Of Mice and Men - wikipedia Of Mice and Men Jump to : navigation , search `` Mice and Men '' redirects here . For the 1916 film , see Mice and Men ( film ) . For other uses , see Of Mice and Men ( disambiguation ) . Of Mice and Men First edition cover Author John Steinbeck Cover artist Ross MacDonald Country United States Language English Publisher Covici Friede Publication date 1937 Pages 187 Of Mice and Men is a novella written by author John Steinbeck . Published in 1937 , it tells the story of George Milton and Lennie Small , two displaced migrant ranch workers , who move from place to place in California in search of new job opportunities during the Great Depression in the United States . Steinbeck based the novella on his own experiences working alongside migrant farm workers as a teenager in the 1910s ( before the arrival of the Okies he would vividly describe in The Grapes of Wrath ) . The title is taken from Robert Burns ' poem `` To a Mouse '' , which reads : `` The best laid schemes o ' mice an ' men / Gang aft agley '' . ( The best laid schemes of mice and men / Often go awry . ) While it is a book taught in many schools , Of Mice and Men has been a frequent target of censors for vulgarity and what some consider offensive and racist language ; consequently , it appears on the American Library Association 's list of the Most Challenged Books of 21st Century . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Characters 3 Themes 4 Development 5 Reception 6 Adaptations 6.1 Stage 6.2 Film 6.3 Radio 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Bibliography 8 External links Plot Two migrant field workers in California on their plantation during the Great Depression -- George Milton , an intelligent but uneducated man , and Lennie Small , a bulky , strong man but mentally disabled -- are in Soledad on their way to another part of California . They hope to one day attain the dream of settling down on their own piece of land . Lennie 's part of the dream is merely to tend and pet rabbits on the farm , as he loves touching soft animals , although he always kills them . This dream is one of Lennie 's favorite stories , which George constantly retells . They had fled from Weed after Lennie touched a young woman 's dress and would n't let go , leading to an accusation of rape . It soon becomes clear that the two are close and George is Lennie 's protector , despite his antics . After being hired at a farm , the pair are confronted by Curley -- The Boss 's small , aggressive son with a Napoleon complex who dislikes larger men , and starts to target Lennie . Curley 's flirtatious and provocative wife , to whom Lennie is instantly attracted , poses a problem as well . In contrast , the pair also meets Candy , an elderly ranch handyman with one hand and a loyal dog , and Slim , an intelligent and gentle jerkline - skinner whose dog has recently had a litter of puppies . Slim gives a puppy to Lennie and Candy , whose loyal , accomplished sheep dog was put down by fellow ranch - hand Carlson . In spite of problems , their dream leaps towards reality when Candy offers to pitch in $350 with George and Lennie so that they can buy a farm at the end of the month , in return for permission to live with them . The trio are ecstatic , but their joy is overshadowed when Curley attacks Lennie , who defends himself by easily crushing Curley 's fist while urged on by George . Nevertheless , George feels more relaxed , to the extent that he even leaves Lennie behind on the ranch while he goes into town with the other ranch hands . Lennie wanders into the stable , and chats with Crooks , the bitter , yet educated stable buck , who is isolated from the other workers racially . Candy finds them and they discuss their plans for the farm with Crooks , who can not resist asking them if he can hoe a garden patch on the farm albeit scorning its possibility . Curley 's wife makes another appearance and flirts with the men , especially Lennie . However , her spiteful side is shown when she belittles them and threatens Crooks to have him lynched . The next day , Lennie accidentally kills his puppy while stroking it . Curley 's wife enters the barn and tries to speak to Lennie , admitting that she is lonely and how her dreams of becoming a movie star are crushed , revealing her personality . After finding out about Lennie 's habit , she offers to let him stroke her hair , but panics and begins to scream when she feels his strength . Lennie becomes frightened , and unintentionally breaks her neck thereafter and runs away . When the other ranch hands find the corpse , George realizes that their dream is at an end . George hurries to find Lennie , hoping he will be at the meeting place they designated in case he got into trouble . George meets Lennie at the place , their camping spot before they came to the ranch . The two sit together and George retells the beloved story of the dream , knowing it is something they 'll never share . He then shoots and kills Lennie , with Curley , Slim , and Carlson arriving seconds after . Only Slim realizes what happened , and consolingly leads him away . Curley and Carlson look on , unable to comprehend the subdued mood of the two men . Characters I was a bindlestiff myself for quite a spell . I worked in the same country that the story is laid in . The characters are composites to a certain extent . Lennie was a real person . He 's in an insane asylum in California right now . I worked alongside him for many weeks . He did n't kill a girl . He killed a ranch foreman . Got sore because the boss had fired his pal and stuck a pitchfork right through his stomach . I hate to tell you how many times I saw him do it . We could n't stop him until it was too late . John Steinbeck , interview by The New York Times , 1937 George Milton : A quick - witted man who is Lennie 's guardian and best friend . His friendship with Lennie helps sustain his dream of a better future . He was bound in teasing Lennie since he was young . He is described by Steinbeck in the novel as `` small and quick , '' every part of him being `` defined , '' with small strong hands on slender arms . He has a dark face and `` restless eyes '' and `` sharp , strong features '' including a `` thin , bony nose . '' Lennie Small : A mentally disabled , but physically strong man who travels with George and is his constant companion . He dreams of `` living off the fatta ' the lan ' '' and being able to tend to rabbits . His love for soft things conspires against him , mostly because he does not know his own strength , and eventually becomes his undoing . Steinbeck defines his appearance as George 's `` opposite , '' writing that he is a `` huge man , shapeless of face , with large , pale eyes '' and `` wide , sloping shoulders . '' Lennie walks heavily , dragging his feet a little , `` the way a bear drags his paws , '' adding that his arms do not swing at his sides , but hang loosely . Candy : An aging ranch handyman , Candy lost his hand in an accident and worries about his future on the ranch . Fearing that his age is making him useless , he seizes on George 's description of the farm he and Lennie will have , offering his life 's savings if he can join George and Lennie in owning the land . Slim : A `` jerkline skinner , '' the main driver of a mule team and the `` prince of the ranch '' . Slim is greatly respected by many of the characters and is the only character whom Curley treats with respect . His insight , intuition , kindness and natural authority draw the other ranch hands automatically towards him , and he is significantly the only character to fully understand the bond between George and Lennie . Curley : The Boss ' son , a young , pugnacious character , once a semi-professional boxer . He is described by others , with some irony , as `` handy '' , partly because he likes to keep a glove filled with vaseline on his left hand . He is very jealous and protective of his wife and immediately develops a dislike toward Lennie . At one point , Curley loses his temper after he sees Lennie appear to laugh at him , and ends up with his hand horribly damaged after Lennie fights back against him . Curley 's wife : A young , pretty woman , who is mistrusted by her husband . The other characters refer to her only as `` Curley 's wife '' . Steinbeck explained that she is `` not a person , she 's a symbol . She has no function , except to be a foil -- and a danger to Lennie . '' Curley 's wife 's preoccupation with her own beauty eventually helps precipitate her death : She allows Lennie to stroke her hair as an apparently harmless indulgence , only for her to upset Lennie when she yells at him to stop him ' mussing it ' . Lennie tries to stop her yelling and eventually , and accidentally , kills her by breaking her neck . Crooks : Crooks , the black stable - hand , gets his name from his crooked back . Proud , bitter , and cynical , he is isolated from the other men because of the color of his skin . Despite himself , Crooks becomes fond of Lennie , and though he claims to have seen countless men following empty dreams of buying their own land , he asks Lennie if he can go with them and hoe in the garden . Candy 's dog : A blind dog who is described as `` old '' , `` stinky '' , and `` crippled '' , and is killed by Carlson . Carlson : A `` thick bodied '' ranch hand , he kills Candy 's dog with little sympathy . The Boss : Curley 's father , the superintendent of the ranch . The ranch is owned by `` a big land company '' according to Candy . Whit : A young ranch hand . Themes In every bit of honest writing in the world there is a base theme . Try to understand men , if you understand each other you will be kind to each other . Knowing a man well never leads to hate and nearly always leads to love . There are shorter means , many of them . There is writing promoting social change , writing punishing injustice , writing in celebration of heroism , but always that base theme . Try to understand each other . -- John Steinbeck in his 1938 journal entry Steinbeck emphasizes dreams throughout the book . George aspires to independence , to be his own boss , to have a homestead , and most importantly to be `` somebody '' . Lennie aspires to be with George on his independent homestead , and to quench his fixation on soft objects . Candy aspires to reassert his responsibility lost with the death of his dog , and for security for his old age -- on George 's homestead . Crooks aspires to a small homestead where he can express self - respect , security , and most of all , acceptance . Curley 's wife dreams to be an actress , to satisfy her desire for fame lost when she married Curley , and an end to her loneliness . Loneliness is a significant factor in several characters ' lives . Candy is lonely after his dog is gone . Curley 's wife is lonely because her husband is not the friend she hoped for -- she deals with her loneliness by flirting with the men on the ranch , which causes Curley to increase his abusiveness and jealousy . The companionship of George and Lennie is the result of loneliness . Crooks states the theme candidly as `` A guy goes nuts if he ai n't got anybody . Do n't make any difference who the guy is , long 's he 's with you . '' The author further reinforces this theme through subtle methods by situating the story near the town of Soledad , which means `` solitude '' in Spanish . Despite the need for companionship , Steinbeck emphasizes how loneliness is sustained through the barriers established from acting inhuman to one another . The loneliness of Curley 's wife is upheld by Curley 's jealousy , which causes all the ranch hands to avoid her . Crooks 's barrier results from being barred from the bunkhouse by restraining him to the stable ; his bitterness is partially broken , however , through Lennie 's ignorance . Steinbeck 's characters are often powerless , due to intellectual , economic , and social circumstances . Lennie possesses the greatest physical strength of any character , which should therefore establish a sense of respect as he is employed as a ranch hand . However , his intellectual handicap undercuts this and results in his powerlessness . Economic powerlessness is established as many of the ranch hands are victims of the Great Depression . As George , Candy and Crooks are positive , action - oriented characters , they wish to purchase a homestead , but because of the Depression , they are unable to generate enough money . Lennie is the only one who is basically unable to take care of himself , but the other characters would do this in the improved circumstances they seek . Since they can not do so , the real danger of Lennie 's mental handicap comes to the fore . Regarding human interaction , evil of oppression and abuse is a theme that is illustrated through Curley and Curley 's wife . Curley uses his aggressive nature and superior position in an attempt to take control of his father 's farm . He constantly reprimands the farm hands and accuses some of fooling around with his wife . Curley 's Napoleon complex is evidenced by his threatening of the farm hands for minuscule incidents . Curley 's wife , on the other hand , is not physically but verbally manipulative . She uses her sex appeal to gain some attention , flirting with the farm hands . According to the Penguin Teacher 's Guide for Of Mice and Men , Curley and Curley 's wife represent evil in that both oppress and abuse the migrants in different ways . Fate is felt most heavily as the characters ' aspirations are destroyed when George is unable to protect Lennie ( who is a real danger ) . Steinbeck presents this as `` something that happened '' or as his friend coined for him `` non-teleological thinking '' or `` is thinking '' , which postulates a non-judgmental point of view . Development Of Mice and Men was Steinbeck 's first attempt at writing in the form of novel - play termed a `` play - novelette '' by one critic . Structured in three acts of two chapters each , it is intended to be both a novella and a script for a play . It is only 30,000 words in length . Steinbeck wanted to write a novel that could be played from its lines , or a play that could be read like a novel . Steinbeck originally titled it Something That Happened ( referring to the events of the book as `` something that happened '' because nobody can be really blamed for the tragedy that unfolds in the story ) . However , he changed the title after reading Robert Burns 's poem To a Mouse . Burns 's poem tells of the regret the narrator feels for having destroyed the home of a mouse while plowing his field . Steinbeck wrote this book and The Grapes of Wrath in what is now Monte Sereno , California . An early draft of Of Mice and Men was eaten by Steinbeck 's dog , named Max . Reception Attaining the greatest positive response of any of his works up to that time , Steinbeck 's novella was chosen as a Book of the Month Club selection before it was published . Praise for the work came from many notable critics , including Maxine Garrard ( Enquirer - Sun ) , Christopher Morley , and Harry Thornton Moore ( New Republic ) . New York Times critic Ralph Thompson described the novella as a `` grand little book , for all its ultimate melodrama . '' The novella has been banned from various US public and school libraries or curricula for allegedly `` promoting euthanasia '' , `` condoning racial slurs '' , being `` anti-business '' , containing profanity , and generally containing `` vulgar '' and `` offensive language '' . Many of the bans and restrictions have been lifted and it remains required reading in many other American , Australian , Irish , British , New Zealand and Canadian high schools . As a result of being a frequent target of censors , Of Mice and Men appears on the American Library Association 's list of the Most Challenged Books of the 21st Century ( number 4 ) . In the UK , it was listed at number 52 of the `` nation 's best loved novels '' on the BBC 's 2003 survey The Big Read . Of Mice and Men has been challenged 54 times since it was published in 1936 . However , scholars like Thomas Scarseth have fought to protect the book by citing its literary value . According to Scarseth `` in true great literature the pain of Life is transmuted into the beauty of Art '' , . The book was once studied in English Literature GCSE , but was dropped because it did n't originate from England . Adaptations See also : Of Mice and Men in popular culture Stage Main articles : Of Mice and Men ( play ) and Of Mice and Men ( opera ) The first stage production was written by Steinbeck , produced by Sam H. Harris and directed by George S. Kaufman . It opened on November 23 , 1937 , in the Music Box Theatre on Broadway . Running for 207 performances , it starred Wallace Ford as George and Broderick Crawford as Lennie . The role of Crooks was performed by Leigh Whipper , the first African - American member of the Actors ' Equity Association . Whipper repeated this role in the 1939 film version . The production was chosen as Best Play in 1938 by the New York Drama Critics ' Circle . In 1939 the production was moved to Los Angeles , still with Wallace Ford in the role of George , but with Lon Chaney , Jr. , taking on the role of Lennie . Chaney 's performance in the role resulted in his casting in the movie . The play was revived in a 1974 Broadway production in the Brooks Atkinson Theatre starring Kevin Conway as George and James Earl Jones as Lennie . Noted stage actress Pamela Blair played Curley 's Wife in this production . In 1970 Carlisle Floyd wrote an opera based on this novella . One departure between Steinbeck 's book and Floyd 's opera is that the opera features The Ballad Singer , a character not found in the book . A new version of the play opened on Broadway at The Longacre Theater on March 19 , 2014 for a limited 18 - week engagement , starring James Franco , Chris O'Dowd , Leighton Meester and Jim Norton . Film Poster for the 1939 film The first adaptation was in 1939 , two years after the publication of the novella , and starred Lon Chaney Jr. as Lennie , with Burgess Meredith as George , and was directed by Lewis Milestone . It was nominated for four Academy Awards . A TV version , produced by David Susskind in 1968 , starred George Segal as George , Nicol Williamson as Lennie , Will Geer as Candy , Moses Gunn as Crooks , and Don Gordon and Joey Heatherton as Curley and his wife . A 1972 Iranian film , Topoli , directed by Reza Mirlohi was adapted from and dedicated to John Steinbeck and his story . In 1981 a TV movie version was made , starring Randy Quaid as Lennie , and Robert Blake as George , and directed by Reza Badiyi . Another theatrical film version was made in 1992 , directed by Gary Sinise , who was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes . Sinise also played George in the film , and the role of Lennie was played by John Malkovich . For this adaptation , both men reprised their roles from the 1980 Steppenwolf Theatre Company production . The 1992 Malayalam film Soorya Manasam directed by Viji Thampi is also based on the novel . Radio Of Mice and Men was adapted by Donna Franceschild as a radio play directed by Kirsty Williams starring David Tennant broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 7 March 2010 . References Notes Jump up ^ Of Mice and Men Key Facts on Sparknotes Jump up ^ Who , what , why : Why do children study Of Mice and Men ? on BBC Jump up ^ Stephen Maunder ( March 25 , 2011 ) . `` Who , what , why : Why do children study Of Mice and Men ? '' . BBC News . Retrieved March 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` American Library Association Top 100 Banned / Challenged Books : 2000 -- 2009 '' . web page . American Library Association . 2011 . Retrieved July 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Mice , Men , and Mr. Steinbeck '' . The New York Times : 7 . 1937 - 12 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : Parini , Jay ( 1992 - 09 - 27 ) . `` FILM ; Of Bindlestiffs , Bad Times , Mice and Men '' . The New York Times . Retrieved June 17 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Tracy Barr ; Greg Tubach , , eds. ( 2001 ) ( 2001 ) . Cliff Notes : On Steinbeck 's Of Mice and men . 909 Third Avenue , New York City , New York : Wiley Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7645 - 8676 - 9 . Jump up ^ Of Mice and Men , p. 71 Jump up ^ Kirk , Susan Van ( 2001 ) ( 2001 ) . Tracy Barr ; Greg Tubach , , eds . Cliff Notes : On Steinbeck 's Of Mice and men . 909 Third Avenue , New York City , New York : Wiley Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7645 - 8676 - 9 . Jump up ^ Reed , Ph. D , Arthea J.S. A Teacher 's Guide to the Penguin Edition of John Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men ( PDF ) . Penguin Group ( USA ) . Jump up ^ Burning Bright -- in the foreword Steinbeck states that Of Mice and Men and The Moon Is Down were his first two play yo man Shillinglaw `` John Steinbeck , American Writer '' . The Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies . January 18 , 2004 . Archived from the original on September 8 , 2006 . Retrieved December 28 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Dr. Susan Shillinglaw ( January 18 , 2004 ) . `` John Steinbeck , American Writer '' . The Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies . Archived from the original on September 8 , 2006 . Retrieved December 28 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Coyer , Megan . `` More About This Poem '' . Robert Burns - To a Mouse . BBC . Retrieved 26 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Robert McCrum ( January 18 , 2004 ) . `` First drafts '' . The Guardian . UK . Retrieved December 27 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` '' John Steinbeck -- The Contemporary Reviews `` '' . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` goldenbooksgroup.co.uk '' . www.goldenbooksgroup.co.uk . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ McElrath , Joseph R. ; Jesse S. Crisler ; Susan Shillinglaw ( 1996 ) . John Steinbeck : The Contemporary Reviews . Cambridge University Press . pp. 71 -- 94 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 41038 - 0 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ CliffNotes : Of Mice and Men : About the Author . Wiley Publishing , Inc. 2000 -- 2007 . pp. 71 -- 94 . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Banned and / or Challenged Books from the Radcliffe Publishing Course Top 100 Novels of the 20th Century '' . American Library Association . 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` American Library Association list of the Most Challenged Books of 21st Century '' . American Library Association . 2007 . Retrieved August 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Big Read '' , BBC , April 2003 . Retrieved January 12 , 2014 Jump up ^ Doyle , Robert . `` Banned And / or Challenged Books from the Radcliffe Publishing Course Top 100 Novels of the 20th Century . '' ALA.org . American Library Association , 2010 . Web . `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 19 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 25 ... Jump up ^ Scarseth , Thomas . `` A Teachable Good Book : Of Mice and Men . '' Censored Books : Critical Viewpoints . Ed . Nicholas J. Karolides , Lee Burress , and John M. Kean . Scarecrow Press , 1993 . 388 -- 394 . Rpt. in Novels for Students . Ed . Diane Telgen . Vol. 1 . Detroit : Gale , 1998 . Literature Resource Center . Web . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Maev ( 25 May 2014 ) . `` To Kill a Mockingbird and Of Mice and Men axed as Gove orders more Brit lit '' . Retrieved 10 December 2017 -- via www.theguardian.com . ^ Jump up to : `` Internet Broadway Database : Of Mice and Men '' . The League of American Theatres and Producers . 2001 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Internet Broadway Database : Leigh Whipper '' . 2001 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Of Mice and Men ( 1939 ) '' . Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` National Steinbeck Center : About John Steinbeck : Facts , Awards , & Honors '' . National Steinbeck Center . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Internet Broadway Database : Of Mice and Men ( 1974 ) '' . The League of American Theatres and Producers . 2001 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Henahan , Donal ( October 14 , 1983 ) . `` NY Times Review of 1983 City Opera production '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Dzieemianowicz , Joe ( March 6 , 2013 ) . `` James Franco Says He 's Coming to Broadway to Star in ' Of Mice and Men ' '' . Daily News . New York City . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2013 . Retrieved March 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Leighton Meester on Broadway '' . Yahoo ! Philippines . December 8 , 2013 . Retrieved December 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Of Mice and Men ( 1968 ) '' . Turner Entertainment Networks , Inc . Retrieved January 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Of Mice and Men ( 1981 ) '' . Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Of Mice and Men ( 1992 ) '' . Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Of Mice and Men ( 1992 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes / IGN Entertainment , Inc. 1998 -- 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Sooryam Manasam '' . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . Jump up ^ BBC -- Classic Serial -- Of Mice and Men Bibliography `` Of Mice and Men Factsheet '' . English Resources . 2002 . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2007 . Retrieved October 8 , 2007 . External links Novels portal Photos of the first edition of Of Mice and Men 1953 Best Plays radio adaptation of play version at Internet Archive Works by John Steinbeck Novels and novellas Cup of Gold ( 1929 ) The Red Pony ( 1933 ) To a God Unknown ( 1933 ) Tortilla Flat ( 1935 ) In Dubious Battle ( 1936 ) Of Mice and Men ( 1937 ) The Grapes of Wrath ( 1939 ) The Moon Is Down ( 1942 ) Cannery Row ( 1945 ) The Wayward Bus ( 1947 ) The Pearl ( 1947 ) Burning Bright ( 1950 ) East of Eden ( 1952 ) Sweet Thursday ( 1954 ) The Short Reign of Pippin IV : A Fabrication ( 1957 ) The Winter of Our Discontent ( 1961 ) The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights ( 1976 ) Short story collections The Pastures of Heaven ( 1932 ) The Long Valley ( 1938 ) Screenplays The Forgotten Village ( 1941 ) The Pearl ( 1947 ) The Red Pony ( 1949 ) Viva Zapata ! ( 1952 ) Adaptations Of Mice and Men Of Mice and Men ( 1937 play ) Of Mice and Men ( 1939 film ) Of Mice and Men ( 1969 opera ) Of Mice and Men ( 1992 film ) Best Laid Plans ( 2012 film ) The Grapes of Wrath The Grapes of Wrath ( 1940 film ) The Grapes of Wrath ( 1988 play ) The Grapes of Wrath ( 2007 opera ) The Red Pony The Red Pony ( 1949 film ) The Red Pony ( 1949 film score ) The Red Pony ( 1973 film ) Other Tortilla Flat ( 1942 film ) The Moon Is Down ( 1943 film ) La perla ( The Pearl ) ( 1947 film ) East of Eden ( 1955 film ) The Wayward Bus ( 1957 film ) East of Eden ( 1981 miniseries ) Cannery Row ( 1982 film ) The Winter of Our Discontent ( 1983 film ) In Dubious Battle ( 2016 film ) Non-fiction Sea of Cortez : A Leisurely Journal of Travel and Research ( 1941 ) Bombs Away : The Story of a Bomber Team ( 1942 ) A Russian Journal ( 1948 ) The Log from the Sea of Cortez ( 1951 ) Once There Was a War ( 1958 ) Travels with Charley ( 1962 ) America and Americans ( 1966 ) Journal of a Novel : The East of Eden Letters ( 1969 ) John Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men ( 1937 ) Film Of Mice and Men ( 1939 ) Of Mice and Men ( 1992 ) Best Laid Plans ( 2012 ) Stage Of Mice and Men ( 1937 play ) Of Mice and Men ( 1969 opera ) Related Popular culture Hoppy Go Lucky VIAF : 180993990 GND : 4316771 - 8 SUDOC : 031187323 BNF : cb12245096p ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Of_Mice_and_Men&oldid=830574585 '' Categories : Novels by John Steinbeck 1937 American novels Novels set in California Great Depression novels American novellas American novels adapted into films Salinas Valley Of Mice and Men Novels adapted into operas Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Pages to import images to Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Кыргызча Македонски മലയാളം მარგალური Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 29 more Edit links This page was last edited on 15 March 2018 , at 17 : 34 . 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Question: when did john steinbeck write of mice and me


Fission ( biology ) - wikipedia Fission ( biology ) Jump to : navigation , search Fission , in biology , is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original . The object experiencing fission is usually a cell , but the term may also refer to how organisms , bodies , populations , or species split into discrete parts . The fission may be binary fission , in which a single entity produces two parts , or multiple fission , in which a single entity produces multiple parts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Binary fission 1.1 Fission of prokaryotes 1.1. 1 Process of bacterial fission 1.1. 2 Speed of bacterial fission 1.2 Fission of organelles 1.3 Types of Binary Fission 2 Multiple fission 2.1 Fission of protists 2.1. 1 Fission of apicomplexans 2.1. 2 Fission of green algae 2.2 Multiple fission of bacteria 3 Plasmotomy 4 Clonal fragmentation 5 Population fission 6 See also 7 References Binary fission ( edit ) Schematic diagram of cellular growth ( elongation ) and binary fission of bacilli . Blue and red lines indicate old and newly generated bacterial cell wall , respectively . ( 1 ) growth at the centre of the bacterial body . e.g. Bacillus subtilis , E. coli , and others . ( 2 ) apical growth . e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae . Organisms in the domains of Archaea and Bacteria reproduce with binary fission . This form of asexual reproduction and cell division is also used by some organelles within eukaryotic organisms ( e.g. , mitochondria ) . Binary fission results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell ( or organelle ) by dividing the cell into two parts , each with the potential to grow to the size of the original . Fission of prokaryotes ( edit ) The single DNA molecule first replicates , then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane . When the cell begins to pull apart , the replicated and original chromosomes are separated . The consequence of this asexual method of reproduction is that all the cells are genetically identical , meaning that they have the same genetic material ( barring random mutations ) . Unlike the process of mitosis used by eukaryotic cells , binary fission takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell . In binary fission the parental identity is lost . Process of bacterial fission ( edit ) Binary fission in a prokaryote The process of binary fission in bacteria involves the following steps . First , the cell 's DNA is replicated . The replicated DNA copies then move to opposite poles of the cell in an energy - dependent process . The cell lengthens . Then , the equatorial plane of the cell constricts and separates the plasma membrane such that each new cell has exactly the same genetic material . More specifically , the following steps occur : The bacterium before binary fission is when the DNA is tightly coiled . The DNA of the bacterium has uncoiled and duplicated . The DNA is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting . The growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium . The new cell wall fully develops , resulting in the complete split of the bacterium . The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods , ribosomes , and plasmids ; these are now brand new organisms . Speed of bacterial fission ( edit ) Binary fission is generally rapid though its speed varies between species . For E. coli , cells typically divide about every 20 minutes at 37 ° C. Because the new cells will , in turn , undergo binary fission on their own , the time binary fission requires is also the time the bacterial culture requires to double in the number of cells it contains . This time period can , therefore , be referred to as the doubling time . Some species other than E. coli may have faster or slower doubling times : some strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis may have doubling times of nearly 100 hours . Bacterial growth is limited by factors including nutrient availability and available space , so binary fission occurs at much lower rates in bacterial cultures once they enter the stationary phase of growth . Fission of organelles ( edit ) Some organelles in eukaryotic cells reproduce using binary fission . Mitochondrial fission occurs frequently within the cell , even when the cell is not actively undergoing mitosis , and is necessary to regulate the cell 's metabolism . Types of binary fission ( edit ) Binary fission in organisms can occur in four ways , irregular , longitudinal , transverse , oblique . Irregular : In this fission , cytokinesis may take place along any plane but it is always perpendicular to the plane of karyokinesis . e.g. amoeba Longitudinal : Here cytokinesis takes place along the longitudinal axis . e.g. in flagellates like Euglena . Transverse : Here cytokinesis takes place along the transverse axis . e.g. in ciliate protzoans like paramecium . Oblique : In this type of binary fission cytokinesis occurs obliquely . e.g. ceratium Multiple fission ( edit ) Fission of protists ( edit ) Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists , e.g. sporozoans and algae . The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by amitosis , producing several nuclei . The cytoplasm then separates , creating multiple daughter cells . Some parasitic , single - celled organisms undergo a multiple fission - like process to produce numerous daughter cells from a single parent cell . Isolates of the human parasite Blastocystis hominis were observed to begin such a process within 4 to 6 days . Cells of the fish parasite Trypanoplasma borreli have also been observed participating in both binary and multiple fission . Fission of apicomplexans ( edit ) In the apicomplexans , a phylum of parasitic protists , multiple fission , or schizogony , is manifested either as merogony , sporogony or gametogony . Merogony results in merozoites , which are multiple daughter cells , that originate within the same cell membrane , sporogony results in sporozoites , and gametogony results in micro gametes . Fission of green algae ( edit ) Green algae can divide into more than two daughter cells . The exact number of daughter cells depends on the species of algae and is an effect of temperature and light . Multiple fission of bacteria ( edit ) Most species of bacteria primarily undergo binary reproduction . Some species and groups of bacteria may undergo multiple fission as well , sometimes beginning or ending with the production of spores . The species Metabacterium polyspora , a symbiont of guinea pigs , has been found to produce multiple endospores in each division . Some species of cyanobacteria have also been found to reproduce through multiple fission . Plasmotomy ( edit ) Some protozoans reproduce by yet another mechanism of fission called as plasmotomy . In this type of fission , a multinucleate adult parent undergoes cytokinesis to form two multinucleate ( or coenocytic ) daughter cells . The daughter cells so produced undergo karyokinesis , further . Such a type of reproduction is shown by opalina and pelomyxa . Clonal fragmentation ( edit ) Main article : Fragmentation ( reproduction ) Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments . Each of these fragments develop into mature , fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism . In echinoderms , this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity . Population fission ( edit ) Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission . A population may undergo fission for a variety of reasons , including migration or geographic isolation . Because the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated , smaller populations , population fission is a precursor to speciation . See also ( edit ) Cytokinesis , cell division in eukaryotes Divisome ( protein complex that initiates cell division in bacteria ) Fission - fusion society , a type of social organization that is notable among primates Paratomy Speciation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Carlson , B.M. ( 2007 ) . Principals of regenerative biology . Elsevier Academic Press . p. 379 . ISBN 0 - 12 - 369439 - 6 . Jump up ^ Boulay , R.L. ; Galarza , J.A. ; Che , B. ; Hefetz , A. ; Lenoir , A. ; van Oudenhove , L. ; Cerda , X . ( 2010 ) . `` Intrafotmobcompetition affects population size and resource allocation in an ant dispersing by colony fission '' . Ecology. 91 ( 11 ) : 3312 -- 3321 . doi : 10.1890 / 09 - 1520.1 . Jump up ^ Hubbell , S. ( 2003 ) . `` Modes of speciation and the lifespans of species under neutrality : a response to the comment of Robert E. Ricklefs '' . Oikos. 100 ( 1 ) : 193 -- 199 . doi : 10.1034 / j. 1600 - 0706.2003. 12450. x . Jump up ^ Rokney , Assaf ; Shagan , Merav ; Kessel , Martin ; Smith , Yoav ; Rosenshine , Ilan ; Oppenheim , Amos B. ( September 2009 ) . `` E. coli Transports Aggregated Proteins to the Poles by a Specific and Energy - Dependent Process '' . Journal of Molecular Biology . 392 ( 3 ) : 589 -- 601 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jmb. 2009.07. 009 . PMID 19596340 . Jump up ^ Sezonov , G. ; Joseleau - Petit , D. ; D'Ari , R. ( 28 September 2007 ) . `` Escherichia coli ( E coli ) Physiology in Luria - Bertani Broth '' . Journal of Bacteriology. 189 ( 23 ) : 8746 -- 8749 . doi : 10.1128 / JB. 01368 - 07 . Jump up ^ North , R.J. ( 1 June 1993 ) . `` Mycobacterial virulence . Virulent strains of Mycobacteria tuberculosis have faster in vivo doubling times and are better equipped to resist growth - inhibiting functions of macrophages in the presence and absence of specific immunity '' . Journal of Experimental Medicine . 177 ( 6 ) : 1723 -- 1733 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 177.6. 1723 . Jump up ^ van der Bliek , A.M. ; Shen , Q. ; Kawajiri , S. ( 3 June 2013 ) . `` Mechanisms of Mitochondrial Fission and Fusion '' . Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology . 5 ( 6 ) : a011072 -- a011072 . doi : 10.1101 / cshperspect. a011072 . Jump up ^ `` Cell reproduction '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Britannica Educational Publishing ( 2011 ) . Fungi , Algae , and Protists . The Rosen Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61530 - 463 - 9 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ P. Puranik , Asha Bhate ( 2007 ) . Animal Forms And Functions : Invertebrata . Sarup & Sons . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7625 - 791 - 6 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Suresh , K. ; Howe , J. ; Ng , G.C. ; Ho , L.C. ; Ramachandran , N.P. ; Loh , A.K. ; Yap , E.H. ; Singh , M. ( 1994 ) . `` A multiple fission - like mode of asexual reproduction inBlastocystis hominis '' . Parasitology Research . 80 ( 6 ) : 523 -- 527 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00932701 . Jump up ^ Pecková , H. ; Lom , J. ( 1990 ) . `` Growth , morphology and division of flagellates of the genusTrypanoplasma ( Protozoa , Kinetoplastida ) in vitro '' . Parasitology Research . 76 ( 7 ) : 553 -- 558 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00932559 . Jump up ^ Lynn Margulis ; Heather I. McKhann ; Lorraine Olendzenski ( 1993 ) . Illustrated glossary of protoctista : vocabulary of the algae , apicomplexa , ciliates , foraminifera , microspora , water molds , slime molds , and the other protoctists . Jones & Bartlett Learning . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86720 - 081 - 2 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Yoshinori Tanada ; Harry K. Kaya ( 1993 ) . Insect pathology . Gulf Professional Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 683255 - 6 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Bišová , K. ; Zachleder , V. ( 17 January 2014 ) . `` Cell - cycle regulation in green algae dividing by multiple fission '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Experimental Botany. 65 ( 10 ) : 2585 -- 2602 . doi : 10.1093 / jxb / ert466 . PMID 24441762 . Retrieved 23 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Angert , Esther R. ( March 2005 ) . `` Alternatives to binary fission in bacteria '' ( PDF ) . Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 ( 3 ) : 214 -- 224 . doi : 10.1038 / nrmicro1096 . PMID 15738949 . Retrieved 23 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Angert , E.R. ; Losick , R.M. ( 18 August 1998 ) . `` Propagation by sporulation in the guinea pig symbiont Metabacterium polyspora '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 95 ( 17 ) : 10218 -- 10223 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 95.17. 10218 . Jump up ^ Stanier , Roger Y. ; Deruelles , Josette ; Rippka , Rosmarie ; Herdman , Michael ; Waterbury , John B. ( 1 March 1979 ) . `` Generic Assignments , Strain Histories and Properties of Pure Cultures of Cyanobacteria '' . Microbiology. 111 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 61 . doi : 10.1099 / 00221287 - 111 - 1 - 1 . Jump up ^ Helen Nilsson Sköld ; Matthias Obst ; Mattias Sköld ; Bertil Åkesson ( 2009 ) . `` Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates '' . In Baruch Rinkevich ; Valeria Matranga . Stem Cells in Marine Organisms . Springer . p. 125 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 481 - 2766 - 5 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Whitlock , Michael C. ( May 1994 ) . `` Fission and the Genetic Variance Among Populations : The Changing Demorgraphy of Forked Fungus Beetle Populations '' . The American Naturalist. 143 ( 5 ) : 820 -- 829 . doi : 10.1086 / 285634 . JSTOR 2462878 . Jump up ^ Thompson , EA ( October 1979 ) . `` Fission models of population variability '' . Genetics . 93 ( 2 ) : 479 -- 95 . PMC 1214094 . PMID 535728 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fission_(biology)&oldid=836653151 '' Categories : Cell cycle Asexual reproduction Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский Simple English Türkçe 中文 21 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 01 : 42 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: what types of cells go through binary fission


Disha Vakani - Wikipedia Disha Vakani Jump to : navigation , search Disha Vakani Vakani in 2012 ( 1978 - 08 - 17 ) 17 August 1978 ( age 39 ) Ahmedabad , Gujarat , India Residence Kandivli , Mumbai , India Nationality Indian Alma mater Gujarat College , Ahmedabad Occupation Actress Years active 1997 -- present Known for Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Spouse ( s ) Mayur Padia ( m . 2015 ) Relatives Bhim Vakani ( father ) Mayur Vakani ( brother ) Website twitter.com/dishavakani Disha Vakani ( born 17 August 1978 ) is an Indian film and television actress . She made her career as a stage actress in Gujarati plays like Kamal Patel v / s Dhamal Patel and Lali Lila . She has appeared in supporting roles in films like Devdas ( 2002 ) and Jodha Akbar ( 2008 ) . She plays lead role of Daya Jethalal Gada in SAB TV 's comedy show Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah since 2008 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Personal life 2 Filmography 3 Television 4 Awards 5 References 6 External links Personal life ( edit ) Disha Vakani was born in a Gujarati family in Ahmedabad , Gujarat . Disha graduated in the Dramatic arts from Gujarat College in Ahmedabad . She married a Mumbai - based chartered accountant named Mayur Padia on 24 November 2015 . On November 30 2017 , she gave birth to a girl . Her brother Mayur Vakani also plays her on - screen brother Sundar in television serial Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah . Filmography ( edit ) Year Film Role Notes Kamsin : The Untouched 1999 Phool Aur Aag 2002 Devdas Sakhi 1 2005 Mangal Pandey : The Rising Yasmin 2006 Jaana ... Let 's Fall in Love Salma Disa 2008 Jodha Akbar Madhavi 2008 C Kkompany Widow of Railway Employee 2008 Love Story 2050 Maid Television ( edit ) Year Show Role Notes Khichdi Guest appearance 2008 - present Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Daya Jethalal Gada / Dayaben 2014 C.I.D. Daya Jethalal Gada / Dayaben 4 Episodes - crossover Awards ( edit ) Year Award Show Result 2009 9th Indian Telly Awards Best Actor in a Comic Role -- Female ( Popular ) Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Won Indian Television Academy Awards Best Actress - Comedy 3rd Zee Gold Awards Best Comic Actor ( Popular ) 10th Indian Telly Awards Best Actor in a Comic Role -- Female ( Popular ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Daya Ben aka Disha Vakani turns a year older '' . The Times Of India . 17 August 2015 . Retrieved 17 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` TV actress Disha Vakani ties the knot ! '' . India Today . 24 November 2015 . Retrieved 16 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Disha Vakani misses theatre '' . The Times of India . 5 Nov 2012 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Unknown facts of Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah cast '' . The Times Of India . 30 January 2016 . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` I enjoy acting : Disha Vakani '' . Mumbai Mirror. 30 Dec 2011 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Jhumari Nigam - Misra ( 12 November 2009 ) . `` Pretty women '' . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Comedy Inc '' . 1 Jul 2010 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Character 's the KING '' . Indian Express . 25 Nov 2010 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Funny female bone '' . The Times of India . 21 Jun 2009 . Retrieved 14 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dayaben of ' Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah ' aka Disha Vakani ties the knot '' . Daily News and Analysis . 25 November 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disha Vakani . Disha Vakani on IMDb An Interview with Disha Vakani in Gujarati Awards for Disha Vakani Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role Popular Reema Lagoo ( 2002 ) Supriya Pathak ( 2003 ) Manini Mishra ( 2004 ) Supriya Pathak ( 2005 ) Suchita Trivedi ( 2006 ) Snehal Sahay ( 2007 ) Suchita Trivedi ( 2008 ) Disha Vakani ( 2009 ) Disha Vakani ( 2010 ) Kavita Kaushik ( 2012 ) Giaa Manek ( 2013 ) Disha Vakani ( 2014 ) Jury Kavita Kaushik ( 2010 ) Disha Vakani ( 2012 ) Disha Vakani ( 2013 ) Bharti Singh Shubhangi Gokhale ( 2014 ) Indian Television Academy Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role Jury Archana Puran Singh ( 2001 ) Supriya Pilgaonkar ( 2002 ) Farida Jalal ( 2003 ) Supriya Pathak ( 2004 ) Ratna Pathak ( 2005 ) Divya Dutta ( 2006 ) Suchita Trivedi ( 2007 ) Supriya Pathak Disha Vakani ( 2008 ) Disha Vakani ( 2009 ) Kavita Kaushik ( 2010 ) Kavita Kaushik ( 2011 ) Kavita Kaushik ( 2012 ) Kavita Kaushik ( 2013 ) Disha Vakani ( 2014 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disha_Vakani&oldid=821811801 '' Categories : Living people Actresses from Ahmedabad Indian film actresses Indian television actresses Indian soap opera actresses Indian stage actresses Actresses in Gujarati cinema Actresses in Hindi television 21st - century Indian actresses 1978 births Gujarati people Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from November 2014 Use Indian English from September 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Articles with hCards Talk Contents About Wikipedia تۆرکجه বাংলা فارسی Français ગુજરાતી हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ मैथिली मराठी नेपाली ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 19 : 49 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: real name of daya in taarak mehta ka ooltah chashmah


Value - added tax in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Value - added tax in the United Kingdom Jump to : navigation , search Taxation in the United Kingdom UK Government Departments HM Treasury HM Revenue and Customs UK Government VAT Income tax National Insurance Corporation tax Capital gains tax Motoring taxes Inheritance tax Stamp duty Insurance Premium Tax Air Passenger Duty PAYE Scottish Government Revenue Scotland Land and Buildings Transaction Tax Scottish Landfill Tax Air Departure Tax Welsh Government Welsh Revenue Authority Land Transaction Tax Landfill Disposals Tax Local Government Council Tax Domestic rates in Northern Ireland Business rates in England Business rates in Wales Business rates in Scotland Business rates in Northern Ireland In the United Kingdom , the value - added tax ( or value added tax , VAT ) was introduced in 1973 and is the third - largest source of government revenue , after income tax and National Insurance . It is administered and collected by HM Revenue and Customs , primarily through the Value Added Tax Act 1994 . VAT is levied on most goods and services provided by registered businesses in the UK and some goods and services imported from outside the European Union . There are complex regulations for goods and services imported from within the EU . The default VAT rate is the standard rate , 20 % since 4 January 2011 . Some goods and services are subject to VAT at a reduced rate of 5 % ( such as domestic fuel ) or 0 % ( such as most food and children 's clothing ) . Others are exempt from VAT or outside the system altogether . Under EU law , the standard rate of VAT in any EU state can not be lower than 15 % . Each state may have up to two reduced rates of at least 5 % for a restricted list of goods and services . The European Council must approve any temporary reduction of VAT in the public interest . VAT is an indirect tax because the tax is paid to the government by the seller ( the business ) rather than the person who ultimately bears the economic burden of the tax ( the consumer ) . Opponents of VAT claim it is a regressive tax because the poorest people spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than the richest people . Those in favour of VAT claim it is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Operation 3 Rates 4 Historical rates 5 Revenue 6 Avoidance , evasion and fraud 7 Criticism 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History ( edit ) Between October 1940 and March 1973 the UK had a consumption tax called Purchase Tax , which was levied at different rates depending on goods ' luxuriousness . Purchase Tax was applied to the wholesale price , initially at a rate of 33  ⁄ % . This was doubled in April 1942 to 66  ⁄ % , and further increased in April 1943 to a rate of 100 % , before reverting in April 1946 to 33  ⁄ % again . Unlike VAT , Purchase Tax was applied at the point of manufacture and distribution , not at the point of sale . The rate of Purchase Tax at the start of 1973 , when it gave way to VAT , was 25 % . On 1 January 1973 the UK joined the European Economic Community and as a consequence Purchase Tax was replaced by Value Added Tax on 1 April 1973 . The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate ( 10 % ) on most goods and services . In July 1974 , Labour Chancellor Denis Healey reduced the standard rate of VAT from 10 % to 8 % but introduced a new higher rate of 12.5 % for petrol and some luxury goods . In November 1974 , Healey doubled the higher rate of VAT to 25 % . Healey reduced the higher rate back to 12.5 % in April 1976 . Conservative Chancellor Geoffrey Howe increased the standard rate of VAT from 8 % to 15 % and abolished the higher rate in June 1979 . The rate remained unchanged until 1991 , when Conservative Chancellor Norman Lamont increased it from 15 % to 17.5 % . The additional revenue was used to pay for a reduction in the hugely unpopular community charge . During the 1992 general election the Conservatives promised not to extend the scope of VAT but in March 1993 , Lamont announced that domestic fuel and power , which had previously been zero - rated , would have VAT levied at 8 % from April 1994 and the full 17.5 % from April 1995 . The planned introduction of VAT on domestic fuel and power went ahead in April 1994 , but the increase from 8 % to 17.5 % in April 1995 was scuppered in December 1994 , after the government lost the vote in parliament . In its 1997 general election manifesto , the Labour Party pledged to reduce VAT on domestic fuel and power to 5 % . After gaining power , the new Labour Chancellor Gordon Brown announced in June 1997 that the lower rate of VAT on domestic fuel and power would be reduced from 8 % to 5 % with effect from 1 September 1997 . In November 1997 , Brown announced that the VAT on installation of energy saving materials would be reduced from 17.5 % to 5 % from 1 July 1998 . Brown subsequently reduced VAT from 17.5 % to 5 % on sanitary protection products ( from 1 January 2001 ) ; children 's car seats ( from 1 April 2001 ) ; conversion and renovation of certain residential properties ( from 12 May 2001 ) ; contraceptives ( from 1 July 2006 ) ; and smoking cessation products ( from 1 July 2007 ) . In response to the late - 2000s recession , Labour Chancellor Alistair Darling announced in November 2008 that the standard rate of VAT would be reduced from 17.5 % to 15 % with effect from 1 December 2008 . In December 2009 , Darling announced that the standard rate of VAT would return to 17.5 % with effect from 1 January 2010 . In the run up to the 2010 general election there were reports that the Conservatives would raise VAT if they gained power . The party denied the reports . Following the election in May 2010 , the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats . In the 2010 budget , described by PM David Cameron as an `` emergency budget '' , Chancellor George Osborne announced that the standard rate of VAT would increase from 17.5 % to 20 % with effect from 4 January 2011 . Before the 2015 general election Labour claimed that the Conservatives would raise VAT to 22.5 % if they were re-elected and Osborne reputedly refused to deny the claim . On 25 March 2015 Cameron pledged in the House of Commons that VAT would not be increased . Operation ( edit ) All businesses that provide `` taxable '' goods and services and whose taxable turnover exceeds the threshold must register for VAT . The threshold was £ 77,000 since April 2012 , and as of 2016 it is £ 83,000 , by far the highest VAT registration threshold in the world . Businesses may choose to register even if their turnover is less than that amount . All registered businesses must charge VAT on the full sale price of the goods or services that they provide unless exempted or outside the VAT system . The default VAT rate is the standard rate , currently 20 % . Some goods and services are charged lower rates ( reduced or zero ) . Registered businesses must pay over to HMRC the VAT they have charged on their goods or service ( known as output tax ) but they may offset this with the VAT they have incurred on goods or services they have purchased that relates to their own onward ' taxable ' supplies ( known as input tax ) . VAT incurred by businesses that does not relate to their onward making of taxable supplies ( whether exempt or from ' non-business ' activities ) may not be offset from the amount of VAT that is payable to HMRC . A separate scheme , called The Flat Rate Scheme is also run by HMRC . This scheme allows a VAT registered business with a turnover of less than £ 150,000 per annum to pay a fixed percentage of its turnover to HMRC every 3 months . The scheme is designed to reduce red tape for small business and allow new companies to keep some of the VAT they charge to their customers . Businesses selling exempt good , supplies or services , such as banks , may not register for VAT or reclaim VAT that they have incurred on purchases . Businesses that sell a mixture of taxable and exempt goods or services can only recover the proportion of the VAT they incur on their purchases that relates to their onward taxable supplies . The rules dealing with ' mixed use ' ( or ' residual ' ) VAT on purchases are complex . However , businesses that sell zero - rated goods or supplies , such as food producers or bookseller , may reclaim all the VAT they have incurred on purchases . Rates ( edit ) There are currently three rates of VAT : standard ( 20 % ) , reduced ( 5 % ) and zero ( 0 % ) . In addition some goods and services are exempt from VAT or outside the VAT system . The following are the rates applicable to some common goods and services : Standard rated Alcoholic drinks Biscuits ( chocolate covered only ) Bottled water ( inc . mineral water ) Calendars & diaries Carbonated ( fizzy ) drinks CDs , DVDs , video games , & tapes Cereal bars Chocolate Clothes & footwear ( not for children under 14 ) Confectionery / sweets Delivery charges ( postage & packaging ) Electrical goods Electricity , gas , heating oil & solid fuel ( business ) Food & drinks supplied for consumption on the premises ( at restaurants , cafes etc ) Hot take - away food & drinks ( inc . burgers , hot dogs , toasted sandwiches ) Ice cream Fruit juice & other cold drinks ( not milk ) Nuts ( shelled , roasted / salted ) Postal services ( Royal Mail / other licensed operators ) Potato crisps Prams & pushchairs Road fuel ( petrol / diesel ) Salt ( non-culinary ) Stationery Taxi fares Tolls for bridges , tunnels & roads ( privately operated ) Water ( industrial ) Reduced rated Children 's car seats Electricity , gas , heating oil & solid fuel ( domestic / residential / charity non-business ) Energy saving materials ( permanently installed in residential / charity premises ) Maternity pads Mobility aids for the elderly Sanitary protection products Smoking cessation products Zero rated Aircraft ( sale / charter ) Bicycle & motorcycle helmets Biscuits ( not chocolate covered ) Books , maps & charts ( not ebooks ) Bread , rolls , baps & pitta bread Brochures , leaflets & pamphlets Building services for disabled people Cakes ( including Chocolate teacake , Jaffa Cakes ) Canned & frozen food ( not ice cream ) Cereals Chilled / frozen ready meals , convenience foods Clothes & footwear ( for children under 14 only ) Construction & sale of new domestic buildings Cooking oil Donated goods sold at charity shops Eggs Equipment for disabled people ( inc . blind / partially sighted ) Fish ( inc . live fish ) Fruit & vegetables Live animals for human consumption Meat & poultry Milk , butter , cheese Newspapers , magazines & journals Nuts & pulses ( raw for human consumption ) Prescription medicine Protective boots & helmets ( industrial ) Public transport fares ( bus , train & tube ) Salt ( culinary ) Sandwiches ( cold ) Sewerage ( domestic & industrial ) Shipbuilding ( 15 tonnes or over ) Tea , coffee & cocoa Transport in a vehicle , boat or aircraft ( not fewer than ten passengers ) Water ( household ) Exempt Antiques , works of art or similar Burial or cremation ( human ) Commercial land & buildings ( selling / leasing / letting ) Cultural events operated by public bodies ( museums , art exhibitions , zoos & performances ) Education , vocational training Financial services ( money transactions , loans / credits , savings / deposits , shares / bonds ) Funeral plan insurance Gambling ( betting , gaming , bingo , lottery ) Health services ( doctors , dentists , opticians , pharmacists & other health professionals ) Insurance Medical treatment & care Membership subscriptions Postage stamps Sports activities & physical education TV licence Outside Goods & services sold outside the EU Goods & services supplied by unregistered supplier Statutory fees & services ( MOT testing , congestion charge etc ) Tolls for bridges , tunnels and roads ( operated by public authorities ) Voluntary donations to charity Historical rates ( edit ) Standard VAT rates since 1979 : From To Standard rate 18 June 1979 18 March 1991 15.0 % 19 March 1991 30 November 2008 17.5 % 1 December 2008 31 December 2009 15.0 % 1 January 2010 3 January 2011 17.5 % 4 January 2011 Present 20.0 % Revenue ( edit ) VAT revenue since 1978 / 79 as a percentage of total government revenue : Year VAT ( £ bn ) % Year VAT ( £ bn ) % Year VAT ( £ bn ) % Year VAT ( £ bn ) % 1978 / 79 4.9 7.02 % 1988 / 89 27.2 13.81 % 1998 / 99 52.3 15.60 % 2008 / 09 78.4 14.77 % 1979 / 80 8.0 9.41 % 1989 / 90 29.6 14.02 % 1999 / 00 56.4 15.73 % 2009 / 10 63.7 12.84 % 1980 / 81 11.1 11.00 % 1990 / 91 30.9 13.94 % 2000 / 01 58.5 15.30 % 2010 / 11 73.4 13.89 % 1981 / 82 11.9 9.95 % 1991 / 92 35.3 15.25 % 2001 / 02 61.0 15.66 % 2011 / 12 79.5 13.79 % 1982 / 83 13.8 10.63 % 1992 / 93 37.2 16.36 % 2002 / 03 63.5 16.03 % 2012 / 13 83.8 13.52 % 1983 / 84 15.3 11.09 % 1993 / 94 39.2 16.67 % 2003 / 04 69.1 16.36 % 2013 / 14 87.7 13.26 % 1984 / 85 18.6 12.59 % 1994 / 95 41.7 16.30 % 2004 / 05 73.0 16.11 % 1985 / 86 19.4 12.29 % 1995 / 96 43.1 15.58 % 2005 / 06 72.9 14.98 % 1986 / 87 21.3 12.94 % 1996 / 97 46.6 16.14 % 2006 / 07 77.4 14.89 % 1987 / 88 24.2 13.53 % 1997 / 98 50.6 16.00 % 2007 / 08 80.6 14.71 % Avoidance , evasion and fraud ( edit ) See also : Missing trader fraud and VAT - free imports from the Channel Islands The UK government loses billions in revenue each year due to VAT avoidance , evasion and fraud . In 2006 the loss was estimated to be between £ 13bn and £ 18bn , equivalent to £ 1 for every £ 6 of VAT due . The bulk of the lost revenue , about £ 1 in every £ 8 of VAT due , is due to evasion . Evasion , which is illegal , occurs when registered businesses pay over to HMRC less than they should . This can be done by understating sales or overstating purchases . Evasion also occurs when businesses do not charge VAT on goods and services they provide even though they are legally obliged to . Cash - in - hand jobs by tradesmen may indicate VAT evasion . In recent years carousel fraud ( also known as missing trader fraud ) has increased . Criminal gangs trade goods , such as mobile phones , across EU countries . They do not have to pay VAT , as imports from the EU are not subject to VAT in the UK . The fraud occurs when the criminals sell the goods with VAT in the UK but fail to pass the VAT to HMRC . The goods are often repeatedly shipped round EU countries by criminal gang networks , hence the `` carousel '' name . According to the HMRC , between £ 1.1 bn and £ 1.9 bn tax revenue was lost in 2004 / 05 due to carousel fraud . The European Union Emission Trading Scheme has been plagued by carousel fraud . Until 2012 , the Low Value Consignment Relief ( LVCR ) meant that goods imported from outside the EU through Jersey and costing less than a set amount were not subject to VAT . When the LVCR was introduced in 1983 it was set at about £ 5 but gradually rose to £ 18 . From 1 November 2011 the LVCR was reduced from £ 18 to £ 15 . The LVCR allowed online retailers of DVDs and CDs to avoid VAT by importing the goods from the Channel Islands , which are not part of the EU . Major retailers involved in this tax avoidance included Amazon , Asda , HMV , Play.com , Tesco , WH Smith and Woolworths . The tax avoided each year due to LVCR was estimated to be £ 85m in 2005 , £ 110m in 2008 , £ 130m in 2010 and £ 140m in 2011 . From 1 April 2012 the relief was withdrawn in respect of goods imported to the UK from the Channel Islands . Criticism ( edit ) Opponents of VAT claim VAT is regressive and is paid by all consumers whether they be rich or poor , young or old . The poorest also spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than richest . The Office for National Statistics report showed that in 2009 / 10 the poorest 20 % spent 8.7 % of their gross income on VAT , whereas the richest 20 % spent only 4.0 % of their gross income on VAT . Similarly , the poorest 20 % spent 9.7 % of their disposable income on VAT , whereas the richest 20 % spent only 5.2 % of their disposable income on VAT . Supporters of VAT claim VAT is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT . However , according to their definitions , VAT is neither progressive nor regressive , since the rate neither increases or decreases with the taxable amount . The zero rating of food , and the permission for businesses to reclaim input VAT , have been said to mean that the government in effect subsidises the food industry . Critics also argue that VAT is double taxation as consumers pay for goods and services using income that has already been taxed . It is also argued that VAT is an inefficient tax owing to the numerous exemptions and concessions . See also ( edit ) Value Added Tax Act 1994 Goods and Services Tax ( India ) Goods and Services Tax ( Australia ) Goods and Services Tax ( Canada ) Goods and Services Tax ( New Zealand ) Goods and Services Tax ( Singapore ) Sales tax in the United States References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/value-added-tax Jump up ^ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/value-added-tax?q=value+added+tax ^ Jump up to : `` Introduction to VAT '' . HM Revenue and Customs . Jump up ^ `` The UK 's VAT Rate Explained '' . KashFlow . Retrieved 3 November 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Victor , Adam ( 31 December 2010 ) . `` VAT : a brief history of tax '' . The Guardian . ^ Jump up to : `` VAT rates '' . European Commission . ^ Jump up to : `` Poorest spend higher proportion on VAT than richest '' . BBC News . 31 October 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Victor , Peter ( 30 July 1995 ) . `` A brief history of VAT '' . The Independent . ^ Jump up to : Wallop , Harry ( 13 April 2010 ) . `` General Election 2010 : a brief history of the Value Added Tax '' . The Daily Telegraph . ^ Jump up to : `` Budgets 1945 - 1979 '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ `` Bygone budgets : April 1976 '' . The Guardian . 3 March 1999 . ^ Jump up to : `` Budgets 1979 - 1992 '' . BBC News . ^ Jump up to : `` Budgets 1993 - 1995 '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ `` Labour 's 1997 pledges : Economics and employment '' . BBC News . 6 May 2002 . Jump up ^ `` Bygone budgets : June 1997 '' . The Guardian . 17 March 2000 . Jump up ^ `` Cheaper Fuel Bills Announced '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ Wallop , Harry ( 24 November 2008 ) . `` Pre-Budget report : VAT cut to 15pc but alcohol and tobacco taxes increased '' . The Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ Finch , Julia ( 24 November 2008 ) . `` Retailers welcome cut in VAT to 15 % '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Shops given time over VAT price tag changes '' . BBC News . 9 December 2009 . Jump up ^ Finch , Julia ( 9 December 2009 ) . `` VAT to return to 17.5 % , but no higher , says chancellor '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Beattie , Jason ( 29 July 2009 ) . `` Tories secretly plotting to raise VAT to 20 per cent '' . Daily Mirror . Jump up ^ Toby Helm ; Anushka Asthana ( 4 April 2010 ) . `` George Osborne will have to raise rate of VAT , insists Ed Balls '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Tamara Cohen ; Jason Groves ( 29 April 2010 ) . `` Tories ' in secret plot to raise VAT to 19.5 % in emergency June Budget ' '' . Daily Mail . Jump up ^ `` Tories deny plan for 20 % VAT rate '' . BBC News . 9 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Ministers on defensive as tax row intensifies '' . BBC News . 1 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Budget : Osborne 's ' tough ' package puts VAT up to 20 % '' . BBC News . 22 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Larry Elliott ; Hélène Mulholland ( 22 June 2010 ) . `` Budget 2010 : VAT to rise to 20 % as Osborne seeks to balance books by 2015 '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Mason , Rowena ; Watt , Nicholas ( 24 March 2015 ) . `` George Osborne refuses five times to rule out VAT rise '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Chorley , Matt ( 25 March 2015 ) . `` Osborne refuses to match Labour pledge not to increase VAT again after the election '' . Mail Online . Jump up ^ Dominiczak , Peter ( 25 March 2015 ) . `` David Cameron rules out VAT increase in move that trips up Ed Miliband '' . The Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ Stewart , Heather ( 25 March 2015 ) . `` Cameron pledges no increase in VAT '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Budget 2012 '' . HMRC . Jump up ^ `` HMRC '' . Jump up ^ `` VAT Output Tax Toolkit '' ( PDF ) . HM Revenue & Customs . July 2013 . Retrieved 3 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Flat Rate Scheme for VAT '' . HM Revenue & Customs . Retrieved 3 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 AGN VAT Brochure - European Comparison '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rates of VAT on different goods and services '' . HM Revenue and Customs . Jump up ^ `` Standard VAT rates '' . Jump up ^ `` Composition of revenue '' . Institute for Fiscal Studies . Jump up ^ Fraser , Douglas ( 31 October 2009 ) . `` Britain ' losing billions in VAT ' '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ Murphy , Richard ( 10 September 2010 ) . `` Are you cheating the taxman too ? '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Do n't pay cash in hand -- pay your VAT '' . The Guardian . 16 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Carousel fraud checks ' shut ' Sussex firm '' . BBC News . 10 June 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` New clampdown on carousel fraud '' . BBC News . 21 July 2006 . Jump up ^ Mason , Rowena ( 30 December 2009 ) . `` ' Carousel ' frauds plague European carbon trading markets '' . Daily Telegraph . Jump up ^ Inman , Phillip ( 11 January 2010 ) . `` Three Britons charged over € 3m carbon - trading ' carousel fraud ' '' . The Guardian . ^ Jump up to : Bowers , Simon ( 13 April 2010 ) . `` Tesco resurrects online VAT dodge despite Jersey 's action to halt ' sham ' '' . The Guardian . ^ Jump up to : `` VAT relief for parcels entering UK ' reduced ' '' . BBC News . 1 November 2011 . Jump up ^ Bowers , Simon ( 19 February 2010 ) . `` Boom in sales of tax - free CDs casts doubt on Treasury claims '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Treasury to close loophole that allows VAT - free DVDs '' . BBC News . 9 November 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Andrew Barnard , Steve Howell and Robert Smith ( 2011 ) . Effects of taxes and benefits on household income Statistical Bulletin - 2009 / 2010 . Office for National Statistics . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Webster ( 4b ) : increasing in rate as the base increases ( a progressive tax ) Jump up ^ American Heritage Archived 9 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . ( 6 ) . Increasing in rate as the taxable amount increases . Jump up ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia : Tax levied at a rate that increases as the quantity subject to taxation increases . Jump up ^ Princeton University WordNet : ( n ) progressive tax ( any tax in which the rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases ) External links ( edit ) HM Revenue and Customs - VAT Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Value-added_tax_in_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=819171548 '' Categories : Value - added tax ( United Kingdom ) Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use British English from January 2015 Use dmy dates from August 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 7 January 2018 , at 21 : 46 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: when did vat change from 17.5 to 20