rock types Sediment transport References Jump up ^ Wilkinson , Bruce H. ; McElroy , Brandon J. ; Kesler , Stephen E. ; Peters , Shanan E. ; Rothman , Edward D. ( 2008 ) . `` Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers -- Rates of rock cycling from area - age frequencies '' . Geological Society of America Bulletin . 121 : 760 -- 779 . doi : 10.1130 / B26457. 1 . Jump up ^ Buchner & Grapes ( 2011 ) , p. 24 ^ Jump up to : Dott ( 1964 ) ^ Jump up to : Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , p. 782 ^ Jump up to : Prothero & Schwab ( 2004 ) ^ Jump up to : Boggs ( 2006 ) Jump up ^ Stow ( 2005 ) ^ Jump up to : Levin ( 1987 ) , p. 57 Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 145 -- 146 Jump up ^ Boggs ( 1987 ) , p. 105 Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 156 -- 157 Jump up ^ Levin ( 1987 ) , p. 58 Jump up ^ Boggs ( 1987 ) , pp. 112 -- 115 Jump up ^ Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , pp. 55 -- 58 Jump up ^ Levin ( 1987 ) , p. 60 Jump up ^ Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , pp. 75 -- 80 Jump up ^ Folk ( 1965 ) , p. 62 Jump up ^ For an overview of major minerals in siliciclastic rocks and their relative stabilities , see Folk ( 1965 ) , pp. 62 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Stanley ( 1999 ) , pp. 60 -- 61 Jump up ^ Levin ( 1987 ) , p. 92 Jump up ^ Stanley ( 1999 ) , p. 61 Jump up ^ Levin ( 1987 ) , pp. 92 -- 93 Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 160 -- 161 Jump up ^ Press et al. ( 2003 ) , p. 171 Jump up ^ Boggs ( 1987 ) , p. 138 Jump up ^ For descriptions of cross-bedding , see Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , p. 128 , pp. 135 -- 136 ; Press et al. ( 2003 ) , pp. 171 -- 172 . Jump up ^ Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , pp. 133 -- 135 Jump up ^ For an explanation about graded bedding , see Boggs ( 1987 ) , pp. 143 -- 144 ; Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , p. 161 ; Press et al. ( 2003 ) , p. 172 . Jump up ^ Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 46 -- 52 Jump up ^ Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , pp. 155 -- 157 Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , p. 162 Jump up ^ Levin ( 1987 ) , p. 62 Jump up ^ Blatt et al. ( 1980 ) , pp. 136 -- 154 Jump up ^ For a short description of trace fossils , see Stanley ( 1999 ) , p. 62 ; Levin ( 1987 ) , pp. 93 -- 95 ; and Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 216 -- 232 . Jump up ^ Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , p. 215 Jump up ^ For concretions , see Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 206 -- 215 . Jump up ^ Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 183 -- 185 Jump up ^ Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 193 -- 194 Jump up ^ Collinson et al. ( 2006 ) , pp. 202 -- 203 Jump up ^ For an overview of different sedimentary environments , see Press et al. ( 2003 ) or Einsele ( 2000 ) , part II . Jump up ^ For a definition of shallow marine environments , see Levin ( 2003 ) , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 452 -- 453 Jump up ^ For an overview of continental environments , see Levin ( 2003 ) , pp. 67 -- 68 . Jump up ^ Baker , Victor R. ; Nummedal , Dag , eds. ( 1978 ) . The Channeled Scabland : A Guide to the Geomorphology of the Columbia Basin , Washington . Washington , D.C. : Planetary Geology Program , Office of Space Science , National Aeoronautics and Space Administration . pp. 173 -- 177 . ISBN 0 - 88192 - 590 - X . Jump up ^ Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 158 -- 160 Jump up ^ Reading ( 1996 ) , pp. 19 -- 20 Jump up ^ Reading ( 1996 ) , pp. 20 -- 21 Jump up ^ For an overview over facies shifts and the relations in the sedimentary rock record by which they can be recognized , see Reading ( 1996 ) , pp. 22 -- 33 . Jump up ^ For an overview of sedimentary basin types , see Press et al. ( 2003 ) , pp. 187 -- 189 ; Einsele ( 2000 ) , pp. 3 -- 9 . Jump up ^ For a short explanation of Milankovitch cycles , see Tarbuck & Lutgens ( 1999 ) , pp. 322 -- 323 ; Reading ( 1996 ) , pp. 14 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Stanley ( 1999 ) , p. 536 Jump up ^ Andersen & Borns ( 1994 ) , pp. 29 -- 32 ^ Jump up to : Reading ( 1996 ) , p. 17 Bibliography Andersen , B.G. & H.W. Borns , Jr. ( 1994 ) . The Ice Age World . Scandinavian University Press . ISBN 82 - 00 - 37683 - 4 . Blatt , H. , G. Middleton & R. Murray ( 1980 ) . Origin of Sedimentary Rocks . Prentice - Hall . ISBN 0 - 13 - 642710 - 3 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Boggs , S. , Jr. ( 1987 ) . Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy ( 1st ed . ) . Merrill . ISBN 0 - 675 - 20487 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Boggs , S. , Jr. ( 2006 ) . Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy ( 4th ed . ) . Upper Saddle River , NJ : Pearson Prentice Hall . ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 154728 - 5 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Buchner , K & R. Grapes ( 2011 ) . `` Metamorphic rocks '' . Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks . Springer . pp. 21 -- 56 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 74168 - 8 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 3 - 540 - 74169 - 5_2 . Collinson , J. , N. Mountney & D. Thompson ( 2006 ) . Sedimentary Structures ( 3rd ed . ) . Terra Publishing . ISBN 1 - 903544 - 19 - X . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Dott , R.H. ( 1964 ) . `` Wacke , graywacke and matrix -- what approach to immature sandstone classification '' . Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 34 ( 3 ) : 625 -- 632 . doi : 10.1306 / 74D71109 - 2B21 - 11D7 - 8648000102C1865D . Einsele , G. ( 2000 ) . Sedimentary Basins , Evolution , Facies , and Sediment Budget ( 2nd ed . ) . Springer . ISBN 3 - 540 - 66193 - X . Folk , R.L. ( 1965 ) . Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks . Hemphill . Levin , H.L. ( 1987 ) . The Earth through time ( 3rd ed . ) . Saunders College Publishing . ISBN 0 - 03 - 008912 - 3 . Press , F. , R. Siever , J. Grotzinger & T.H. Jordan ( 2003 ) . Understanding Earth ( 4th ed . ) . W.H. Freeman and Company . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 9617 - 1 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Prothero , D.R. & F. Schwab ( 2004 ) . Sedimentary Geology ( 2nd ed . ) . W.H. Freeman and Company . Reading , H.G. ( 1996 ) . Sedimentary Environments : Processes , Facies and Stratigraphy ( 3rd ed . ) . Blackwell Science . ISBN 0 - 632 - 03627 - 3 . Stanley , S.M. ( 1999 ) . Earth System History . W.H. Freeman and Company . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 2882 - 6 . Stow , D.A.V. ( 2005 ) . Sedimentary Rocks in the Field . Burlington , MA : Academic Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 874545 - 69 - 9 . Tarbuck , E.J. & F.K. Lutgens ( 1999 ) . Earth , an introduction to Physical Geology ( 6th ed . ) . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 - 13 - 011201 - 1 . External links The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of : Sedimentary rocks Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sedimentary rocks . Basic Sedimentary Rock Classification , by Lynn S. Fichter , James Madison University , Harrisonburg.VI ; Sedimentary Rocks Tour , introduction to sedimentary rocks , by Bruce Perry , Department of Geological Sciences , California State University at Long Beach . GND : 4054079 - 0 NDL : 00573060 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sedimentary_rock&oldid=797829938 '' Categories : Sedimentary rocks Petrology Hidden categories : Wikipedia semi-protected pages Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2016 CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiversity Afrikaans Aragonés বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца )  Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2017 , at 12 : 10 . 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Question: what type of rock dominates the earth's surface


Game of Thrones ( season 8 ) - wikipedia Game of Thrones ( season 8 ) Jump to : navigation , search Game of Thrones ( season 8 ) Promotional poster Starring See List of Game of Thrones cast Country of origin United States Release Original network HBO Season chronology ← Previous Season 7 List of Game of Thrones episodes The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones was announced by HBO in July 2016 . Unlike the first six seasons that each had ten episodes and the seventh that had seven episodes , the eighth season will have only six episodes . Like the previous season , it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series , and will instead adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series , The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring . The season will be adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss . Filming officially began on October 23 , 2017 . The season is scheduled to premiere in 2019 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Episodes 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Supporting cast 3 Production 3.1 Crew 3.2 Writing 3.3 Filming 3.4 Episodes 3.5 Music 4 References 5 External links Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 68 TBA David Nutter Dave Hill 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD 69 TBA David Nutter Bryan Cogman 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD 70 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D.B. Weiss 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD 71 TBA David Nutter David Benioff & D.B. Weiss 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD 72 5 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D.B. Weiss 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD 73 6 TBA David Benioff & D.B. Weiss David Benioff & D.B. Weiss 2019 ( 2019 ) TBD Cast ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones characters Peter Dinklage ( Tyrion Lannister ) Nikolaj Coster - Waldau ( Jaime Lannister ) Lena Headey ( Cersei Lannister ) Emilia Clarke ( Daenerys Targaryen ) Main cast ( edit ) Peter Dinklage as Tyrion Lannister Nikolaj Coster - Waldau as Jaime Lannister Lena Headey as Cersei Lannister Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen Kit Harington as Jon Snow Liam Cunningham as Davos Seaworth Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark Maisie Williams as Arya Stark Nathalie Emmanuel as Missandei Gwendoline Christie as Brienne of Tarth John Bradley as Samwell Tarly Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark Rory McCann as Sandor `` The Hound '' Clegane Iain Glen as Jorah Mormont Conleth Hill as Varys Carice van Houten as Melisandre Jerome Flynn as Bronn Joe Dempsie as Gendry Supporting cast ( edit ) Ben Crompton as Eddison Tollett Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson as Gregor Clegane Jacob Anderson as Grey Worm Rupert Vansittart as Yohn Royce Marc Rissmann as Harry Strickland Production ( edit ) Crew ( edit ) Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss will serve as showrunners for the eighth season . The directors for the eighth season were announced in September 2017 . Miguel Sapochnik , who previously directed `` The Gift '' and `` Hardhome '' on season 5 , as well as `` Battle of the Bastards '' and `` The Winds of Winter '' on season 6 will return as director . He will divide up direction of the first five episodes with David Nutter , who had directed two episodes on seasons two , three and five . The final episode of the show will be directed by Benioff and Weiss , who have previously directed one episode each . At the show 's South by Southwest panel on March 12 , 2017 , Benioff and Weiss announced the writers for the show to be Dave Hill ( episode 1 ) and Bryan Cogman ( episode 2 ) . The showrunners will then divide up the screenplay for the remaining four episodes amongst themselves . Writing ( edit ) Writing for the eighth season started with a 140 - page outline . Benioff said that the divvying up process and who should write what section became more difficult , being that `` this would be the last time that we would be doing this . '' Filming ( edit ) In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , HBO programming president Casey Bloys stated that instead of the series finale being a feature film , the final season would be `` six one - hour movies '' on television . He continued , `` The show has proven that TV is every bit as impressive and in many cases more so , than film . What they 're doing is monumental . '' Filming officially began on October 23 , 2017 . Episodes ( edit ) Co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have said that the seventh and eighth season would likely consist of fewer episodes , stating that after season six , they were `` down to our final 13 episodes after this season . We 're heading into the final lap . '' Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame , as Weiss said , `` It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule . '' HBO confirmed in July 2016 , that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes , and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule . Benioff and Weiss later confirmed that the eighth season will consist of six episodes , and is expected to premiere later than usual for the same reason . Benioff and Weiss spoke about the end of the show , saying , `` From the beginning we 've wanted to tell a 70 - hour movie . It will turn out to be a 73 - hour movie , but it 's stayed relatively the same of having the beginning , middle and now we 're coming to the end . It would have been really tough if we lost any core cast members along the way , I 'm very happy we 've kept everyone and we get to finish it the way we want to . '' The season is set to air in 2019 . Music ( edit ) Ramin Djawadi is set to return as the composer of the show for the eighth season . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( July 30 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones : HBO confirms season 8 will be last '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Birnbaum , Debra ( July 30 , 2016 ) . `` HBO Confirms ' Game of Thrones ' Will End With Eighth Season '' . Variety . Archived from the original on September 2 , 2016 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` George R.R. Martin revealed 3 huge shocks to Game of Thrones producers '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hooton , Christopher ( September 27 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 : Directors revealed for all episodes '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2017 . Retrieved October 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chitwood , Adam ( December 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Justice League ' DP Fabian Wagner on Zack Snyder 's Cut , Superman 's Black Suit & ' Game of Thrones ' '' . Collider . Archived from the original on December 16 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Carson , Biz ( March 12 , 2017 ) . `` The final season of ' Game of Thrones ' will only be six episodes '' . Business Insider . Archived from the original on April 12 , 2017 . Retrieved April 11 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones Will Return in 2019 '' . HBO . Archived from the original on January 4 , 2018 . Retrieved January 4 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Goldberg , Lesley ( June 21 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Stars Score Hefty Pay Raises for Season 8 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on August 22 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Liam Cunningham ( Davos ) talks about the filming schedule for Game of Thrones Season 8 '' . Winteriscoming.net . January 10 , 2017 . Archived from the original on August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Thompson , Avery ( February 15 , 2017 ) . `` Sophie Turner Drops Massive Spoiler About Sansa Stark 's Fate In Season 8 '' . Hollywood Life . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Morton , Ashley ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Maisie Williams Thinks Arya Went Hunting for Trouble This Season '' . Making Off Game of Thrones . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Shepherd , Jack ( October 24 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 filming looks to be underway as cast members spotted in Belfast '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bradley , John ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` There 's a new tag team in town . 💪 Hope you enjoyed season 7 . Thanks for watching and we 'll be back . The wait starts now . 😊 # gameofthrones # GOT '' . Instagram . Archived from the original on March 22 , 2018 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Bill ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Actor Says Cut Scene Would 've Explained Confusing Finale Moment '' . HuffPost . Archived from the original on December 22 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Bill ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Actor Rory McCann Says He 's Already Training For Cleganebowl '' . HuffPost . Archived from the original on March 22 , 2018 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Comic Con Stockholm 2017 - Iain Glen Q&A '' . Youtube . October 5 , 2017 . Archived from the original on December 19 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kinkaid , Ben ( January 5 , 2018 ) . `` What News From Westeros ? Everything we know about Game Of Thrones Season 8 '' . GQ . Retrieved March 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Stolworthy , Jacob ( January 17 , 2018 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 : Melisandre return confirmed as fans theorise on character storyline '' . The Independent . Retrieved January 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Nolan , Emma ( January 21 , 2018 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 cast : Who will be in the final series ? '' . Daily Express . Retrieved March 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Deen , Sarah ( March 24 , 2018 ) . `` Game Of Thrones star Joe Dempsie is scared he 'll get drunk and reveal final season secrets '' . Metro . Retrieved March 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ McCreesh , Louise ( November 6 , 2017 ) . `` The Night 's Watch WILL be in Game of Thrones season 8 , confirms Lord Commander actor '' . Digital Spy . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Medeiros , Madison ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Attention Cleganebowl Fans : The Hound & The Mountain Are Already Bashing Each Other IRL '' . Refinery29 . Archived from the original on September 2 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Stolworthy , Jacob ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 casting announcement debunks fan theory '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on November 8 , 2017 . Retrieved November 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Miller , Liz Shannon ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 8 : Everything We Know About the Final Season '' . Indiewire . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2017 . Retrieved October 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Morton , Ashley ( March 13 , 2017 ) . `` Everything You Missed From Game of Thrones at SXSW 2017 '' . Making Game of Thrones . Archived from the original on June 6 , 2017 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ James Hibberd , James Hibberd ( June 2 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones : HBO clarifies prequels , final seasons plan '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on June 2 , 2017 . Retrieved June 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Shepherd , Jack ( October 23 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 8 filming looks to be underway as cast members spotted in Belfast '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2017 . Retrieved October 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Birnbaum , Debra ( April 14 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Creators Mull Shorter Final Seasons ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( April 14 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Considering Shorter Final Seasons '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 18 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( July 18 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones : HBO announces summer return , 7 episodes '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved July 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( March 12 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones producers confirm final season only 6 episodes '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on March 12 , 2017 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Bill ( January 26 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Composer Says You 're Not Hearing What You Think You Are '' . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Game of Thrones -- official US site Game of Thrones -- official UK site Game of Thrones -- The Viewers Guide on HBO.com Making Game of Thrones on HBO.com List of Game of Thrones episodes on IMDb List of Game of Thrones episodes at TV.com George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire A Game of Thrones ( 1996 ) A Clash of Kings ( 1998 ) A Storm of Swords ( 2000 ) A Feast for Crows ( 2005 ) A Dance with Dragons ( 2011 ) The Winds of Winter ( TBA ) Franchise media Novellas Tales of Dunk and Egg ( 1998 -- 2010 ) The Princess and the Queen ( 2013 ) The Rogue Prince ( 2014 ) The Sons of the Dragon ( 2017 ) TV series Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 Awards Characters Music `` Game of Thrones Theme '' `` The Rains of Castamere '' `` The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' `` Light of the Seven '' Catch the Throne Live Concert Experience Soundtracks Season 1 5 6 7 Title sequence After the Thrones Thronecast Video games A Game of Thrones : Genesis Game of Thrones ( 2012 ) Game of Thrones Ascent Game of Thrones ( 2014 ) Other media The World of Ice & Fire ( 2014 ) Board game Card game ( Second edition ) Comic book series Characters Petyr Baelish Joffrey Baratheon Renly Baratheon Robert Baratheon Stannis Baratheon Tommen Baratheon Ramsay Bolton Roose Bolton Bronn Gregor Clegane Sandor Clegane Khal Drogo Gendry Tormund Giantsbane Gilly Theon Greyjoy Cersei Lannister Jaime Lannister Tyrion Lannister Tywin Lannister Oberyn Martell Melisandre Missandei Jorah Mormont Daario Naharis Ellaria Sand Davos Seaworth Jon Snow High Sparrow Arya Stark Bran Stark Catelyn Stark Ned Stark Rickon Stark Robb Stark Sansa Stark Daenerys Targaryen Viserys Targaryen Samwell Tarly Brienne of Tarth Margaery Tyrell Olenna Tyrell Varys Ygritte World Languages Dothraki Valyrian Themes Iron Throne White Walker Miscellaneous Fandom Book Game of Thrones episodes Seasons : 1 5 6 7 8 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Game_of_Thrones_(season_8)&oldid=837831661 '' Categories : Game of Thrones Upcoming television seasons Hidden categories : Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages فارسی Français Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 09 : 13 . 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Question: when is season 8 for game of thrones


I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas - wikipedia I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas Jump to : navigation , search `` I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas '' Single by Gayla Peevey B - side `` Are My Ears on Straight ? '' Released November 11 , 1953 ( U.S. ) Genre Christmas , Novelty Length 2 : 38 Label Columbia ( no . 4 - 40106 ) Songwriter ( s ) John Rox `` I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas '' is a Christmas novelty song written by John Rox ( 1902 -- 1957 ) and performed by Gayla Peevey ( 10 years old at the time ) in 1953 . The song peaked at number 24 on Billboard magazine 's pop chart in December 1953 . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 B - side 3 Other releases 4 Notes 5 External links History ( edit ) Peevey was a child star ( born in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma ) , before her family moved to Ponca City , Oklahoma , when she was five . When released nationally by Columbia Records the song shot to the top of the charts , and the city zoo acquired a baby hippo named Matilda . Peevey was filmed performing the song on The Ed Sullivan Show in October 1953 , airing on November 15 , 1953 . A video of this performance is available on her website . A popular legend holds that this 1953 hit had been recorded as a fundraiser to bring the city zoo a hippo ; but in a 2007 radio interview with Detroit - based WNIC radio station , Peevey clarified that the song was not originally recorded as a fundraiser . Instead , a local promoter picked up on the popularity of the song and Peevey 's local roots , and launched a campaign to present her with an actual hippopotamus on Christmas . The campaign succeeded , and she was presented with an actual hippopotamus , which she donated to the city zoo . The hippopotamus lived for nearly 50 years . Peevey , by this point 73 years old , was again present when the Oklahoma City Zoo acquired a rare pygmy hippopotamus in 2017 . Gayla Peevey later recorded as Jamie Horton , scoring the Billboard Hot 100 - charter `` My Little Marine '' in 1960 . B - side ( edit ) The B - side of the original 78 featured the song `` Are my Ears on Straight ? '' Other releases ( edit ) It is a Dr. Demento Christmas staple , and is currently available on Dr. Demento 's The Greatest Novelty Records of All Time Vol. 6 : Christmas . A version by Vicki Dale and the Peter Pan Orchestra was released in 1953 . The Three Stooges also recorded a version in 1959 . Bob Keeshan , as Captain Kangaroo , recorded a version of the song in the 1960s . Captain & Tennille included a version on their 2007 album The Secret of Christmas , and it was released as a single the same year . The American pop band Jonas Brothers covered the song live in 2007 at the Radio Disney Jingle Jam in Katy , Texas . In the 2007 Sesame Street Christmas special `` Elmo 's Christmas Countdown '' , Big Bird sang a duet of the song with Anne Hathaway . However , in that version , they replaced hippopotamus with Snuffleupagus . Country music singer Gretchen Wilson recorded a rendition in late 2009 . It debuted at No. 54 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts dated for January 2 , 2010 . It is included on her album Christmas in My Heart , released in 2013 . American recording artist LeAnn Rimes released her cover of the song as a digital single for her EP , One Christmas : Chapter 1 ( 2014 ) . In 2016 , country music artist Kacey Musgraves recorded a version for her album A Very Kacey Christmas . A version was also recorded by the British entertainer Terry Hall and his puppet Lenny The Lion . Lake Street Dive recorded a version on Holidays Rule ( Vol. 2 ) released on October 13 , 2017 by Capitol Records , UMG Recordings . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Local Song Writer Dies '' , The Winterset Madisonian ( Winterset , Iowa ) , August 14 , 1957 . Jump up ^ `` Alice Pearce 's Nuptials '' , The New York Times , May 23 , 1948 , p. 65 . Jump up ^ `` John R. Rox '' ( sic ) , The New York Times , August 6 , 1957 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ `` John J. Rox , Song Writer '' , The Washington Post , August 8 , 1957 , p . B - 2 . Jump up ^ `` John Jefferson Rox '' in Notable Names in the American Theatre . James T. White & Co. , 1976 . ISBN 0 - 88371 - 018 - 8 . Jump up ^ Renewal registration RE0000084409 , February 23 , 1981 , of `` I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas '' , by John Jefferson Rox , U.S. Copyright Office database on - line . Jump up ^ John J. Rox in : National Archives and Records Administration . U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records , 1938 -- 1946 ( database on - line ) . Provo , UT , USA : The Generations Network , Inc. , 2005 . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2004 ) . Christmas in the Charts ( 1920 -- 2004 ) . Wisconsin : Record Research Inc. p. 53 . ISBN 0 - 89820 - 161 - 6 . Jump up ^ Gayla Peevey biography Jump up ^ `` The Ed Sullivan Show '' . The official site by Gayla Peevey . Retrieved December 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Breakfast Club '' morning show . WNIC , Detroit , MI . December 19 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` ' I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas ' Singer Welcomes Hippo to Oklahoma City Zoo '' . Associated Press . December 12 , 2017 . Retrieved December 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Christmas Music Coundown : Day 9.5 '' , The Portland Mercury . December 15 , 2010 . Retrieved November 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Dale , Vicki ; The Peter Pan Orchestra ( 1953 ) . I Want A Hippopotamus For Christmas ( FLAC , MP3 , Ogg ) format = requires url = ( help ) ( 78 rpm record ) . Peter Pan Records . Recording on the Internet Archive . Jump up ^ `` The Three Stooges -- Records '' . Retrieved May 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas - Single by LeAnn Rimes '' . iTunes Store . Apple Inc . Retrieved October 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Conaway , Alanna ( August 8 , 2014 ) . `` LeAnn Rimes Has a New Album , a New Reality TV Show and a New Attitude ( 2014 ) '' . Country Weekly . American Media , Inc . Retrieved October 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Holiday Rules ( Vol 2 ) '' . Track 11 I Want a Hippopotamus For Christmas . Apple Inc . Retrieved October 28 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Want_a_Hippopotamus_for_Christmas&oldid=818171646 '' Categories : 1953 songs 2009 singles Christmas novelty songs American Christmas songs Songs about animals Columbia Records singles Hidden categories : Articles with Internet Archive links Pages using citations with format and no URL Use mdy dates from September 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from August 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2018 , at 00 : 57 . About Wikipedia

Question: who sang original i want a hippopotamus for christmas


Intolerable Acts - wikipedia Intolerable Acts Jump to : navigation , search This article is part of a series about the American Revolution 1765 -- 1783 Origins ( show ) Sugar Act Currency Act Quartering Acts Stamp Act 1765 Declaratory Act No taxation without representation Townshend Acts Tea Act Boston Massacre Boston Tea Party Intolerable Acts Revolutionary War ( show ) Continental Army Continental Navy Minutemen Battles Intelligence Treaty of Paris Costs Declaration of Independence ( show ) Continental Congress Committee of Five Lee Resolution Articles of Confederation United States Constitution ( show ) Philadelphia Convention Annapolis Convention The Federalist Papers Bill of Rights A New Republic ( show ) Republicanism American Enlightenment Liberalism First Great Awakening Role of Women Legacy ( show ) Atlantic Revolutions Bicentennial The Intolerable Acts was the term used by American Patriots for a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party . The laws were meant to punish the Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in the Boston Tea Party protest in reaction to changes in taxation by the British to the detriment of Colonial goods . In Great Britain , these laws were referred to as the Coercive Acts . The acts took away self - governance and historic rights of Massachusetts , triggering outrage and resistance in the Thirteen Colonies . They were key developments in the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775 . Four of the acts were issued in direct response to the Boston Tea Party of December 1773 . The British Parliament hoped these punitive measures would , by making an example of Massachusetts , reverse the trend of colonial resistance to parliamentary authority that had begun with the 1764 Sugar Act . A fifth act , the Quebec Act , enlarged the boundaries of what was then the Province of Quebec and instituted reforms generally favorable to the French Catholic inhabitants of the region ; although unrelated to the other four Acts , it was passed in the same legislative session and seen by the colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts . The Patriots viewed the acts as an arbitrary violation of the rights of Massachusetts , and in September 1774 they organized the First Continental Congress to coordinate a protest . As tensions escalated , the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , leading in July 1776 to the declaration of an independent United States of America . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Passage 3 The Acts 4 Effects 5 References 6 External links Background ( edit ) This Patriot cartoon depicting the Coercive Acts as the forcing of tea on a Native American woman ( a symbol of the American colonies ) was copied and distributed in the Thirteen Colonies . Relations between the Thirteen Colonies and the British Parliament slowly but steadily worsened after the end of the Seven Years ' War ( French and Indian War ) in 1763 . The war had plunged the British government deep into debt , and so the British Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies . Parliament believed that these acts , such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767 , were legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs of maintaining the British Empire . Although protests led to the repeal of the Stamp and Townshend Acts , Parliament adhered to the position that it had the right to legislate for the colonies `` in all cases whatsoever '' in the Declaratory Act of 1766 . A further tension especially with the Southern colonies was the Somerset v Stewart ruling of 1772 in which chattel slavery of humans was found totally unsupported in common law and as England had no statute for it , unenforceable . As the `` slave owner '' concerned ( Stewart ) was from another British colony ( Jamaica ) this evolution ending slavery at common law was very disturbing to colonists travelling with servants. . Many colonists , either sincerely or with motives to avoid English imposed law as above , developed a different conception of the British Empire . Under the British Constitution , they argued , a British subject 's property could not be taken from him ( in the form of taxes ) without his consent ( in the form of representation in government ) . Therefore , because the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament , some colonists insisted that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them , a view expressed by the slogan `` No taxation without representation . '' After the Townshend Acts , some colonial essayists took this line of thinking even further , and began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all . This question of the extent of Parliament 's sovereignty in the colonies was the issue underlying what became the American Revolution . Passage ( edit ) On December 16 , 1773 , a group of Patriot colonists associated with the Sons of Liberty destroyed 342 chests of tea in Boston , Massachusetts , an act that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party . The colonists partook in this action because Parliament had passed the Tea Act , which granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies , thereby saving the company from bankruptcy . This made British tea less expensive , which Parliament thought would be a welcome change in the colonies . In addition , there was added a small tax on which the colonists were not allowed to give their consent , but the tea still remained less expensive even with the tax . Again , Parliament taxed the colonists without their representation . This angered the colonists . News of the Boston Tea Party reached England in January 1774 . Parliament responded by passing four laws . Three of the laws were intended to directly punish Massachusetts . This was for destruction of private property , to restore British authority in Massachusetts , and to otherwise reform colonial government in America . On April 22 , 1774 , Prime Minister Lord North defended the programme in the House of Commons , saying : The Americans have tarred and feathered your subjects , plundered your merchants , burnt your ships , denied all obedience to your laws and authority ; yet so clement and so long forbearing has our conduct been that it is incumbent on us now to take a different course . Whatever may be the consequences , we must risk something ; if we do not , all is over . The Acts ( edit ) The Boston Port Act , the first of the laws passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party . It closed the port of Boston until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea and until the king was satisfied that order had been restored . Colonists objected that the Port Act punished all of Boston rather than just the individuals who had destroyed the tea , and that they were being punished without having been given an opportunity to testify in their own defense . The Massachusetts Government Act provoked even more outrage than the Port Act because it unilaterally took away Massachusetts ' charter and brought it under control of the British government . Under the terms of the Government Act , almost all positions in the colonial government were to be appointed by the governor , Parliament , or king . The act also severely limited the activities of town meetings in Massachusetts to one meeting a year , unless the Governor called for one . Colonists outside Massachusetts feared that their governments could now also be changed by the legislative fiat of Parliament . The Administration of Justice Act allowed the Royal governor to order that trials of accused royal officials take place in Great Britain or elsewhere within the Empire if he decided that the defendant could not get a fair trial in Massachusetts . Although the act stipulated for witnesses to be reimbursed after having traveled at their own expense across the Atlantic , it was not stipulated that this would include reimbursement for lost earnings during the period for which they would be unable to work , leaving few with the ability to testify . George Washington called this the `` Murder Act '' because he believed that it allowed British officials to harass Americans and then escape justice . Many colonists believed the act was unnecessary because British soldiers had been given a fair trial following the Boston Massacre in 1770 . The Quartering Act applied to all of the colonies , and sought to create a more effective method of housing British troops in America . In a previous act , the colonies had been required to provide housing for soldiers , but colonial legislatures had been uncooperative in doing so . The new Quartering Act allowed a governor to house soldiers in other buildings if suitable quarters were not provided . While many sources claim that the Quartering Act allowed troops to be billeted in occupied private homes , historian David Ammerman 's 1974 study claimed that this is a myth , and that the act only permitted troops to be quartered in unoccupied buildings . Effects ( edit ) Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts ( Intolerable Acts ) as a violation of their constitutional rights , their natural rights , and their colonial charters . They , therefore , viewed the acts as a threat to the liberties of all of British America , not just Massachusetts . Richard Henry Lee of Virginia , for example , described the acts as `` a most wicked System for destroying the liberty of America . '' The citizens of Boston not only viewed this as an act of unnecessary and cruel punishment , but the Coercive Acts drew hatred toward Britain even further . As a result of the Coercive Acts , even more colonists turned against British rule . Great Britain hoped that the Coercive Acts would isolate radicals in Massachusetts and cause American colonists to concede the authority of Parliament over their elected assemblies . It was a calculated risk that backfired , however , because the harshness of some of the acts made it difficult for moderates in the colonies to speak in favor of Parliament . The acts promoted sympathy for Massachusetts and encouraged colonists from the otherwise diverse colonies to form committees of correspondence which sent delegates to the First Continental Congress . The Continental Congress created the Continental Association , an agreement to boycott British goods . Additionally , it was decided that if the Coercive Acts were not reversed after a year , goods were to stop being exported to Great Britain as well . The Congress also pledged to support Massachusetts in case of attack , which meant that all of the colonies would become involved when the American Revolutionary War began at Lexington and Concord . References ( edit ) Notes Jump up ^ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart#cite_note-j1599128-2 Jump up ^ Middlekauff , Glorious Cause , 241 . Jump up ^ Reid , Constitutional History , 13 . For the complete quote in context , see William Cobbett et al. , eds. , The Parliamentary History of England : From the Earliest Period to the Year 1803 ( London , 1813 ) 17 : 1280 -- 1281 . Jump up ^ `` 1774 : Parliament passes the Boston Port Act '' . History Channel . Retrieved 20 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Ammerman , In the Common Cause , 9 . Jump up ^ Ammerman , In the Common Cause , 10 . Jump up ^ Ammerman , In the Common Cause , 15 . Jump up ^ Gary B. Nash ; Carter Smith ( 2007 ) . Atlas Of American History . Infobase Publishing . p. 64 . ISBN 9781438130132 . Jump up ^ Peter Knight ( 2003 ) . Conspiracy Theories in American History : An Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . pp. 184 -- 85 . ISBN 9781576078129 . Jump up ^ Harlow G. Unger ( 2011 ) . American Tempest : How the Boston Tea Party Sparked a Revolution . Da Capo Press . pp. 188 -- 93 . ISBN 0306819767 . Bibliography Ammerman , David ( 1974 ) . In the Common Cause : American Response to the Coercive Acts of 1774 . New York : Norton . Middlekauff , Robert ( 2005 ) . The Glorious Cause : The American Revolution , 1763 -- 1789 ( Revised and expanded ed . ) . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 516247 - 1 . Reid , John Phillip ( 2003 ) . Constitutional History of the American Revolution : The Authority of Law . Madison : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 - 299 - 11290 - X . Unger , Harlow G. ( 2011 ) . American Tempest : How the Boston Tea Party Sparked a Revolution . Da Capo Press . pp. 188 -- 93 . ISBN 0306819767 . Further reading Donoughue , Bernard ( 1964 ) . British Politics and the American Revolution : The Path to War , 1773 -- 1775 . New York : St. Martin 's Press . Breen , T.H. ( 2010 ) . American Insurgents , American Patriots : The Revolution of the People . New York : Hill and Wang . External links ( edit ) Primary documents ( British and American ) relating to the Intolerable Acts , originally published in the American Archives and presented online by the Northern Illinois University Libraries , also Camden . Text of the Boston Port Act Text of the Massachusetts Government Act Text of the Administration of Justice Act Text of the Quartering Act Text of the Quebec Act ( hide ) British law and the American Revolution Royal Proclamations , Acts of Parliament , and other legal issues relating to the American Revolution Before 1763 Navigation Acts Wool Act ( 1699 ) Hat Act ( 1732 ) Molasses Act ( 1733 ) Iron Act ( 1750 ) Grenville ministry ( 1763 -- 1765 ) Royal Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Act ( 1764 ) Currency Act ( 1764 ) Quartering Act ( 1765 ) Stamp Act ( 1765 ) Rockingham ministry ( 1765 -- 1766 ) Repeal Act ( March 1766 ) Declaratory Act ( March 1766 ) Revenue Act ( June 1766 ) Chatham and Grafton ministries ( 1766 -- 1770 ) Townshend Acts ( 1767 ) North ministry ( 1770 -- 1782 ) Repeal Act ( 1770 ) Tea Act ( 1773 ) Coercive Acts ( 1774 ) Conciliatory Resolution ( February 1775 ) Restraining Acts ( March & April 1775 ) Proclamation of Rebellion ( August 1775 ) Prohibitory Act ( December 1775 ) Taxation of Colonies Act ( 1778 ) Other legal issues Rights of Englishmen Writ of assistance Admiralty courts Parson 's Cause ( 1763 ) Taxation without representation Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intolerable_Acts&oldid=822211417 '' Categories : Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1774 1774 in the Thirteen Colonies Laws leading to the American Revolution Hidden categories : All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Català Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Ido Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2018 , at 01 : 37 . 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Question: what act did parliament pass after the boston tea party