Discovery of the neutron - wikipedia Discovery of the neutron Jump to : navigation , search James Chadwick at the 1933 Solvay Conference . Chadwick had discovered the neutron the year before while working at Cavendish Laboratory . The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics that occurred in the first half of the 20th century . Early in the century , Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model for the atom , based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden . In this model , atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus . By 1920 chemical isotopes had been discovered , the atomic masses had been determined to be integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom , and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus . Throughout the 1920s , the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons , the two elementary particles known at the time , but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions . The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle , distinct from the proton . The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure , leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation ( 1934 ) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons ( 1938 ) . The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and weapons by the end of World War II . Both the proton and neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks . Contents ( hide ) 1 Gold foil experiment 2 Discovery of isotopes 3 Atomic number and Moseley 's law 4 Rutherford atom 5 Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis 6 Discovery of the neutron 7 Proton -- neutron model of the nucleus 8 The nature of the neutron 9 Neutron physics in the 1930s 10 After 1939 11 Videos 12 References 13 Further reading Gold foil experiment ( edit ) See also : Atomic theory and Plum pudding model A schematic of the nucleus of an atom indicating β − radiation , the emission of a fast electron from the nucleus ( the accompanying antineutrino is omitted ) . In the Rutherford model for the nucleus , red spheres were protons with positive charge and blue spheres were protons tightly bound to an electron with no net charge . The inset shows beta decay of a free neutron as it is understood today ; an electron and antineutrino are created in this process . At the start of the 20th century , the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved . Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real , viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct , while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms . Radioactivity had been recently discovered in uranium and thorium . Ernest Rutherford had separated radioactivity into three types : alpha , beta , and gamma rays , depending on their ability to penetrate , or travel into , ordinary objects or gases . These radiations were soon identified with known particles : alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907 ; beta rays were shown to be electrons by Henri Becquerel in 1900 ; and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation , that is , a form of light , in 1914 . These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms , hence they provided clues as to processes occurring within atoms . Conversely , the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms . At the University of Manchester between 1908 and 1913 , Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in a series of experiments to determine what happens when alpha particles scatter from metal foil . Now called the Rutherford gold foil experiment , or the Geiger -- Marsden experiment , these measurements made the extraordinary discovery that alpha particles would occasionally scatter to high angle when passing through a thin gold foil . The scattering indicated that the alpha particles were reflecting from a small , but dense , component of atoms . Based on these measurements , by 1911 it was apparent to Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons . The concentrated atomic mass was required to provide the observed reflection of the alpha particles , and Rutherford developed a mathematical model that accounted for the scattering . The Rutherford model was very influential , motivating the Bohr model for electrons orbiting the nucleus in 1913 and eventually leading to quantum mechanics by the mid-1920s . Discovery of isotopes ( edit ) Concurrent with the work of Rutherford , Geiger , and Marsden , the radiochemist Frederick Soddy at the University of Glasgow was studying radioactive decay chains of uranium . Soddy had been a student of Rutherford . Soddy 's study indicated about 40 different radioactive elements , referred to as radioelements , between uranium and lead , although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements . By 1913 Soddy had determined that several of these elements had identical chemical properties but different atomic weights . He called these chemically similar elements isotopes . For his study of radioactivity and the discovery of isotopes , Soddy was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Replica of Aston 's third mass spectrometer Building from work by J.J. Thomson on the deflection of positively charged atoms by electric and magnetic fields , Francis Aston built the first mass spectrograph at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919 . His aim was to try to separate the two isotopes of neon , which he was able to easily do . Aston discovered that the masses of all the particles are whole numbers , called the whole number rule , that is , the masses of all the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom . Aston arbitrarily computed his masses relative to oxygen - 16 , which he took to have a mass of exactly 16 . ( Today the atomic mass unit ( amu ) is relative to carbon - 12 . ) Ironically , the one exception to this rule was hydrogen itself , which had a mass value of 1.008 . The excess mass was small , but well outside experimental uncertainty . Aston and others quickly realized that the discrepancy is due to the binding energy of atoms , that is , the mass of a number of hydrogen atoms bound into a single atom must be less than the sum of the masses of the separate hydrogen atoms . Additional work determined the nuclide binding energies . Aston 's work on isotopes garnered him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements , and for his enunciation of the whole - number rule . Noting Aston 's recent discovery of nuclear binding energy , in 1920 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars may obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen ( protons ) into helium and that the heavier elements may form in stars . Atomic number and Moseley 's law ( edit ) Main article : Moseley 's law Rutherford and others had noted the disparity between the mass of an atom , computed in atomic mass units , and the approximate charge required on the nucleus for the Rutherford model to work . The required charge of the atomic nucleus was usually about half its atomic mass . In 1911 Antonius van den Broek made the then bold suggestion that the required charge , denoted Z , was not half of the atomic weight for elements , but instead was exactly equal to the element 's atomic number , or place in the periodic table . At that time the positions of the elements in the table were not known to have any physical significance , except as a way to order the elements in particular sequences with similar chemical properties . At the University of Manchester in 1913 Henry Moseley discussed the new Bohr model of the atom with the visiting Bohr . The model accounted for the electromagnetic emission spectrum from the hydrogen atom , and Moseley wondered if the electromagnetic emission spectra of heavier elements such as cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight , or by their position in the periodic table . In 1913 - 1914 Moseley tested the question experimentally by using x-ray diffraction techniques . He found that the most intense short - wavelength line in the x-ray spectrum of a particular element , known as the K - alpha line , was related to the element 's position in the periodic table , that is , its atomic number , Z . Indeed , Moseley introduced this nomenclature . Moseley found that the frequencies of the radiation were related in a simple way to the atomic number of the elements for a large number of elements . Within a year it was noted that the equation for the relation , now called Moseley 's law , could be explained in terms of the 1913 Bohr model , with reasonable extra assumptions about atomic structure in other elements . Moseley 's result , by Bohr 's later account , not only established atomic number as a measurable experimental quantity , but gave it a physical meaning as the positive charge on the atomic nucleus . The elements could be ordered in the periodic system in order of atomic number , rather than atomic weight . The result tied together the organization of the periodic table , the Bohr model for the atom , and Rutherford 's model for alpha scattering from nuclei . It was cited by Rutherford , Bohr , and others as a critical advance in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus . Further research in atomic physics was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. Moseley was killed in 1915 at the Battle of Gallipoli , while Rutherford 's student James Chadwick was interned in Germany for the duration of the war , 1914 - 1918 . In Berlin , Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn 's work on determining the radioactive decay chains of radium and uranium by precise chemical separation was interrupted . Meitner spent much of the war working as a radiologist and medical X-ray technician near the Austrian front , while Hahn , a chemist , worked on research in poison gas warfare . Rutherford atom ( edit ) Ernest Rutherford See also : Discovery of the proton In 1920 Rutherford gave a Bakerian lecture at the Royal Society entitled the `` Nuclear Constitution of Atoms '' , a summary of what was then known about the nucleus of the atom . By 1920 , the existence of electrons within the atomic nucleus was widely assumed . It was assumed the nucleus consisted of hydrogen nuclei in number equal to the atomic mass . But since each hydrogen had charge + 1 , the nucleus required a smaller number of `` internal electrons '' each of charge - 1 to give the nucleus its correct total charge . The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons , so the mass of the electrons is incidental in this computation . Such a model was consistent with the scattering of alpha particles from heavy nuclei , as well as the charge and mass of the many isotopes that had been identified . There were other motivations for the proton -- electron model . As noted by Rutherford at the time , `` We have strong reason for believing that the nuclei of atoms contain electrons as well as positively charged bodies ... '' , namely , it was known that beta radiation was electrons emitted from the nucleus . In that lecture , Rutherford conjectured the existence of new particles . The alpha particle was known to be very stable , and it was assumed to retain its identity within the nucleus . The alpha particle was presumed to consist of four protons and two closely bound electrons to give it + 2 charge and mass 4 . In a 1919 paper , Rutherford had reported the apparent discovery of a new doubly charged particle of mass 3 , denoted the X++ , interpreted to consist of three protons and a closely bound electron . This result suggested to Rutherford the likely existence of two new particles , one of two protons with a closely bound electron , and another of one proton and a closely bound electron . The X++ particle was later determined to have mass 4 and to be just a low - energy alpha particle . Nevertheless , Rutherford had conjectured the existence of the neutron , a neutral particle of mass 1 , and the deuteron , a + 1 charge particle of mass 2 . The latter is the nucleus of deuterium , discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey . The mass of the hypothetical neutral particle would be little different from that of the proton . Rutherford determined that such a zero - charge particle would be difficult to detect by available techniques . By 1921 Rutherford had named the uncharged particle the neutron , while about that same time the word proton was adopted for the hydrogen nucleus . Neutron was apparently constructed from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending - on ( by imitation of electron and proton ) . References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899 , however . Rutherford and Chadwick immediately began an experimental program to search for the neutron at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge . The experiments continued throughout the 1920s without success . Rutherford 's conjecture was not widely accepted . In his 1931 textbook on the Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity , George Gamow , then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen , did not mention the neutron . At the time of their 1932 measurements in Paris that would lead to the discovery of the neutron , Irène Joliot - Curie and Frédéric Joliot were unaware of the conjecture . Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis ( edit ) Throughout the 1920s , physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and `` nuclear electrons '' . Under this hypothesis , the nitrogen - 14 ( N ) nucleus would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons , so that it would have a net charge of + 7 elementary charge units and a mass of 14 atomic mass units . The nucleus was also orbited by another 7 electrons , termed `` external electrons '' by Rutherford , to complete the N atom . Obvious problems with the hypothesis became apparent , however . Ralph Kronig pointed out in 1926 that the observed hyperfine structure of atomic spectra was inconsistent with the proton -- electron hypothesis . This structure is caused by the influence of the nucleus on the dynamics of orbiting electrons . The magnetic moments of supposed `` nuclear electrons '' should produce hyperfine spectral line splittings similar to the Zeeman effect , but no such effects were observed . It appeared as if the magnetic moment of the electron disappeared when it was within the nucleus . Observations of the energy levels of molecules by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from proton -- electron hypothesis . Molecular Raman spectroscopy of dinitrogen ( N ) showed that transitions originating from even - numbered rotational levels are more intense than those from odd levels , hence the even levels are more populated . According to quantum mechanics and the Pauli exclusion principle , the spin of the N nucleus is therefore an integer multiple of ħ ( the reduced Planck constant ) . Yet both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of 1⁄2 ħ , and there is no way to arrange an odd number ( 14 protons + 7 electrons = 21 ) of spins ± 1⁄2 ħ to give a spin that is an integer multiple of ħ . The Klein paradox , discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928 , presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus . Derived from the Dirac equation , this clear and precise paradox showed that a high - energy electron approaching a potential barrier has a high probability of passing through the barrier , or escaping , by transforming to a particle of negative mass . Apparently , an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well . The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time . By about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton -- electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics . This relation , Δx ⋅ Δp ≥ 1⁄2ħ , implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus has an expected kinetic energy of 10 -- 100 MeV . This energy is larger than the observed energy of beta particles emitted from the nucleus . The expected electron energy is also larger than the binding energy of nucleons , which Aston and others had shown to be less than 9 MeV per nucleon . While all these considerations did not `` prove '' an electron could not exist in the nucleus , they were challenging for physicists to interpret . In his 1931 textbook , Gamow summarized all these contradictions . Adding to the confusion in interpretation , the continuous energy distribution of beta decay electrons seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved by this `` nuclear electrons '' process . Indeed , Bohr , Gamow , Heisenberg and others considered the possibility that the laws of quantum mechanics were not applicable inside the nucleus . Such considerations were apparently reasonable , inasmuch as the laws of quantum mechanics had so recently overturned the laws of classical mechanics . The contradictions were mysterious and troublesome , until it was realized that there are no electrons in the nucleus . Discovery of the neutron ( edit ) In 1930 , Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker in Giessen , Germany found that if the energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements , specifically beryllium ( 9 4Be ) , boron ( 11 5B ) , or lithium ( 7 3Li ) , an unusually penetrating radiation was produced . Beryllium produced the most intense such radiation . Polonium is highly radioactive , hence it is a good source of energetic alpha radiation . Polonium was commonly used for such scattering experiments at the time . Since the observed radiation was not influenced by an electric field ( neutrons have no charge ) , it was thought to be gamma radiation . The radiation was more penetrating than any gamma rays known , and the details of experimental results were difficult to interpret . A schematic diagram of the experiment used to discover the neutron in 1932 . At left , a polonium source was used to irradiate beryllium with alpha particles , which induced an uncharged radiation . When this radiation struck paraffin wax , protons were ejected . The protons were observed using a small ionization chamber . Adapted from Chadwick ( 1932 ) . Two years later Irène Joliot - Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin wax , or any other hydrogen - containing compound , it ejected protons of very high energy ( 5 MeV ) . This observation was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation , but that interpretation ( Compton scattering ) had a logical problem . From energy and momentum considerations , a gamma ray would have to have impossibly high energy ( 50 MeV ) to scatter a massive proton . In Rome , the young physicist Ettore Majorana declared that the manner in which the new radiation interacted with protons required a new neutral particle . On hearing of the Paris results , neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory believed the gamma ray hypothesis . Assisted by Norman Feather , Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable . The previous year , Chadwick , J.E.R. Constable , and E.C. Pollard had already conducted experiments on disintegrating light elements using alpha radiation from polonium . They had also developed more accurate and efficient methods for detecting , counting , and recording the ejected protons . Chadwick repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium and aimed the radiation at paraffin following the Paris experiment . Paraffin wax is a hydrocarbon high in hydrogen content , hence offers a target dense with protons ; since neutrons and protons have almost equal mass , protons scatter energetically from neutrons . Chadwick measured the range of these protons , and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases . He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays , but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton . These particles were neutrons . Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery in 1935 . The year 1932 was later referred to as the `` annus mirabilis '' for nuclear physics in the Cavendish Laboratory , with discoveries of the neutron , artificial nuclear disintegration by the Cockcroft -- Walton particle accelerator , and the positron . Proton -- neutron model of the nucleus ( edit ) Models depicting the nucleus and electron energy levels in hydrogen , helium , lithium , and neon atoms . In reality , the diameter of the nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom . Given the problems of the proton -- electron model , it was quickly accepted that the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons , although the precise nature of the neutron was initially unclear . Within months after the discovery of the neutron , Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton -- neutron models for the nucleus . Heisenberg 's landmark papers approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics . While Heisenberg 's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a `` major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system , '' he still assumed the presence of nuclear electrons . In particular , Heisenberg assumed the neutron was a proton -- electron composite , for which there is no quantum mechanical explanation . Heisenberg had no explanation for how lightweight electrons could be bound within the nucleus . Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons . He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle , i.e. , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers . The proton -- neutron model explained the puzzle of dinitrogen . When N was proposed to consist of 3 pairs each of protons and neutrons , with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of  ⁄ ħ in the same direction for a total spin of 1 ħ , the model became viable . Soon , neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way . If the proton -- neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues , it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation . No existing theory could account for how electrons could emanate from the nucleus . In 1934 , Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay , in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a ( as yet undiscovered ) neutrino . The paper employed the analogy that photons , or electromagnetic radiation , were similarly created and destroyed in atomic processes . Ivanenko had suggested a similar analogy in 1932 . Fermi 's theory requires the neutron to be a spin - 1⁄2 particle . The theory preserved the principle of conservation of energy , which had been thrown into question by the continuous energy distribution of beta particles . The basic theory for beta decay proposed by Fermi was the first to show how particles could be created and destroyed . It established a general , basic theory for the interaction of particles by weak or strong forces . While this influential paper has stood the test of time , the ideas within it were so new that when it was first submitted to the journal Nature in 1933 it was rejected as being too speculative . The nature of the neutron ( edit ) Seventh Solvay Conference , 1933 . The question of whether the neutron was a composite particle of a proton and an electron persisted for a few years after its discovery . In 1932 Harrie Massey explored a model for a composite neutron to account for its great penetrating power through matter and its electrical neutrality , for example . The issue was a legacy of the prevailing view from the 1920s that the only elementary particles were the proton and electron . The nature of the neutron was a primary topic of discussion at the 7th Solvay Conference held in October 1933 , attended by Heisenberg , Niels Bohr , Lise Meitner , Ernest Lawrence , Fermi , Chadwick , and others . As posed by Chadwick in his Bakerian Lecture in 1933 , the primary question was the mass of the neutron relative to the proton . If the neutron 's mass was less than the combined masses of a proton and an electron ( 7000100780000000000 ♠ 1.0078 u ) , then the neutron could be a proton - electron composite because of the mass defect from the binding energy . If greater than the combined masses , then the neutron was elementary like the proton . The question was challenging to answer because the electron 's mass is only 0.05 % of the proton 's , hence exceptionally precise measurements were required . The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide - ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932 - 1934 . The accepted value today is 7000100865999999999 ♠ 1.008 66 u . In Chadwick 's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery , he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between 7000100499999999999 ♠ 1.005 u and 7000100800000000000 ♠ 1.008 u . By bombarding boron with alpha particles , Frédéric and Irène Joliot - Curie obtained a high value of 7000101200000000000 ♠ 1.012 u , while Ernest Lawrence 's team at the University of California measured the small value 7000100060000000000 ♠ 1.0006 u using their new cyclotron . In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber resolved the issue by reporting the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron . They used the 2.6 MeV gamma rays of Thallium - 208 ( Tl ) ( then known as thorium C `` ) to photodisintegrate the deuteron + γ → + n In this reaction , the resulting proton and neutron have about equal kinetic energy , since their masses are about equal . The kinetic energy of the resulting proton could be measured ( 0.24 MeV ) , and therefore the deuteron 's binding energy could be determined ( 2.6 MeV - 2 ( 0.24 MeV ) = 2.1 MeV , or 6997230000000000000 ♠ 0.0023 u ) . The neutron 's mass could then be determined by the simple mass balance m + b.e. = m + m where m refer to the deuteron , proton , or neutron mass , and `` b.e. '' is the binding energy . The masses of the deuteron and proton were known ; Chadwick and Goldhaber used values 2.0142 u and 1.0081 u , respectively . They found that the neutron 's mass was slightly greater than the mass of the proton 7000100840000000000 ♠ 1.0084 u or 7000100899999999999 ♠ 1.0090 u , depending on the precise value used for the deuteron mass . The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton - electron composite , and the neutron was therefore identified as an elementary particle . Ironically , in support of Fermi 's theory , Chadwick and Goldhaber predicted that a free neutron would be able to decay into a proton , electron , and neutrino ( beta decay ) . Neutron Physics in the 1930s ( edit ) See also : Neutron magnetic moment , Enrico Fermi , Lise Meitner , and Otto Hahn Soon after the discovery of the neutron , indirect evidence suggested the neutron had an unexpected non-zero value for its magnetic moment . Attempts to measure the neutron 's magnetic moment originated with the discovery by Otto Stern in 1933 in Hamburg that the proton had an anomalously large magnetic moment . By 1934 groups led by Stern , now in Pittsburgh , and I.I. Rabi in New York had independently deduced that the magnetic moment of the neutron was negative and unexpectedly large by measuring the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron . Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were also determined by Robert Bacher ( 1933 ) at Ann Arbor and I.Y. Tamm and S.A. Altshuler ( 1934 ) in the Soviet Union from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra . By the late 1930s accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques . The large value for the proton 's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron 's magnetic moment were unexpected and raised many questions . Fermi and his students ( the Via Panisperna boys ) in the courtyard of Rome University 's Physics Institute in Via Panisperna , about 1934 . From Left to right : Oscar D'Agostino , Emilio Segrè , Edoardo Amaldi , Franco Rasetti and Fermi The discovery of the neutron immediately gave scientists a new tool for probing the properties of atomic nuclei . Alpha particles had been used over the previous decades in scattering experiments , but such particles , which are helium nuclei , have + 2 charge . This charge makes it difficult for alpha particles to overcome the Coulomb repulsive force and interact directly with the nuclei of atoms . Since neutrons have no electric charge , they do not have to overcome this force to interact with nuclei . Almost coincident with its discovery , neutrons were used by Norman Feather , Chadwick 's colleague and protege , in scattering experiments with nitrogen . Feather was able to show that neutrons interacting with nitrogen nuclei scattered to protons or induced nitrogen to disintegrate to form boron with the emission of an alpha particle . Feather was therefore the first to show that neutrons produce nuclear disintegrations . In Rome , Enrico Fermi bombarded heavier elements with neutrons and found the products to be radioactive . By 1934 Fermi had used neutrons to induce radioactivity in 22 different elements , many of these elements of high atomic number . Noticing that other experiments with neutrons at his laboratory seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table , Fermi suspected that the protons of the wood were slowing the neutrons and so increasing the chance for the neutron to interact with nuclei . Fermi therefore passed neutrons through paraffin wax to slow them and found that the radioactivity of bombarded elements increased by a hundredfold . The cross section for interaction with nuclei is much larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons . In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics `` for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation , and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons '' . Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in their laboratory in 1913 . Nuclear fission caused by absorption of a neutron by uranium - 235 . The heavy nuclide fragments into lighter components and additional neutrons . In Berlin , the collaboration of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn , together with their assistant Fritz Strassmann , furthered the research begun by Fermi and his team when they bombarded uranium with neutrons . Between 1934 and 1938 , Hahn , Meitner , and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products from these experiments , all of which they regarded as transuranic . Transuranic nuclides are those that have an atomic number greater than uranium ( 92 ) , formed by neutron absorption ; such nuclides are not naturally occurring . In July 1938 , Meitner was forced to escape antisemitic persecution in Nazi Germany after the Anschluss , and she was able to secure a new position in Sweden . The decisive experiment on 16 -- 17 December 1938 ( using a chemical process called `` radium -- barium -- mesothorium fractionation '' ) produced puzzling results : what they had understood to be three isotopes of radium were instead consistently behaving as barium . Radium ( atomic number 88 ) and barium ( atomic number 56 ) are in the same chemical group . By January 1939 Hahn had concluded that he was seeing barium , lanthanum , cerium and light platinoids . Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch immediately and correctly interpreted these observations as nuclear fission , a term coined by Frisch . Hahn and his collaborators had detected the splitting of uranium nuclei , made unstable by neutron absorption , into lighter elements . Meitner and Frisch also showed that the fission of each uranium atom would release about 200 MeV of energy . The discovery of fission electrified the global community of atomic physicists and the public . In their second publication on nuclear fission , Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process . Frédéric Joliot and his team proved this phenomenon to be a chain reaction in March 1939 . In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry `` for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei . '' After 1939 ( edit ) The Trinity test of the Manhattan Project in 1945 was the first atomic bomb . See also : Chicago Pile - 1 and Timeline of particle discoveries The discovery of nuclear fission at the end of 1938 marked a shift in the centers of nuclear research from Europe to the United States . Large numbers of scientists were migrating to the United States to escape the troubles and antisemitism in Europe and the looming war ( See Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project ) . The new centers of nuclear research were the universities in the United States , particularly Columbia University in New York and the University of Chicago where Enrico Fermi had relocated , and a secret research facility at Los Alamos , New Mexico , established in 1942 , the new home of the Manhattan project . This wartime project was focussed on the construction of nuclear weapons , exploiting the enormous energy released by the fission of uranium or plutonium through neutron - based chain reactions . The discoveries of the neutron and positron in 1932 were the start of the discoveries of many new particles . Muons were discovered in 1936 . Pions and kaons were discovered in 1947 , while lambda particles were discovered in 1950 . Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , a large number of particles called hadrons were discovered . A classification scheme for organizing all these particles , proposed independently by Murray Gell - Mann and George Zweig in 1964 , became known as the quark model . By this model , particles such as the proton and neutron were not elementary , but composed of various configurations of a small number of other truly elementary particles called partons or quarks . The quark model received experimental verification beginning in the late 1960s and finally provided an explanation for the neutron 's anomalous magnetic moment . Videos ( edit ) Ernest Rutherford summarizes the state of nuclear physics in 1935 . ( 7 min. , Nobelprize.org ) Hans Bethe discusses Chadwick and Goldhaber 's work on deuteron disintegration. ( 2 min. , Web of Stories ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Pais , Abraham ( 1986 ) . Inward Bound . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0198519974 . ^ Jump up to : Rutherford , E. ( 1911 ) . `` The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom '' . Philosophical Magazine . Series 6 ( 21 ) : 669 -- 688 . doi : 10.1080 / 14786440508637080 . Retrieved 15 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Longair , M.S. ( 2003 ) . Theoretical concepts in physics : an alternative view of theoretical reasoning in physics . Cambridge University Press . pp. 377 -- 378 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 52878 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Squires , Gordon ( 1998 ) . `` Francis Aston and the mass spectrograph '' . Dalton Transactions ( 23 ) : 3893 -- 3900 . doi : 10.1039 / a804629h . Retrieved 6 December 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Byrne , J. Neutrons , Nuclei , and Matter , Dover Publications , Mineola , New York , 2011 , ISBN 0486482383 ^ Jump up to : Chadwick , James ( 1932 ) . `` Existence of a Neutron '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 136 ( 830 ) : 692 -- 708 . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1932.0112 . ^ Jump up to : Chadwick , J. ; Goldhaber , M. ( 1935 ) . `` A nuclear photoelectric effect '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 151 ( 873 ) : 479 -- 493 . Bibcode : 1935RSPSA. 151 ... 479C . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1935.0162 . ^ Jump up to : Stuewer , Roger H. ( 1983 ) . `` The Nuclear Electron Hypothesis '' . In Shea , William R. Otto Hahn and the Rise of Nuclear Physics . Dordrecht , Holland : D. Riedel Publishing Company . pp. 19 -- 67 . ISBN 90 - 277 - 1584 - X . ^ Jump up to : Rife , Patricia ( 1999 ) . Lise Meitner and the dawn of the nuclear age . Basel , Switzerland : Birkhäuser . ISBN 0 - 8176 - 3732 - X . ^ Jump up to : Perkins , Donald H. ( 1982 ) , Introduction to High Energy Physics , Addison Wesley , Reading , Massachusetts , pp. 201 -- 202 , ISBN 0 - 201 - 05757 - 3 Jump up ^ Rutherford distinguished and named α and β rays on page 116 of : Rutherford , E. ( 1899 ) `` Uranium radiation and the electrical conduction produced by it , '' Philosophical Magazine , Series 5 , vol. 47 , no . 284 , 109 -- 163 . Rutherford named γ rays on page 177 of : Rutherford , E. ( 1903 ) `` The magnetic and electric deviation of the easily absorbed rays from radium , '' Philosophical Magazine , Series 6 , vol. 5 , no . 26 , 177 -- 187 . Jump up ^ Rutherford , E. ; Royds , T. ( 1908 ) `` Spectrum of the radium emanation , '' Philosophical Magazine , Series 6 , vol. 16 , 313 -- 317 . Jump up ^ Bohr , N. ( 1913 ) . `` On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules , Part I '' ( PDF ) . Philosophical Magazine . 26 ( 151 ) : 1 -- 24 . doi : 10.1080 / 14786441308634955 . Jump up ^ Choppin , G. ; Liljenzin , J.O. ; Rydberg , J. ( 1995 ) . Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry . ( 2nd ed . ) Oxford : Butterworth - Heinemann , pp. 3 -- 5 , ISBN 9781483293462 ^ Jump up to : Ley , Willy ( October 1966 ) . `` The Delayed Discovery '' . For Your Information . Galaxy Science Fiction . pp. 116 -- 127 . Jump up ^ Others had also suggested the possibility of isotopes ; for example : Strömholm , D. and Svedberg , T. ( 1909 ) `` Untersuchungen über die Chemie der radioactiven Grundstoffe II . '' ( Investigations into the chemistry of the radioactive elements , part 2 ) , Zeitschrift für anorganischen Chemie , 63 : 197 -- 206 ; see especially page 206 . Cameron , Alexander Thomas ( 1910 ) . Radiochemistry . London , England : J.M. Dent & Sons , p. 141 . ( Cameron also anticipated the displacement law . ) Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921 : Frederick Soddy -- Biographical '' . Nobelprize.org . Retrieved 16 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Hevesy , G. ( 1948 ) . `` Francis William Aston. 1877 -- 1945 '' . Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society . 5 ( 16 ) : 634 -- 650 . doi : 10.1098 / rsbm. 1948.0002 . JSTOR 768761 . Jump up ^ `` Atomic Weights and the International Committee -- A Historical Review '' . 26 January 2004 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1922 : Francis W. Aston -- Biographical '' . Nobelprize.org . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Eddington , A.S. ( 1920 ) . `` The Internal Constitution of the Stars '' . The Observatory . 43 : 341 . Bibcode : 1920Obs ... 43 ... 341E . Jump up ^ Eddington , A.S. ( 1920 ) . `` The Internal Constitution of the Stars '' . Nature . 106 ( 2653 ) : 14 . Bibcode : 1920Natur. 106 ... 14E . doi : 10.1038 / 106014a0 . Jump up ^ Heilbron , J.L. , H.G.J. Moseley : The Life and Letters of an English Physicist , 1887 - 1915 , University of California Press , 1974 , ISBN 0520023757 Jump up ^ Moseley , Henry G.J. ( 1913 ) . `` The High Frequency Spectra of the Elements '' . Philosophical Magazine . 26 ( 156 ) : 1024 - 1034 . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Oral History Interview : Niels Bohr , Session I '' . American Institute of Physics , Niels Bohr Library and Archives . 31 October 1962 . Retrieved 25 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Reynosa , Peter ( 7 January 2016 ) . `` An Ode to Henry Moseley '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` This Month in Physics History : May 1932 : Chadwick reports the discovery of the neutron '' . APS News . American Physical Society . 16 ( 5 ) . 2007 . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Rutherford , E. ( 1920 ) . `` Bakerian Lecture : Nuclear Constitution of Atoms '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 97 ( 686 ) : 374 -- 400 . 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Wolfgang Pauli Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel mit Bohr , Einstein , Heisenberg u.a . Sources in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences . 6 . p. 105 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 3 - 540 - 78801 - 0_3 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 13609 - 5 . Jump up ^ Hendry , John , ed. ( 1984 ) , Cambridge Physics in the Thirties , Bristol : Adam Hilger Ltd , ISBN 0852747616 Jump up ^ Feather , N. ( 1960 ) . `` A history of neutrons and nuclei . Part 1 '' . Contemporary Physics. 1 ( 3 ) : 191 -- 203 . Bibcode : 1960ConPh ... 1 ... 191F . doi : 10.1080 / 00107516008202611 . ^ Jump up to : Gamow G. ( 1931 ) Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radiation , Oxford : Clarendon Press Jump up ^ Crowther , J.G. ( 1971 ) . `` Rutherford the Great '' . New Scientist and Science Journal . 51 ( 3 ) : 464 -- 466 . Retrieved 27 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Laurie M. ( 1978 ) . `` The idea of the neutrino '' . Physics Today . 31 ( 9 ) : 23 . Bibcode : 1978PhT ... 31i ... 23B . doi : 10.1063 / 1.2995181 . ^ Jump up to : Friedlander , G. ; Kennedy , J.W. ; Miller , J.M. ( 1964 ) Nuclear and Radiochemistry ( 2nd edition ) , Wiley , pp. 22 -- 23 and 38 -- 39 ^ Jump up to : Stuewer , Roger H. ( 1985 ) . `` Niels Bohr and Nuclear Physics '' . In French , A.P. ; Kennedy , P.J. Niels Bohr : A Centenary Volume . Harvard University Press . pp. 197 -- 220 . ISBN 0674624165 . Jump up ^ Interview with Franco Rasetti Judith R. Goodstein , Caltech Oral History Project ( 1982 ) Jump up ^ Atkins , P.W. ; J. de Paula , P.W. ( 2006 ) `` Atkins ' Physical Chemistry '' ( 8th edition ) , W.H. Freeman , p. 451 Jump up ^ Herzberg , G. ( 1950 ) Spectra of Diatomic Molecules ( 2nd edition ) , van Nostrand Reinhold , pp. 133 -- 140 Jump up ^ Klein , O. ( 1929 ) . `` Die Reflexion von Elektronen an einem Potentialsprung nach der relativistischen Dynamik von Dirac '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 53 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 157 . Bibcode : 1929ZPhy ... 53 ... 157K . doi : 10.1007 / BF01339716 . Jump up ^ Shultis , J. Kenneth ; Faw , Richard E. ( 2007 ) , Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering , CRC , 2nd edition , ISBN 1420051369 Jump up ^ In a nucleus of diameter R in the order of 10 fm , the uncertainty principle would require an electron to have a momentum p of the order of h / R. Such a momentum implies that the electron has a ( relativistic ) kinetic energy of 10 -- 100 MeV . Jump up ^ Aston , F.W. ( 1927 ) . `` Bakerian Lecture - A new mass - spectrograph and the whole number rule '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 115 ( 772 ) : 487 -- 514 . Bibcode : 1927RSPSA. 115 ... 487A . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1927.0106 . Jump up ^ Bothe , W. ; Becker , H. ( 1930 ) . `` Künstliche Erregung von Kern - γ - Strahlen '' ( Artificial excitation of nuclear γ - radiation ) . Zeitschrift für Physik ( in German ) . 66 ( 5 -- 6 ) : 289 . Bibcode : 1930ZPhy ... 66 ... 289B . doi : 10.1007 / BF01390908 . Jump up ^ Becker , H. ; Bothe , W. ( 1932 ) . `` Die in Bor und Beryllium erregten γ - Strahlen '' ( Γ - rays excited in boron and beryllium ) . Zeitschrift für Physik ( in German ) . 76 ( 7 -- 8 ) : 421 . Bibcode : 1932ZPhy ... 76 ... 421B . doi : 10.1007 / BF01336726 . Jump up ^ Joliot - Curie , Irène ; Joliot , Frédéric ( 1932 ) . `` Émission de protons de grande vitesse par les substances hydrogénées sous l'influence des rayons γ très pénétrants '' ( Emission of high - speed protons by hydrogenated substances under the influence of very penetrating γ - rays ) . Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences ( in French ) . 194 : 273 . Jump up ^ Zichichi , A. , Ettore Majorana : genius and mystery , CERN Courier , 25 July 2006 , Access date : 16 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , A. ( 1997 ) . The Neutron and the Bomb : A Biography of Sir James Chadwick . Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780198539926 . Jump up ^ `` Oral History Interview : Norman Feather , Session I '' . American Institute of Physics , Niels Bohr Library and Archives . 25 February 1971 . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , J. ; Constable , J.E.R. ; Pollard , E.C. ( 1931 ) . `` Artificial disintegration by α - particles '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 130 ( 814 ) : 463 -- 489 . Bibcode : 1931RSPSA. 130 ... 463C . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1931.0017 . Retrieved 14 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Atop the Physics Wave : Rutherford Back in Cambridge , 1919 -- 1937 '' . Rutherford 's Nuclear World . American Institute of Physics. 2011 -- 2014 . Retrieved 19 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , James ( 1932 ) . `` Possible Existence of a Neutron '' . Nature . 129 ( 3252 ) : 312 . Bibcode : 1932Natur. 129Q. 312C . doi : 10.1038 / 129312a0 . ^ Jump up to : Chadwick , J. ( 1933 ) . `` Bakerian Lecture. -- The Neutron '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 142 ( 846 ) : 1 -- 25 . Bibcode : 1933RSPSA. 142 ... 1C . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1933.0152 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1935 : James Chadwick -- Biographical '' . Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1932 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne . I '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 77 : 1 -- 11 . Bibcode : 1932ZPhy ... 77 ... 1H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01342433 . Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1932 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 78 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 156 -- 164 . Bibcode : 1932ZPhy ... 78 ... 156H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01337585 . Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1933 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne . III '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 80 ( 9 -- 10 ) : 587 -- 596 . Bibcode : 1933ZPhy ... 80 ... 587H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01335696 . Jump up ^ Iwanenko , D.D. , The neutron hypothesis , Nature 129 ( 1932 ) 798 . Jump up ^ Miller A.I. Early Quantum Electrodynamics : A Sourcebook , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1995 , ISBN 0521568919 , pp. 84 -- 88 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , L.M. ; Rechenberg , H. ( 1996 ) . The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces . Bristol and Philadelphia : Institute of Physics Publishing . ISBN 0750303735 . ^ Jump up to : Iwanenko , D. ( 1932 ) . `` Sur la constitution des noyaux atomiques '' . Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris . 195 : 439 -- 441 . Jump up ^ Bacher , R.F. ; Condon , E.U. ( 1932 ) . `` The Spin of the Neutron '' . Physical Review . 41 ( 5 ) : 683 -- 685 . Bibcode : 1932PhRv ... 41 ... 683G . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 41.683 . Jump up ^ Whaling , W. ( 2009 ) . `` Robert F. Bacher 1905 -- 2004 '' ( PDF ) . Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2014 - 05 - 31 . ^ Jump up to : Wilson , Fred L. ( 1968 ) . `` Fermi 's Theory of Beta Decay '' . Am. J. Phys. 36 ( 12 ) : 1150 -- 1160 . Bibcode : 1968AmJPh ... 36.1150 W . doi : 10.1119 / 1.1974382 . Jump up ^ Iwanenko , D. ( 1932 ) . `` Neutronen und kernelektronen '' . Physikalische Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion. 1 : 820 -- 822 . Jump up ^ Kurie , F.N.D. ( 1933 ) . `` The Collisions of Neutrons with Protons '' . Physical Review . 44 ( 6 ) : 463 . Bibcode : 1933PhRv ... 44 ... 463K . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 44.463 . ^ Jump up to : Breit , G. ; Rabi , I.I. ( 1934 ) . `` On the interpretation of present values of nuclear moments '' . Physical Review . 46 ( 3 ) : 230 . Bibcode : 1934PhRv ... 46 ... 230B . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 46.230 . Jump up ^ Massey , H.S.W. ( 1932 ) . `` The passage of neutrons through matter '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 138 ( 835 ) : 460 -- 469 . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1932.0195 . Jump up ^ Sime , R.L. ( 1996 ) . Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics . University of California Press . ISBN 0520089065 . Jump up ^ Seidel , R.W. ( 1989 ) . Lawrence and his Laboratory : A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory . University of California Press . ISBN 9780520064263 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , J. ; Goldhaber , M. ( 1934 ) . `` A nuclear photo - effect : disintegration of the diplon by gamma rays '' . Nature . 134 ( 3381 ) : 237 -- 238 . Bibcode : 1934Natur. 134 ... 237C . doi : 10.1038 / 134237a0 . Jump up ^ Frisch , R. ; Stern , O. ( 1933 ) . `` Über die magnetische Ablenkung von Wasserstoffmolekülen und das magnetische Moment des Protons . I / Magnetic Deviation of Hydrogen Molecules and the Magnetic Moment of the Proton . I '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 84 : 4 -- 16 . Bibcode : 1933ZPhy ... 85 ... 4F . doi : 10.1007 / bf01330773 . Jump up ^ Esterman , I. ; Stern , O. ( 1933 ) . `` Über die magnetische Ablenkung von Wasserstoffmolekülen und das magnetische Moment des Protons. II / Magnetic Deviation of Hydrogen Molecules and the Magnetic Moment of the Proton . I '' . Zeitschrift für Physik. 85 : 17 -- 24 . Bibcode : 1933ZPhy ... 85 ... 17E . doi : 10.1007 / BF01330774 . Jump up ^ Esterman , I. ; Stern , O. ( 1934 ) . `` Magnetic moment of the deuton '' . Physical Review . 45 ( 10 ) : 761 ( A109 ) . Bibcode : 1934PhRv ... 45 ... 739S . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 45.739 . Jump up ^ Rabi , I.I. ; Kellogg , J.M. ; Zacharias , J.R. ( 1934 ) . `` The magnetic moment of the proton '' . Physical Review . 46 ( 3 ) : 157 . Bibcode : 1934PhRv ... 46 ... 157R . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 46.157 . Jump up ^ Rabi , I.I. ; Kellogg , J.M. ; Zacharias , J.R. ( 1934 ) . `` The magnetic moment of the deuton '' . Physical Review . 46 ( 3 ) : 163 . Bibcode : 1934PhRv ... 46 ... 163R . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 46.163 . ^ Jump up to : Rigden , John S. ( 2000 ) . Rabi , Scientist and Citizen . Harvard University Press . ISBN 9780674004351 . Jump up ^ Bacher , R.F. ( 1933 ) . `` Note on the Magnetic Moment of the Nitrogen Nucleus '' . Physical Review . 43 ( 12 ) : 1001 . Bibcode : 1933PhRv ... 43.1001 B . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 43.1001 . Retrieved 10 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Tamm , I.Y. ; Altshuler , S.A. ( 1934 ) . `` Magnetic Moment of the Neutron '' . Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR. 8 : 455 . Retrieved 30 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Feather , N. ( 1 June 1932 ) . `` The Collisions of Neutrons with Nitrogen Nuclei '' ( PDF ) . Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 136 ( 830 ) : 709 -- 727 . Bibcode : 1932RSPSA. 136 ... 709F . doi : 10.1098 / rspa. 1932.0113 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938 : Enrico Fermi -- Biographical '' . Nobelprize.org . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Cooper , Dan ( 1999 ) . Enrico Fermi : And the Revolutions in Modern physics . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 511762 - X . OCLC 39508200 . Jump up ^ Hahn , O. ( 1958 ) . `` The Discovery of Fission '' . Scientific American . 198 ( 2 ) : 76 . Bibcode : 1958SciAm. 198b ... 76H . doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican0258 - 76 . Jump up ^ Meitner , L. ; Frisch , O.R. ( 1939 ) . `` Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons : A New Type of Nuclear Reaction '' . Nature . 143 ( 3615 ) : 239 . Bibcode : 1939Natur. 143 ... 239M . doi : 10.1038 / 143239a0 . Jump up ^ Hahn , O. ; Strassmann , F. ( 10 February 1939 ) . `` Proof of the Formation of Active Isotopes of Barium from Uranium and Thorium Irradiated with Neutrons ; Proof of the Existence of More Active Fragments Produced by Uranium Fission '' . Die Naturwissenschaften. 27 ( 6 ) : 89 -- 95 . Bibcode : 1939NW ... 27 ... 89H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01488988 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944 : Otto Hahn -- Biographical '' . Nobelprize.org . Retrieved 18 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Bernstein , Jeremy ( 2001 ) . Hitler 's uranium club : the secret recordings at Farm Hall . New York : Copernicus . p. 281 . ISBN 0 - 387 - 95089 - 3 . Jump up ^ Isaacson , Walter ( 2007 ) . Einstein : His Life and Universe . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 - 0743264747 . Jump up ^ `` About Enrico Fermi '' . The University of Chicago Library : Digital Activities and Collections . Guide to the Enrico Fermi Collection , Special Collections Research Center , University of Chicago Library . Retrieved 24 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Fermi at Columbia : The Manhattan Project and the First Nuclear Pile '' . Columbia University Department of Physics . Retrieved 24 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Rhodes , Richard ( 1986 ) . The Making of the Atomic Bomb . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 671 - 44133 - 7 . Jump up ^ Gell - Mann , M. ( 1964 ) . `` A Schematic Model of Baryons and Mesons '' . Physics Letters. 8 ( 3 ) : 214 -- 215 . Bibcode : 1964PhL ... 8 ... 214G . doi : 10.1016 / S0031 - 9163 ( 64 ) 92001 - 3 . Jump up ^ Zweig , G. ( 1964 ) . `` An SU ( 3 ) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking '' ( PDF ) . CERN Report No. 8182 / TH. 401 . Jump up ^ Zweig , G. ( 1964 ) . `` An SU ( 3 ) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking : II '' ( PDF ) . CERN Report No. 8419 / TH. 412 . Jump up ^ Gell , Y. ; Lichtenberg , D.B. ( 1969 ) . `` Quark model and the magnetic moments of proton and neutron '' . Il Nuovo Cimento A. Series 10 . 61 : 27 -- 40 . Bibcode : 1969NCimA ... 61 ... 27G . doi : 10.1007 / BF02760010 . Further reading ( edit ) Annotated bibliography for neutrons from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Abraham Pais , Inward Bound , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1986 . ISBN 0198519974 . Herwig Schopper , Weak interactions and nuclear beta decay , Publisher , North - Holland Pub. Co. , 1966 . OCLC 644015779 Ruth Lewin Sime , Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics , Berkeley , University of California Press , 1996 . ISBN 0520208609 . Roger H. Stuewer , `` The Nuclear Electron Hypothesis '' . In Otto Hahn and the Rise of Nuclear Physics , William R. Shea , ed . Dordrecht , Holland : D. Riedel Publishing Company . pp. 19 -- 67 , 1983 . ISBN 90 - 277 - 1584 - X . Sin - Itiro Tomonaga , The Story of Spin , The University of Chicago Press , 1997 . ISBN 9780226807942 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discovery_of_the_neutron&oldid=817398114 '' Categories : Neutron Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 28 December 2017 , at 03 : 55 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: who is credited with the discovery of the neutron


Kingsman : the Secret Service - wikipedia Kingsman : the Secret Service Jump to : navigation , search `` The Secret Service ( film ) '' redirects here . For other uses , see Secret Service ( disambiguation ) . Kingsman : The Secret Service Theatrical release poster Directed by Matthew Vaughn Produced by Matthew Vaughn David Reid Adam Bohling Screenplay by Jane Goldman Matthew Vaughn Based on Kingsman by Mark Millar Dave Gibbons Starring Colin Firth Samuel L. Jackson Mark Strong Taron Egerton Michael Caine Music by Henry Jackman Matthew Margeson Cinematography George Richmond Edited by Eddie Hamilton Jon Harris Production companies Marv Films Cloudy Productions Shangri - La Entertainment TSG Entertainment Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date 13 December 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 13 ) ( Butt - Numb - A-Thon ) 29 January 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 29 ) ( United Kingdom ) Running time 129 minutes Country United Kingdom United States Language English Budget $94 million ( gross ) $81 million ( net ) Box office $414.4 million Kingsman : The Secret Service is a 2014 action spy comedy film directed and co-produced by Matthew Vaughn . The screenplay was written by Vaughn and Jane Goldman , based on the comic book series Kingsman , created by Dave Gibbons and Mark Millar . It follows the recruitment and training of Gary `` Eggsy '' Unwin ( Taron Egerton ) , into a secret spy organisation . Eggsy joins a mission to tackle a global threat from Richmond Valentine ( Samuel L. Jackson ) , a wealthy megalomaniac . The film also stars Colin Firth , Mark Strong , and Michael Caine . Kingsman : The Secret Service premiered at the annual film marathon Butt - Numb - A-Thon on 13 December 2014 , and was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 29 January 2015 . The film received generally positive reviews from critics who highly praised the stylized action sequences , the acting performances , villain , score , and its black humor , though some of the violent and sexual scenes were criticized for being too over the top . The film has grossed over $414 million worldwide , becoming Vaughn 's most commercially successful film to date . In 2015 , it won the Empire Award for Best British Film . A sequel , titled Kingsman : The Golden Circle , was released in September 2017 , with Vaughn and the main cast returning . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Filming 3.2 Music 4 Release 4.1 Marketing 4.2 Home media 5 Reception 5.1 Box office 5.2 Critical response 6 Franchise 6.1 # TBT to That Time Archer Met Kingsman 6.2 Kingsman : The Golden Circle 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) Probationary secret agent Lee Unwin sacrifices himself to protect his superior Harry Hart while on a mission in the Middle East in 1997 . Hart , blaming himself , returns to London to give Lee 's widow Michelle and her young son Gary `` Eggsy '' a medal engraved with an emergency assistance number . Seventeen years later , Eggsy , having dropped out of training for the Royal Marines despite his intelligence and capability , has become a stereotypical chav . After being arrested for stealing a car , Eggsy calls the number . Hart arranges his release . Hart explains that he is a member of Kingsman , a private intelligence service founded by wealthy British individuals who lost their heirs in World War I. Hart , code name `` Galahad '' , explains there is a position available , as agent `` Lancelot '' was killed by the assassin Gazelle while trying to rescue Professor James Arnold from kidnappers . Eggsy becomes Hart 's candidate . Other candidates are eliminated through dangerous training tests run by operative `` Merlin '' , until only Eggsy and Roxy , a candidate he befriended , are left . Eggsy is unable to complete the final test -- shooting a dog he has raised during the training process ( unaware that the gun holds blanks ) -- and Roxy is named the new `` Lancelot '' . Meanwhile , Merlin discovers that Professor Arnold has returned to work as if nothing had happened . Hart attempts to interrogate him , but a chip in Professor Arnold 's neck explodes , killing him . The detonation signal is traced to a facility owned by Internet billionaire and philanthropist Richmond Valentine , who has recently offered everyone in the world SIM cards that grant free lifetime cellular and Internet connectivity . Hart , impersonating a billionaire philanthropist , meets Valentine face - to - face . Hart learns of Valentine 's connection to an obscure hate group 's church in Kentucky , and travels there , wearing glasses containing a video transceiver . Eggsy watches as Valentine activates the SIM cards in the church , triggering a signal that causes the parishioners to become murderously violent . Hart 's spy training leaves him as the only survivor . Outside the church Valentine explains what happened , then shoots Hart in the face . Eggsy returns to Kingsman headquarters and finds that Chester `` Arthur '' King , Kingsman 's leader , has a scar on his neck just like Professor Arnold 's . King reveals that Valentine plans to transmit his `` neurological wave '' worldwide via satellite network , believing the resulting `` culling '' of the human race will avert its extinction . Only those Valentine has chosen , willing and unwilling , will be unaffected . King tries to poison Eggsy , but Eggsy switches glasses and King poisons himself . Eggsy , Merlin and Roxy set out to stop Valentine . Roxy uses high - altitude balloons to destroy one of Valentine 's satellites and break up the network , but Valentine quickly secures a replacement from a business associate . Merlin flies Eggsy to Valentine 's base , where he masquerades as King . Eggsy is discovered by a failed Kingsman recruit , Charlie Hesketh , leading to both Eggsy and Merlin being cornered . On Eggsy 's suggestion , Merlin activates the implanted chips ' failsafe , killing almost everyone with a chip . An angry Valentine activates the signal and triggers worldwide pandemonium . Eggsy kills Gazelle and uses one of her sharpened prosthetic legs to impale Valentine and kill him , stopping the signal and ending the threat . In a mid-credits scene , Eggsy , now a full Kingsman agent , offers his mother and half - sister a new home away from his abusive stepfather Dean , who flatly objects to Eggsy 's suggestion . Eggsy then dispatches him in exactly the same manner that Hart dealt with one of Dean 's henchmen earlier . Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of Kingsman characters Colin Firth as Harry Hart / Galahad Samuel L. Jackson as Richmond Valentine Mark Strong as Merlin Taron Egerton as Gary `` Eggsy '' Unwin Michael Caine as Chester King / Arthur Sophie Cookson as Roxanne `` Roxy '' Morton / Lancelot Sofia Boutella as Gazelle Samantha Womack as Michelle Unwin Geoff Bell as Dean Baker Edward Holcroft as Charles `` Charlie '' Hesketh Mark Hamill as Professor James Arnold Jack Davenport as James Spencer / Lancelot Hanna Alström and Bjørn Floberg appear as Crown Princess Tilde of Sweden , and Swedish Prime Minister Morten Lindström , respectively . Jack Cutmore - Scott portrays Rufus Saville , and Lily Travers portrays Lady Sophie . Jonno Davies played Lee Unwin , Eggsy 's father and a former Kingsman candidate who sacrificed himself to save Hart . Nicholas Banks , Nicholas Agnew , Rowan Polonski and Tom Prior portrayed , respectively , Digby Barker , Nathaniel , Piers and Hugo Higins , the other four Kingsman candidates . Fiona Hampton played Amelia , a Kingsman employee who masquerades as a candidate in order to `` die '' during the first test . Richard Brake played the interrogator during the penultimate test , Ralph Ineson the police interviewer after Eggsy 's arrest , whereas Corey Johnson starred as a fanatic church leader , and Velibor Topić portrayed the biggest goon in the bar fight scene . Tobias Bakare and Theo Barklem - Biggs play Eggsy 's friends Jamal and Ryan . Production ( edit ) The project originated when Mark Millar and Vaughn were at a bar discussing spy movies , lamenting that the genre had become too serious over the years and deciding to do `` a fun one . '' To have the time to make the film , Vaughn had to opt out of directing X-Men : Days of Future Past , which he called `` a really tough decision '' . He reasoned that if he did not do it , `` somebody else ... ( would ) wake up and do a fun spy movie . Then I would have written a bloody screenplay that no one would want to make . '' Colin Firth joined the cast to lead the film on 29 April 2013 . It was initially reported in 2013 that Leonardo DiCaprio was in talks to play a villain , although Vaughn himself later denied that he was ever considered stating that he came as close to playing the role `` as I am to becoming the Pope . '' Instead the role of the villain went to Samuel L. Jackson , Jackson took the role , in part because of a career long dream to be in a James Bond movie . As he felt that this was unlikely to come true he took on the role stating `` I felt like this was an opportunity to play a really great Bond villain . '' Jackson 's character has a notable lisp , a choice he decided to make based partially on the stutter he had as a kid . In September 2013 , Vaughn cast Sophie Cookson for the female lead , preferring a newcomer over more obvious candidates like Emma Watson and Bella Heathcote . Mark Hamill was cast as Professor James Arnold , a reference to his character in the source comic book being named `` Mark Hamill '' . Filming ( edit ) Principal photography began 6 October 2013 in Deepcut , Surrey , on a budget reported to be one - third of the $200 million budget of Skyfall . The Alexandra Road Estate in Camden was used for Eggsy 's home area , and some scenes were filmed at Imperial College London . The Black Prince Pub in Kennington , South London , was used for various fight scenes and the car chase . Savile Row in Mayfair was also employed as a location and the exterior of tailors Huntsman at No. 12 , which provided the clothes , and James Lock & Co. in St James 's , which provided the hats . While rumours of several celebrity cameo parts were published , including Adele , Elton John , Lady Gaga , and David Beckham , none of these rumours proved to be true . Music ( edit ) Main article : Kingsman : The Secret Service ( soundtrack ) In May 2014 , it was reported that Henry Jackman and Matthew Margeson would be composing the music for the film , while in July it was announced that Gary Barlow would be writing the music for the film . Additionally , a song from Take That 's seventh studio album III , `` Get Ready for It '' , played during the end credits . Release ( edit ) The film 's premiere was held in London on 14 January 2015 , with director Vaughn and stars Firth , Egerton , and Strong attending , and Take That performing the film 's theme live . A regional premiere was held in Glasgow at exactly the same time as the London event , and live footage was streamed from the premiere to Glasgow . Mark Millar also hosted a charity screening of the film ahead of its release in Glasgow to raise money for his old school , St. Bartholomews . The film opened in the United Kingdom on 29 January 2015 . In the United States 20th Century Fox planned to release the film on 14 November 2014 , but later delayed it to 6 March 2015 . It was later moved up to 24 October 2014 , before being delayed again to 13 February 2015 . The film was released in most of Latin America and Indonesia , with the action scene set in the church removed . The scene , considered vital by the director and film critics , was excised almost completely , leaving only the set - up and immediate consequences . Marketing ( edit ) The trade paperback collecting the comics miniseries was released on 14 January 2015 . Vaughn teamed up with luxury retailer Mr Porter to create a 60 - piece clothing line based on the film . Mr Porter worked with the film 's costume designer , Arianne Phillips , to design the bespoke suiting , while everything from the ties and shirts to eyewear , umbrellas , shoes and watches were designed by heritage brands such as Cutler and Gross , George Cleverley , Mackintosh and Bremont . The collaboration is the first of its kind , making Kingsman : The Secret Service the first film from which customers can buy all of the outfits they see . The film also includes significant product placement for Adidas Originals . Home Media ( edit ) The film was released on digital HD on 15 May 2015 and on Blu - ray Disc and DVD on 9 June . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) Kingsman : The Secret Service grossed $414.4 million worldwide ; $24.2 million of the takings were generated from the UK market and $128.3 million from North America . Kingsman opened on 30 January 2015 in Sweden , UK , Ireland and Malta . In the UK the film opened with $6.5 million and debuted at second place ( behind Big Hero 6 ) . The following weekend it opened in two additional countries : Australia and New Zealand . It debuted atop the box office in both countries and had a successful opening in Australia with $3.6 million . In its third weekend , it earned $23 million from 4,844 screens in 39 countries . It topped the box office in three countries ; Singapore , Hong Kong , and Thailand , the rest of which were dominated by Fifty Shades of Grey . In its fourth weekend , it expanded to a total of 54 countries and grossed $33.4 million from 5,940 screens . Its biggest opener outside of North America was in China where it earned $27.9 million . Other high openings occurred in South Korea ( $5.3 million ) Russia and the CIS ( $3.6 million ) , Taiwan ( $3.4 million ) , and France ( $3.3 million ) . In the United States and Canada , the film opened on 13 February and was predicted to debut to around $28 million . The film opened in 3,204 cinemas and grossed $10.4 million on its first day , $15.4 million on its second day and $10.4 million on its third day , for a weekend gross of $36.2 million ( an $11,300 per - cinema average ) , finishing second at the box office behind Fifty Shades of Grey . During the four - day Presidents Day weekend it grossed $41.8 million . Critical response ( edit ) The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 230 critics and judged 74 % of the reviews as positive , with an average rating of 6.8 / 10 , calling the film `` Stylish , subversive , and above all fun '' . On Metacritic , the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . The Movie Review Query Engine ( MRQE ) rates the film at 63 out of 100 , based on 108 film critic reviews . According to CinemaScore , audiences gave the film a grade of `` B + '' on an A+ to F scale . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said of the film , `` This slam - bang action movie about British secret agents is deliriously shaken , not stirred ... Even when it stops making sense , Kingsman is unstoppable fun '' . Jordan Hoffman , writing for The Guardian , said of the film , `` The spirit of 007 is all over this movie , but Vaughn 's script ... has a licence to poke fun ... no one involved in the production can believe they 're getting away with making such a batshit Bond . '' Comparing the film to those of Christopher Nolan , Hoffman said , `` Despite the presence of grandfatherly Michael Caine , Kingsman 's tone is about as far from the Christopher Nolan - style superhero film as you can get . Verisimilitude is frequently traded in for a rich laugh '' . Peter Bradshaw , writing for The Guardian , called the film `` a smirking spy spoof , weirdly charmless and dated in unintentional ways '' , commenting that `` it is a film forever demanding to be congratulated on how `` stylish '' it is . '' Some reviewers were critical of the film 's depiction of violence , which was considered to be too graphic for a comedy . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker stated , `` Few recent movies have fetched quite as far as `` Kingsman '' , and countless viewers will relish the brazen zest of its invention . '' However , Lane was critical of the film 's use of stereotypes . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times enjoyed the film , but criticised Vaughn 's use of violence as a cinematic tool , calling it `` narrative overkill '' . Jason Ward of The Guardian wrote that `` ( e ) verything about Kingsman exists to disguise the fact that it is solidly conservative '' . His examples include `` ( t ) he depiction of Valentine 's plan as a throwback to a less serious era of spy movies ( which ) is revealed as a feint , with the ulterior motive of undermining environmentalists '' . Likewise , The A.V. Club 's Ignatiy Vishnevetsky commented that , `` Far from being a Team America - style send - up of gentleman spy movies , Kingsman is actually even more reactionary than the movies it 's referencing ; it traffics in the kind of Tory values Bond flicks merely suggest ( ... ) the thing is , the movie is fun , at least from a visual design standpoint , even though it 's hard to separate its bespoke fashions , future - vintage gadgets , and aristocratic décor from its fusty worldview '' . Peter Sobczynski of rogerebert.com , who gave the film two out of four stars , likened Vaughn 's script to the spy film equivalent of Scream and also criticised the overuse of graphic violence , despite its cartoonish rendering . Vaughn has faced some criticism for an anal sex gag at the end of the film that was a reference to the James Bond films . Franchise ( edit ) # Tbt to that time Archer Met Kingsman ( edit ) Main article : Archer ( TV series ) # TBT to That Time Archer Met Kingsman , also known as Throwback to That Time Archer Met Kingsman , is a 2017 animated short film set between Kingsman : The Secret Service and Kingsman : The Golden Circle . The short was unveiled at the 2017 Comic - Con 's Kingsman : The Golden Circle panel in Hall H , showing a meeting between Taron Egerton 's Eggsy and H. Jon Benjamin 's Sterling Archer , who stumbles into the Kingsmen 's secret arsenal hidden in the bespoke suit shop . There , he helps himself to guns and alcohol . Fighting to reclaim the goods , Eggsy challenges Archer to `` the most gentlemanly of competitions '' : a drinking contest , while planning to kill him with a drugged glass . However , Archer instead drinks the bottle and passes out . Eggsy , insulted by Archer 's behaviour , vows to go to America and `` teach them a lesson '' . Kingsman : the Golden Circle ( edit ) Main article : Kingsman : The Golden Circle Millar and Vaughn stated that a sequel was possible if the film performs well at the box office , and Vaughn expressed interest in directing the sequel . Vaughn also noted that he hoped to have Firth back in the sequel , and that Strong was interested in returning as well . It was confirmed that Taron Egerton is contracted for the sequel . When asked how they would incorporate Firth 's character into the sequel , Millar stated that various ideas have been discussed , including giving Harry Hart an evil brother , or perhaps turning the character into a ghost . Fox announced a sequel was in the works , but it was unclear if Vaughn would return to direct . On 11 June 2015 , it was confirmed Vaughn had begun writing the sequel , and that he might return to direct it . Principal photography was set to begin in April 2016 , with an 6 October 2017 release date . It was reported that Julianne Moore was in talks to star as the new villain , and Halle Berry might sign on as the Head of the CIA . On 18 March 2016 , Edward Holcroft was also confirmed to reprise his role as Charles `` Charlie '' Hesketh . Vaughn later revealed the sequel 's title to be Kingsman : The Golden Circle . The plot follows Eggsy and Merlin joining forces with `` Statesman '' , their American counterpart after Kingsman was destroyed by the film 's villain Poppy , played by Moore . On 7 April 2016 , Egerton revealed the first poster for the film , which strongly hinted that Firth would return for the film ; the poster features Harry Hart 's trademark pair of glasses with one of the eyes missing below the tagline ( a borrowed quote from Mark Twain ) stating `` reports of my death have been greatly exaggerated . '' Sophie Cookson will also reprise her role as Roxy Morton in the sequel . The next day , Deadline reported that Pedro Pascal was in talks for the role of Jack Daniels . On 12 April 2016 , Elton John was in talks about joining the cast of the upcoming sequel . The next day , Channing Tatum announced on his Twitter account that he was joining the cast . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 15 ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . 19 December 2014 . Retrieved 19 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 2015 ) '' . British Film Institute . Retrieved 17 January 2015 . Jump up ^ FilmL. A. ( 15 June 2016 ) . `` 2015 Feature Film Study '' . Retrieved 16 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 2015 ) '' . Box Office Mojo. 1 March 2015 . Retrieved 23 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Gettell , Oliver ( 13 February 2015 ) . `` ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' shakes up spy genre , reviews say '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 13 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Matthew Vaughn Movie Box office '' . Box Office Mojo . Amazon.com . Retrieved 28 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fox Sets Release Dates for Two Secret Marvel Movies ; Pushes ' Kingsman 2 ' to October 2017 '' . collider.com. 27 November 2016 . Retrieved 19 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Richard Lawson . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service Review '' . Vanity Fair . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman -- The Secret Service review : Spy spoof has a licence to thrill '' . BelfastTelegraph.co.uk . ^ Jump up to : Scott , Collura . `` MATTHEW VAUGHN TALKS CHOOSING KINGSMAN : THE SECRET SERVICE OVER X-MEN : DAYS OF FUTURE PAST , CHANGING THE COMIC , AND BRINGING FUN BACK TO SPY MOVIES '' . Retrieved 10 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Kits , Borys ( 29 April 2013 ) . `` ' The Secret Service ' : Colin Firth in Talks to Star '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 15 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Armitage , Hugh ( 4 June 2013 ) . `` Leonardo DiCaprio in talks for Mark Millar 's ' Secret Service ' ? '' . Digital Spy . Hearst Magazines UK . Retrieved 15 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Drew . `` Matthew Vaughn Says the ' Kingsman ' Sequel Will Introduce the American Branch ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Moviefone . Retrieved 10 September 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Conner , Megan . `` Samuel L Jackson : ' I create characters -- it keeps me from being me all day ' '' . Guardian . Retrieved 23 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( 5 September 2013 ) . `` Sophie Cookson Lands Female Lead in Matthew Vaughn 's ' Secret Service ' '' . Variety . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . Jump up ^ McIntyre , Gina ( 5 February 2015 ) . `` Mark Hamill : Actor talks ' Kingsman ' cameo , ' Star Wars ' anticipation '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 17 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Takyi , Stephanie ( 6 October 2013 ) . `` Suave appeal : Colin Firth shows off his dapper style as he 's spotted for first time on set of new film The Secret Service '' . Daily Mail . Retrieved 12 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Cater , Sophie ( 8 October 2013 ) . Bridget Jones star Colin Firth spotted shooting The Secret Service in London . Radiotimes . Immediate Media Company Limited . Retrieved 12 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Christine ( 11 October 2013 ) . `` Colin Firth and Samuel L. Jackson filming ' The Secret Service ' in Deepcut , UK '' . OLV . Retrieved 12 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Tobias , Grey ( 5 February 2015 ) . `` Colin Firth Stars in ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' '' . WSJ . Jump up ^ `` Massive Hollywood thriller filmed on Camden estate proved `` sweet as honey '' for residents -- FilmFixer `` . FilmFixer . Jump up ^ `` The US love of bespoke British suits '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Adele , Elton John , David Beckham Appearing In Spy Thriller , `` The Secret Service '' `` . www.newnownext.com. 14 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John Considered for Fight Scene in ' The Secret Service '' . ultimateclassicrock.com. 27 July 2013 . Retrieved 9 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Secret Service : Lady Gaga to play herself in the film '' . ibnlive.in.com. 17 September 2013 . Retrieved 9 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Lady Gaga lands The Secret Service role -- report '' . www.express.co.uk. 16 September 2013 . Retrieved 9 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Henry Jackman & Matt Margeson to Score Matthew Vaughn 's ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' '' . filmmusicreporter.com. 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 12 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Gary Barlow Writing Music For ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' Film '' . mtv.co.uk. 11 July 2014 . Retrieved 12 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Kingsman : The Secret Service World Premiere Live On Yahoo '' . yahoo.com. 14 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Buy cinema tickets and watch trailers for Kingsman : The Secret Service Regional Premiere , book online with Vue Cinemas '' . Vue Cinemas . Jump up ^ Nicola Love . `` Kingsman The Secret Service by Mark Millar at Glasgow Cineworld -- STV Glasgow -- Glasgow '' . STV Glasgow . Jump up ^ `` Film Changes W / C 15 / 09 '' . Digital Cinema Media . Retrieved 17 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Fleming Jr. , Mike ( 27 March 2013 ) . `` Fox Wins Rights To Matthew Vaughn 's Next Pic ' The Secret Service ' , Sets November 2014 Release Date '' . Deadline . Retrieved 15 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Fox Shifts ' Fantastic Four ' , ' The Secret Service ' , ' Assassin 's Creed ' , Sets ' Untitled Vince Vaughn ' & ' Susan Cooper ' Dates '' . Deadline. 12 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Bettinger , Brendan ( 21 March 2014 ) . `` Fox Announces Release Dates for The Fantastic Four 2 , Wolverine Sequel , Untitled Marvel Film , Taken 3 , Ridley Scott Project , and More ( Updated ) '' . Collider . Retrieved 22 March 2014 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pam ( 6 August 2014 ) . `` ' Fifty Shades of Grey ' to Compete With Fox 's ' Kingsman ' at Box Office '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 6 August 2014 . Jump up ^ O'Connell , Sean ( February 2015 ) . `` WTF ? Colin Firth Almost Got Pulled From The Kingsman Church Scene , Here 's Why '' . Cinemablend . Retrieved 23 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kimgsmen - The Secret Service Movie Review : James Bond Gets A Jolly Good Rogering '' . Badass Digest . 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Fox decidió censurar Kingsman : The Secret Service en Latinoamérica '' ( in Spanish ) . Salondelmal. 19 February 2015 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Sensor Kingsman menghilangkan aksi brutal bak The Raid dalam sebuah adegan penuh kekerasan di dalam gereja '' ( in Indonesian ) . duniaku. 21 February 2015 . Retrieved 25 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( 4 December 2014 ) . `` ' Secret Service ' Comic Gets Movie Tie - In Cover ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 4 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Gentleman 's Wardrobe '' . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Kingsman Collection '' . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Thomson , Simon ( 30 January 2015 ) . `` Film review : Kingsman '' . City A.M. Retrieved 12 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Perry , Spencer ( 21 April 2015 ) . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service Coming to Digital HD in May and Blu - ray in June '' . SuperHeroHype . Retrieved 25 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service '' . DVDs Release Dates . Retrieved 25 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Nancy Tartaglione ( 3 February 2015 ) . `` ' Penguins ' , ' Sniper ' Aim Higher In Actuals : International Box Office Update '' . Deadline . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Nancy Tartaglione ( 10 February 2015 ) . `` ' Jupiter ' Ascends A Touch ; ' Exodus ' Crosses $200 M : Intl Box Office Actuals '' . Deadline . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Nancy Tartaglione ( 17 February 2015 ) . `` ' Fifty Shades ' Dominates ; ' Kingsman ' Sees Action ; ' Mockingjay ' at $751 M+ Global -- Tuesday Update '' . Deadline . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Nancy Tartaglione ( 24 February 2015 ) . `` ' Fifty Shades ' Still Sexy At Overseas Box Office ; Chinese New Year Festive For ' Kingsman ' -- In'tl B.O. Update '' . Deadline . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Nancy Tartaglione ( 20 March 2015 ) . `` ' Cinderella ' Counts $337.3 M At Global Ball ; ' Insurgent ' Secures $178.2 M Worldwide -- Int'l B.O. Update '' . Deadline . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Kingsman ' Targets $30 Million President 's Day Debut '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 20 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service Daily Box office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 20 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` February 13 - 15 , 2015 Three day Weekend '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 20 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` February 13 - 16 , 2015 Four day Weekend '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 20 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Kingsman ' Spies $42 Million President 's Day Debut '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 20 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 21 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved 9 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Staff ( 2015 ) . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 2015 ) - MRQE Metric - Critics Reviews '' . Movie Review Query Engine . Retrieved 5 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CinemaScore '' . CinemaScore . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 15 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter ( 11 February 2015 ) . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 12 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Hoffman , Jordan ( 30 December 2014 ) . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service review -- dapper laughs in thrillingly adolescent 007 pastiche '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman : The Secret Service review -- a smirking , charmless spy spoof '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 12 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Lane , Anthony ( 16 February 2015 ) . `` Society of Men : ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' and ' What We Do in the Shadows . ' '' The New Yorker . Jump up ^ Dargis , Manohla ( 12 February 2015 ) . `` Review : In ' Kingsman : The Secret Service , ' Colin Firth Get His Suits Splattered '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Ward , Jason ( 27 January 2015 ) . `` Is Kingsman the most conservative comedy this century ? '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman is a slick , gory spy pastiche -- just do n't think about it too hard '' . www.avclub.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 02 . Jump up ^ Sobczynski , Peter ( 13 February 2015 ) . `` Kingsman : The Secret Service '' . rogerebert.com . Jump up ^ Sullivan , Kevin P. `` Kingsman director Matthew Vaughn reveals the secrets behind the church scene , that sex joke , and more '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 16 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Byrnes , Paul ( 4 February 2015 ) . `` Kingsman review : Ultra-violence of Colin Firth spy film bludgeons comedy into submission '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 6 September 2015 . Jump up ^ # TBT to That Time Archer Met Kingsman Jump up ^ `` Kingsman Sequel ? Mark Millar Interview '' . YouTube . 4 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Maidy , Alex ( 11 February 2015 ) . `` Exclusive : Matthew Vaughn Shares Details On Kingsman 2 and Kick - Ass 3 '' . Joblo . Jump up ^ `` Colin Firth Could Be Back For Kingsman : The Secret Service Sequel '' . Jump up ^ 2015 Jameson Empire Awards - Mark Strong . 30 March 2015 -- via YouTube . Jump up ^ `` Kingsman 2 : Colin Firth Could Return '' . Jump up ^ Cunningham , Todd ( 29 April 2015 ) . `` ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' Sequel in Works At Fox ( Exclusive ) '' . The Wrap . Jump up ^ Jagernauth , Kevin ( 11 June 2015 ) . `` Matthew Vaughn Says He 's Writing The ' Kingsman ' Sequel And May Direct '' . Indiewire.com . Retrieved 11 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Bovingdon , Edward ( 11 June 2015 ) . `` Matthew Vaughn Confirms Plans For Kingsman 2 ( Exclusive ) '' . Yahoo UK . Jump up ^ Borys Kit ( 30 September 2015 ) . `` ' Kingsman ' Star Creates Tug - of - War Between Lionsgate and Fox '' . The Hollywood Reporter . ( Prometheus Global Media ) . Retrieved 30 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( 17 February 2016 ) . `` Julianne Moore Circling Villain Role for Kingsman 2 ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . ( Prometheus Global Media ) . Retrieved 18 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Fleming , Jr , Mike ( 10 March 2016 ) . `` Halle Berry In Talks To Star In ' Kingsman 2 ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ Jaafer , Ali ( 18 March 2016 ) . `` Edward Holcroft To Return To Matthew Vaughn 's ' Kingsman 2 ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ Ritman , Alex ( 29 March 2016 ) . `` ' Kingsman : The Secret Service ' Sequel Gets Title '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 3 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Han , Angie ( 7 April 2016 ) . `` ' Kingsman 2 ' Poster Suggests a Certain Someone Is Returning After All '' . / Film . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Schwerdtfeger , Conner ( 7 April 2016 ) . `` Kingsman 2 Just Hinted At The Return Of A Major Character '' . CinemaBlend . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Cookson , Sophie ( 8 April 2016 ) . `` Mmm and here is another ... Welcome back to Roxy ! ! '' . Twitter . Retrieved 10 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Games Of Thrones ' Pedro Pascal To Board ' Kingsman : The Golden Circle ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . 8 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( 12 April 2016 ) . `` Elton John in Talks to Join ' Kingsman ' Sequel ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Channing Tatum on Twitter '' . twitter.com . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( 13 April 2016 ) . `` Channing Tatum Joins the Cast of ' Kingsman ' Sequel '' . Variety . 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Question: who played the princess in kingsman secret service