Strategy of unbalanced growth - Wikipedia Strategy of unbalanced growth Jump to : navigation , search This article may be incomprehensible or very hard to understand . In particular , it uses both very general statements which are not further clarified or contextualized , and technical jargon that is not explained . Please help by rewording it if the intended meaning can be determined . The talk page may have details . ( August 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( January 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Unbalanced growth is a natural path of economic development . Situations that countries are in at any one point in time reflect their previous investment decisions and development . Accordingly , at any point in time desirable investment programs that are not balanced investment packages may still advance welfare . Unbalanced investment can complement or correct existing imbalances . Once such an investment is made , a new imbalance is likely to appear , requiring further compensating investments . Therefore , growth need not take place in a balanced way . Supporters of the unbalanced growth doctrine include Albert O. Hirschman , Hans Singer , Paul Streeten , Marcus Fleming , Prof. Rostov and J. Sheehan . Contents ( hide ) 1 Introduction 2 Complementarity 3 Induced investment 4 External economies 5 Social Overhead Capital 6 Development via capital imbalances 7 Backward and forward linkages 8 Linkages and last industries 8.1 Disadvantages 9 Further reading 10 Notes 11 References Introduction ( edit ) The theory is generally associated with Hirschman . He presented a complete theoretical formulation of the strategy . Underdeveloped countries display common characteristics : low levels of GNI per capita and slow GNI per capita growth , large income inequalities and widespread poverty , low levels of productivity , great dependence on agriculture , a backward industrial structure , a high proportion of consumption and low savings , high rates of population growth and dependency burdens , high unemployment and underemployment , technological backwardness and dualism ( existence of both traditional and modern sectors ) . In a less - developed country , these characteristics lead to scarce resources or inadequate infrastructure to exploit these resources . With a lack of investors and entrepreneurs , cash flows can not be directed into various sectors that influence balanced economic growth . Hirschman contends that deliberate unbalancing of the economy according to the strategy is the best method of development and if the economy is to be kept moving ahead , the task of development policy is to maintain tension , disproportions and disequilibrium . Balanced growth should not be the goal but rather the maintenance of existing imbalances , which can be seen from profit and losses . Therefore , the sequence that leads away from equilibrium is precisely an ideal pattern for development . Unequal development of various sectors often generates conditions for rapid development . More - developed industries provide undeveloped industries an incentive to grow . Hence , development of underdeveloped countries should be based on this strategy . The path of unbalanced growth is described by three phases : Complementary Induced investment External economies Singer believed that desirable investment programs always exist within a country that represent unbalanced investment to complement the existing imbalance . These investments create a new imbalance , requiring another balancing investment . One sector will always grow faster than another , so the need for unbalanced growth will continue as investments must complement existing imbalance . Hirschman states `` If the economy is to be kept moving ahead , the task of development policy is to maintain tensions , disproportions and disequilibrium '' . This situation exists for all societies , developed or underdeveloped . Complementarity ( edit ) Complementarity is a situation where increased production of one good or service builds up demand for the second good or service . When the second product is privately produced , this demand will lead to imports or higher domestic production of the second product , as it will be in the interests of the producers to do so . Otherwise , the increased demand takes the form of political pressure . This is the case for such public services such as law and order , education , water and electricity that can not reasonably be imported . Induced investment ( edit ) Complementarity allows investment in one industry or sector to encourage investment in others . This concept of induced investment is like a multiplier , because each investment triggers a series of subsequent events . Convergence occurs as the output of external economies diminishes at each step . Growth sequences tend to move towards convergence or divergence and the policy is usually concerned with preventing rapid convergence and promoting the possibility of divergence . External economies ( edit ) New projects often appropriate external economies created by preceding ventures and create external economies that may be utilized by subsequent ones . Sometimes the project undertaken creates external economies , causing private profit to fall short of what is socially desirable . The reverse is also possible . Some ventures have a larger input of external economies than the output . Therefore , Hirschman says , `` the projects that fall into this category must be net beneficiaries of external economies '' . Social Overhead capital ( edit ) Social Overhead Capital ( SOC ) is defined as basic services without which primary , secondary and tertiary productive activities can not function . In a narrow sense , Social Overhead Capital is defined to include transportation and electricity , while in a wider sense , it includes all public services , including law and order and education . Criteria for classifying an asset as Social Overhead Capital include : The services provided by the activity should facilitate a great variety of economic activities . The services provided should be subject to public control . The services can not be imported . The investment needed to provide services should be characterized by some unevenness as well as by high capital output ratio . Development via capital imbalances ( edit ) The strategy of unbalanced growth has been discussed within the frameworks of development through shortage of SOC and development through excess of SOC . In the first case , the country invests in direct productive activities ( DPA ) . Direct productive activity increases demand for SOC , inducing investment . In the second case , SOC expands , which reduces the cost of services , inducing investment in DPA . The cost of producing any unit of output of DPA is inversely proportional to SOC . The economy 's major objective is to attain increasing output of DPA . One of the paradoxes of development is that poor countries can not afford to be economical . According to Hirschman , resources are not scarce per se , but the ability to employ those resources may be lacking . To explain unbalanced growth , Hirschman assumes that the country invests in either DPA or SOC . Both paths set up incentives and an evaluation of their respective efficiency depends on the strengths of entrepreneurial motivations and the response to public pressure of the authorities responsible for SOC . The major characteristic of the two paths of development is that they yield excess dividends . SOC built ahead of demand creates this demand by making a country more attractive to DPA investors . DPA that outpaces SOC development , creates demand to expand SOC . Balanced growth of DPA and SOC is not achievable in underdeveloped countries , nor it is not a desirable policy , as it does not set up the incentives and the pressure that make for this dividend of induced investment decisions . Backward and forward linkages ( edit ) Hirschman introduces the concept of backward and forward linkages . A forward linkage is created when investment in a particular project encourages investment in subsequent stages of production . A backward linkage is created when a project encourages investment in facilities that enable the project to succeed . Normally , projects create both forward and backward linkages . Investment should be made in those projects that have the greatest total number of linkages . Projects with many linkages will vary from country to country ; knowledge about project linkages can be obtained through input and output studies . Most underdeveloped economies are primarily agrarian . Agriculture is typically at a primitive stage and hence possesses few linkages , as most output goes for consumption or exports . Therefore , it is said that underdeveloped countries are lacking in interdependence and linkages . An example of an industry that has excellent forward and backward linkages is the steel industry . Backward linkages include coal and iron ore mining . Forward linkages include items such as canned goods . While this industry has strong linkages , it is not a good leading sector . Any industry that has a high capital / output ratio and causes significant costs to other businesses has the potential to hurt the developing economy more than it helps it . A better leading sector would be the beer industry . Linkages and last industries ( edit ) The development of an economy using the unbalanced method depends on the linkages between sectors . Hirschman suggests that the best strategy is induced industrialization . This type of development will create more backward and forward linkages and should be the first step taken . Industries that transform semi-manufactured goods into goods needed by final demand are called `` last industries '' or `` enclave import industries '' . In underdeveloped countries , industrialization takes place through such industries , through plants that add final touches to unfinished imported products . Examples are metal fabricating industries , pharmaceutical laboratories and assembly and mixing plants . Such industries have many advantages , as they often require the smaller amounts of capital available in such economies and without having to rely on unreliable domestic producers . Therefore , underdeveloped countries set up such `` last industries '' first . These industries create long chains of backward linkages . Colombia , Brazil and Mexico are examples of countries that followed this path . Protection and subsidy of import - replacing industries should come , but at a later stage . The Last Industry Strategy has disadvantages . It can slow the creation of domestic production . Industrialists who have begun working with imports may not accept domestic alternative products that reduce demand for their output . Creating last industries first can create loyalty toward foreign products and distrust of domestic products and their quality . Banks may get used to extending credit for shorter , smaller capital requirements . Disadvantages ( edit ) Disadvantages of the last industry strategy include inhibition of domestic production as domestic demand grows . This is because industrialists who work with imported material will often be hostile to the establishment of domestic industries , because domestic goods are of lower quality , the number of domestic suppliers is small , downstream competition may intensify once inputs are available domestically and competitors may be able to locate closer to the upstream suppliers . Last / first may accustom domestic consumers to imported goods , making it harder for local producers to find customers . Further , financing may be easier for import - based business . Further reading ( edit ) Hirschman , Albert O. ( 1958 ) . The Strategy of Economic Development . New Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 00559 - 8 Streeten , Paul ( 1959 ) Unbalanced Growth , Oxford Economic Papers New Series , Vol. 11 , No. 2 ( Jun. , 1959 ) , pp. 167 -- 190 Notes ( edit ) References ( edit ) Hirschman , Albert O . `` The Strategy of Economic Development , '' in Agarwal , A.N. and Singh , S.P. ( eds ) , Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies ( London Oxford Press , 1969 ) Thirwall , A.P. Growth and Development : With special reference to developing economies ( London : Macmillian Press ltd ... , sixth edition . 1999 ) , pp237 -- 242 . Scitovsky , Tibor . Papers on welfare and Growth ( London George Allen and Unwin ltd ... 1965 ) Refer to 5th paper entitled `` Growth -- Balanced and Unbalanced '' . Nath , S.K. , `` Balanced Growth . '' in Livingstone ( ed ) , Economic Policy for Development ( Harmodworth , Middlesex : Penguin Books ltd. 1971 ) Han Singer , `` The Concept of Balanced Growth and Economic Development ; Theory and Facts , '' University of Texas Conference on Economic Development , April 1958 . Paul Streeten , `` Unbalanced Growth . '' Economic Integration , Sythoff , Leiden ( Netherlands ) , 1961 . Reprinted in A.N. Agarwala and S.P. Singh , ( eds . ) , Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies ( London : Oxford University Press , 1969 ) . ( hide ) Development Economics : Partial Theories of Development Dual - sector model Big push model Critical minimum effort theory Ragnar Nurkse 's balanced growth theory Strategy of unbalanced growth Social dualism Technological dualism Fei -- Ranis model of economic growth Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategy_of_unbalanced_growth&oldid=838124154 '' Categories : Economic growth Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles that are incomprehensible from August 2016 All Wikipedia articles that are incomprehensible Articles lacking in - text citations from January 2012 All articles lacking in - text citations All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2012 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from February 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 02 : 21 . 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Question: who has given the theory of unbalanced economic growth


Disney 's Art of Animation resort - wikipedia Disney 's Art of Animation resort Jump to : navigation , search Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Location ESPN Wide World of Sports Resort Area Resort type Value resort Opened May 31 , 2012 Theme Walt Disney characters Areas Cars Finding Nemo The Lion King The Little Mermaid Rooms 984 Suites 1,120 Green lodge yes Disney 's Art of Animation Resort is a resort within Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista , Florida . It is located where construction on the unfinished half of Disney 's Pop Century Resort was started but later abandoned after the September 11 attacks . The resort is the first to be built in the complex in over seven years and the fifth to be placed in the value - priced category , along with Disney 's All - Star Sports Resort , the All - Star Music Resort , the All - Star Movies Resort , and Disney 's Pop Century Resort . Family suites opened on May 31 , 2012 , and standard rooms opened on September 15 , 2012 . Overview ( edit ) An incomplete Pop Century Legendary Years building can be seen across the Hourglass Lake . The Generation Gap Bridge would have connected both halves of the resort . Originally , the land the Art of Animation Resort occupies was planned to be part of Disney 's Pop Century Resort as part of the `` Legendary Years '' section . Several buildings were constructed for these plans , some even to the point of adding decorative details . While one - half of Pop Century ( the `` Classic Years '' ) opened in 2003 , the other half was left abandoned following the tourism halt after the September 11 attacks on the United States . Disney started to prepare the land for the resort in January 2010 , and construction began in the summer of that year . At the time of this announcement on May 12 , 2010 , Disney did not say how much construction is expecting to cost , but it was mentioned that approximately 800 jobs would be produced . When the `` Legendary Years '' buildings were first being made , a bridge named the Generation Gap Bridge was constructed to connect both parts of Pop Century and made them accessible to each other . The bridge connects Pop Century to the Finding Nemo section of the Art of Animation Resort . Theming ( edit ) The resort is designed `` with families in mind . '' It features four of Disney 's popular character themes : Cars , Finding Nemo , The Lion King , and The Little Mermaid . Much like the other Disney Value Resorts , giant versions of various items are built around the hotel on each of the ten wings , such as a 35 - foot ( 11 m ) model of King Triton . In total , there are 1,984 rooms. of which 1,120 are family suites capable of housing up to six people , featuring living rooms and bedrooms . The remaining 864 sport the standard value layout . The resort has a total of ten buildings , as well as three themed pools . Finding Nemo : The Finding Nemo section of the resort is themed with the ocean setting featured in the film , with underwater plant and animal decorations throughout the buildings . This is the first area of the resort , which opened on May 31 , 2012 . Cars : The Cars section of the resort is themed like the Cozy Cone Motel that has featured in the film . Resort buildings are themed with the movie 's characters , including Lightning McQueen , Sally , Mater , and Luigi and Guido . The second section of the resort opened on June 18 , 2012 . The Lion King : The Lion King section of the resort features a `` natural '' setting , such as that found in the wild . The third section of the resort opened its doors on August 10 , 2012 . The Little Mermaid : The Little Mermaid section of the resort is themed with 600 cutout objects on resort balconies. `` Under the Sea '' decorations are incorporated throughout the section . This section of the resort has exterior walkways , where the other sections have enclosed interior walkways between the rooms . ( This section uses a couple of buildings that were originally built for Pop Century 's `` Legendary Years '' section before construction halted , which left them unfinished for years . ) It opened on September 15 , 2012 , as the fourth and final section of the resort . Dining and shopping ( edit ) Landscape of Flavors - a food court selling American cuisine and deli style market items . The Landscape of Flavors Food Court serves omelets , pancakes , French toast , pizza , pasta , sandwiches , salads , burgers , burritos , ice cream and bakery items . The food court seats 606 people . Pizza Delivery - pizza , sandwiches , salad , dessert and beverages are available in the evening for delivery to guest rooms . Ink & Paint Shop - gift shop that offers a range of items from Disney souvenirs to Disney 's Art of Animation themed clothing . The store also has grocery section that sells items including snacks , liquor , drinks , and sundries . Gallery ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disney 's Art of Animation Resort . Sign at the entrance to the Art of Animation Resort Exterior of Animation Hall , central hall of the resort Swimming pool within the Finding Nemo section of the resort References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . ^ Jump up to : `` New Disney hotel : Disney to build 2,000 - room hotel dubbed Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . TheDailyDisney.com . Retrieved June 6 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` More details on Disney 's Art of Animation Resort '' . TheDisneyBlog.com . Retrieved June 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Unveiled `` Disney Parks Blog '' . Disneyparks.disney.go.com . May 12 , 2010 . Retrieved June 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` First look at new Art of Animation Resort concept art and rooms shown at Destination D: Walt Disney World '' . Inside the Magic . External links ( edit ) Official website Art of Animation Photo Gallery at HanBan Photos Walt Disney World Resorts Location Deluxe Moderate Value Deluxe Villa / Disney Vacation Club Magic Kingdom Resort Area Disney 's Contemporary Resort Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa Disney 's Polynesian Village Resort Disney 's Wilderness Lodge None None Bay Lake Tower at Disney 's Contemporary Resort Disney 's Polynesian Villas & Bungalows The Villas at Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa Boulder Ridge Villas at Disney 's Wilderness Lodge Copper Creek Villas & Cabins at Disney 's Wilderness Lodge Epcot Resort Area Disney 's Beach Club Resort Disney 's BoardWalk Inn Disney 's Yacht Club Resort Star Wars Hotel Disney 's Caribbean Beach Resort None Disney 's Beach Club Villas Disney 's BoardWalk Villas Disney Riviera Resort Animal Kingdom Resort Area Disney 's Animal Kingdom Lodge Disney 's Coronado Springs Resort Disney 's All - Star Movies Resort Disney 's All - Star Music Resort Disney 's All - Star Sports Resort Disney 's Animal Kingdom Villas Disney Springs Resort Area None Disney 's Port Orleans Resort - French Quarter Disney 's Port Orleans Resort - Riverside None Disney 's Old Key West Resort Disney 's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa ESPN Wide World of Sports Resort Area None None Disney 's Art of Animation Resort Disney 's Pop Century Resort None Campsites and cabins Disney 's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground Residental Golden Oak at Walt Disney World Resort Non-Disney Resorts B Resort & Spa Best Western Buena Vista Palace Doubletree Four Seasons Hilton Holiday Inn Shades of Green Walt Disney World Dolphin Walt Disney World Swan Wyndham Coordinates : 28 ° 21 ′ 0.98 '' N 81 ° 32 ′ 54.59 '' W  /  28.3502722 ° N 81.5484972 ° W  / 28.3502722 ; - 81.5484972 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disney%27s_Art_of_Animation_Resort&oldid=799926127 '' Categories : Walt Disney World Hotels in Walt Disney World Resort Hotel buildings completed in 2012 Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from September 2017 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017 , at 17 : 08 . 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Gymnosperm - wikipedia Gymnosperm Jump to : navigation , search Gymnosperms Temporal range : 370 -- 0 Ma PreЄ Є Pg Devonian - Present Various gymnosperms . Scientific classification Kingdom : Plantae Subkingdom : Embryophyta ( unranked ) : Gymnospermae ( paraphyletic ) Divisions Pinophyta ( or Coniferophyta ) - Conifers Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo Cycadophyta - Cycads Gnetophyta - Gnetum , Ephedra , Welwitschia Encephalartos sclavoi cone , about 30 cm long The gymnosperms are a group of seed - producing plants that includes conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes . The term `` gymnosperm '' comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος ( γυμνός gymnos , `` naked '' and σπέρμα sperma , `` seed '' ) , meaning `` naked seeds '' . The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds ( called ovules in their unfertilized state ) . The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) , which are enclosed within an ovary . Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves , which are often modified to form cones , or solitary as in Yew , Torreya , Ginkgo . The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants . The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla . Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta , Ginkgophyta , Gnetophyta , and Pinophyta ( also known as Coniferophyta ) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct . By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers ( pines , cypresses , and relatives ) , followed by cycads , gnetophytes ( Gnetum , Ephedra and Welwitschia ) , and Ginkgo biloba ( a single living species ) . Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of mycorrhiza ( Pinus ) , while in some others ( Cycas ) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria . Contents ( hide ) 1 Classification 2 Diversity and origin 3 Uses 4 Life cycle 5 Genetics 6 References 7 External links Classification ( edit ) Further information : Spermatophyte In early classification schemes , the gymnosperms ( Gymnospermae ) were regarded as a `` natural '' group . There is conflicting evidence on the question of whether the living gymnosperms form a clade . The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa that do not belong to the four modern groups , including seed - bearing trees that have a somewhat fern - like vegetative morphology ( the so - called `` seed ferns '' or pteridosperms . ) When fossil gymnosperms such as Bennettitales , Caytonia and the glossopterids are considered , it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnosperm clade , although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear . For the most recent classification on extant gymnosperms see Christenhusz et al. ( 2011 ) . There are 12 families , 83 known genera with a total of ca 1080 known species ( Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ) . Subclass Cycadidae Order Cycadales Family Cycadaceae : Cycas Family Zamiaceae : Dioon , Bowenia , Macrozamia , Lepidozamia , Encephalartos , Stangeria , Ceratozamia , Microcycas , Zamia . Subclass Ginkgoidae Order Ginkgoales Family Ginkgoaceae : Ginkgo Subclass Gnetidae Order Welwitschiales Family Welwitschiaceae : Welwitschia Order Gnetales Family Gnetaceae : Gnetum Order Ephedrales Family Ephedraceae : Ephedra Subclass Pinidae Order Pinales Family Pinaceae : Cedrus , Pinus , Cathaya , Picea , Pseudotsuga , Larix , Pseudolarix , Tsuga , Nothotsuga , Keteleeria , Abies Order Araucariales Family Araucariaceae : Araucaria , Wollemia , Agathis Family Podocarpaceae : Phyllocladus , Lepidothamnus , Prumnopitys , Sundacarpus , Halocarpus , Parasitaxus , Lagarostrobos , Manoao , Saxegothaea , Microcachrys , Pherosphaera , Acmopyle , Dacrycarpus , Dacrydium , Falcatifolium , Retrophyllum , Nageia , Afrocarpus , Podocarpus Order Cupressales Family Sciadopityaceae : Sciadopitys Family Cupressaceae : Cunninghamia , Taiwania , Athrotaxis , Metasequoia , Sequoia , Sequoiadendron , Cryptomeria , Glyptostrobus , Taxodium , Papuacedrus , Austrocedrus , Libocedrus , Pilgerodendron , Widdringtonia , Diselma , Fitzroya , Callitris ( incl . Actinostrobus and Neocallitropsis ) , Thujopsis , Thuja , Fokienia , Chamaecyparis , Callitropsis , Cupressus , Juniperus , Xanthocyparis , Calocedrus , Tetraclinis , Platycladus , Microbiota Family Taxaceae : Austrotaxus , Pseudotaxus , Taxus , Cephalotaxus , Amentotaxus , Torreya Diversity and origin ( edit ) There are more than 1000 extant or currently living species of gymnosperms in 88 plant genera belonging to 14 plant families . It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous period , replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region . This appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around 319 million years ago . Early characteristics of seed plants were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago . It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era , pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops . The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms , long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar - feeding insects on angiosperms . Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings , a now - extinct genus with members which ( in an example of convergent evolution ) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later . Zamia integrifolia , a cycad native to Florida Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families , with a total of 65 - 70 genera and 600 - 630 species ( 696 accepted names ) . Conifers are woody plants and most are evergreens . The leaves of many conifers are long , thin and needle - like , other species , including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae , have flat , triangular scale - like leaves . Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad , flat strap - shaped leaves . Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms , with two or three families , 11 genera , and approximately 338 species . A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator . The other extant groups are the 95 - 100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo . Uses ( edit ) Gymnosperms have major economic uses . Pine , fir , spruce , and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber , paper production , and resin . Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap , varnish , nail polish , food , gum , and perfumes . Life cycle ( edit ) Example of gymnosperm lifecycle Gymnosperms , like all vascular plants , have a sporophyte - dominant life cycle , which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells , while the gametophyte ( gamete - bearing phase ) is relatively short - lived . Two spore types , microspores and megaspores , are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones , respectively . Gametophytes , as with all heterosporous plants , develop within the spore wall . Pollen grains ( microgametophytes ) mature from microspores , and ultimately produce sperm cells . Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule . Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia , which produce the female gamete . During pollination , pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule . Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects . Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat ( integument ) called the micropyle . The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells . Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms . Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule , whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg . After syngamy ( joining of the sperm and egg cell ) , the zygote develops into an embryo ( young sporophyte ) . More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed . The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte , which serves as a food supply , and the seed coat . Genetics ( edit ) The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of Picea abies in 2013 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Gymnosperms on The Plant List '' . Theplantlist.org . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Raven , P.H. ( 2013 ) . Biology of Plants . New York : W.H. Freeman and Co . Jump up ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer ; Douglas E. Soltis ; Mark W. Chase ( 2004 ) . `` The plant tree of life : an overview and some points of view '' . American Journal of Botany. 91 ( 10 ) : 1437 -- 1445 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 91.10. 1437 . PMID 21652302 . Jump up ^ Stevens , P.F. `` Angiosperm Phylogeny Website - Seed Plant Evolution '' . Jump up ^ Hilton , Jason , and Richard M. Bateman. 2006 . Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed - plant phylogeny . Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133 : 119 - 168 ( abstract ) Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Reveal , J.L. ; Farjon , A. ; Gardner , M.F. ; Mill , R.R. ; Chase , M.W. ( 2011 ) . `` A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms '' ( PDF ) . Phytotaxa. 19 : 55 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Byng , J.W. ( 2016 ) . `` The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase '' . Phytotaxa . Magnolia Press . 261 ( 3 ) : 201 -- 217 . doi : 10.11646 / phytotaxa. 261.3. 1 . Jump up ^ Sahney , S. ; Benton , M.J. & Falcon - Lang , H.J. ( 2010 ) . `` Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica '' ( PDF ) . Geology. 38 ( 12 ) : 1079 -- 1082 . Bibcode : 2010Geo ... 38.1079 S . doi : 10.1130 / G31182. 1 . Jump up ^ Campbell and Reece ; Biology , Eighth edition Jump up ^ Jiao Y , Wickett NJ , Ayyampalayam S , Chanderbali AS , Landherr L , Ralph PE , Tomsho LP , Hu Y , Liang H , Soltis PS , Soltis DE , Clifton SW , Schlarbaum SE , Schuster SC , Ma H , Leebens - Mack J , Depamphilis CW ( 2011 ) Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms . Nature Jump up ^ Ollerton , J. ; Coulthard , E. ( 2009 ) . `` Evolution of Animal Pollination '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 808 -- 809 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1181154 . PMID 19892970 . Jump up ^ Ren , D ; Labandeira , CC ; Santiago - Blay , JA ; Rasnitsyn , A ; et al. ( 2009 ) . `` A Probable Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms : Eurasian , Long - Proboscid Scorpionflies '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 840 -- 847 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1178338 . PMC 2944650 . PMID 19892981 . Jump up ^ Labandeira , Conrad C. ; Yang , Qiang ; Santiago - Blay , Jorge A. ; Hotton , Carol L. ; Monteiro , Antónia ; Wang , Yong - Jie ; Goreva , Yulia ; Shih , ChungKun ; Siljeström , Sandra ; Rose , Tim R. ; Dilcher , David L. ; Ren , Dong . `` The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences . 283 ( 1824 ) : 20152893 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 2015.2893 . PMC 4760178 . PMID 26842570 . Jump up ^ Catalogue of Life : 2007 Annual checklist - Conifer database Archived January 15 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Campbell , Reece , `` Phylum Coniferophyta . '' Biology . 7th . 2005 . Print . P. 595 Jump up ^ Walters , Dirk R Walters Bonnie By ( 1996 ) . Vascular plant taxonomy . Dubuque , Iowa : Kendall / Hunt Pub. Co. p. 124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7872 - 2108 - 9 . Jump up ^ Nystedt , B ; Street , NR ; Wetterbom , A ; et al. ( May 2013 ) . `` The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution '' . Nature . 497 : 579 -- 584 . doi : 10.1038 / nature12211 . PMID 23698360 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gymnosperm . Gymnosperm Database Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life Albert Seward ( 1911 ) . `` Gymnosperms '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Botany History of botany Subdisciplines Plant systematics Ethnobotany Paleobotany Plant anatomy Plant ecology Phytogeography Geobotany Flora Phytochemistry Plant pathology Bryology Phycology Floristics Dendrology Plant groups Algae Archaeplastida Bryophyte Non-vascular plants Vascular plants Spermatophytes Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosperm Plant morphology ( glossary ) Plant cells Cell wall Phragmoplast Plastid Plasmodesma Vacuole Tissues Meristem Vascular tissue Vascular bundle Ground tissue Mesophyll Cork Wood Storage organs Vegetative Root Rhizoid Bulb Rhizome Shoot Stem Leaf Petiole Cataphyll Bud Sessility Reproductive ( Flower ) Flower development Inflorescence Umbel Raceme Bract Pedicellate Flower Whorl Floral symmetry Floral diagram Floral formula Receptacle Hypanthium ( Floral cup ) Perianth Tepal Petal Sepal Sporophyll Gynoecium Ovary Ovule Stigma Archegonium Androecium Stamen Staminode Pollen Tapetum Gynandrium Gametophyte Sporophyte Plant embryo Fruit Fruit anatomy Berry Capsule Seed Seed dispersal Endosperm Surface structures Epicuticular wax Plant cuticle Epidermis Stoma Nectary Trichome Prickle Plant physiology Materials Nutrition Photosynthesis Chlorophyll Plant hormone Transpiration Turgor pressure Bulk flow Aleurone Phytomelanin Sugar Sap Starch Cellulose Plant growth and habit Secondary growth Woody plants Herbaceous plants Habit Vines Lianas Shrubs Subshrubs Trees Succulent plants Reproduction Evolution Ecology Alternation of generations Sporangium Spore Microsporangia Microspore Megasporangium Megaspore Pollination Pollinators Pollen tube Double fertilization Germination Evolutionary development Evolutionary history timeline Hardiness zone Plant taxonomy History of plant systematics Herbarium Biological classification Botanical nomenclature Botanical name Correct name Author citation International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) - for Cultivated Plants ( ICNCP ) Taxonomic rank International Association for Plant Taxonomy ( IAPT ) Plant taxonomy systems Cultivated plant taxonomy Citrus taxonomy cultigen cultivar Group grex Practice Agronomy Floriculture Forestry Horticulture Lists Related topics Botanical terms Botanists by author abbreviation Botanical expedition Portal WikiProject Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota ( Supergroup Plant Hacrobia Heterokont Alveolata Rhizaria Excavata Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animal Fungi ) Rhodophyta ( red algae ) Cyanidiophyceae Porphyridiophyceae Compsopogonophyceae Stylonematophyceae Rhodellophyceae Bangiophyceae Florideophyceae Glaucocystophyta ( glaucophytes ) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis Cyanophora Gloeochaete Viridiplantae ( green algae & land plants ) Chlorophyta Palmophyllales Nephroselmidophyceae Prasinophyceae Pseudoscourfieldiales Pyramimonadophyceae Scourfieldiales Pedinophyceae Chlorodendrophyceae UTC clade Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Chlorophyceae Streptophyta ( charophytes , & land plants ) Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Klebsormidiophyceae Phragmo - plastophyta Charophyceae Coleochaetophyceae Zygnematophyceae Embryophyta ( land plants ) Bryophytes ( non-vascular ) Marchantiophyta Anthocerotophyta Bryophyta `` Moss '' † Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta ( vascular ) Lycopodiophyta ( microphylls ) † Zosterophyllopsida † Sawdoniales Isoetopsida Lycopodiopsida Euphyllophyta ( megaphylls ) Moniliformopses ( ferns ) † Cladoxylopsida † Stauropteridales † Zygopteridales Equisetopsida Psilotopsida Marattiopsida Filicopsida Spermatophyta ( seed plants ) † Seed ferns Gymnosperms Gnetopsida Pinopsida Cycadopsida Ginkgoopsida Angiosperms or flowering plants Amborellales Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Magnoliids Monocots Eudicots Other † Trimerophytopsida † Progymnosperm Other † Rhyniopsida † = extinct . See also the list of plant orders . Nuts True , or botanical nuts Acorn Beech American beech European beech Breadnut Candlenut Chestnut Sweet chestnut Hazelnut American hazel Beaked hazel European hazel Filbert Asian hazel Johnstone River almond Kola nut Kurrajong Malabar chestnut Mongongo Palm nut Karuka Planted karuka Wild karuka Red bopple nut Yellow walnut Drupes Almond Australian cashew nut Betel nut Borneo tallow nut Breadfruit Cashew Chilean hazel Coconut Durian Gabon nut Hickory Mockernut hickory Pecan Shagbark hickory Shellbark hickory Irvingia gabonensis Jack nut Panda oleosa Pekea nut Pili nut Pistachio Walnut Black walnut Butternut English walnut Heartnut Gymnosperms Cycad Burrawang nut Ginkgo nut Araucaria spp . Bunya nut Monkey - puzzle nut Pine nut Chilgoza pine Colorado pinyon Korean pine Mexican pinyon Single - leaf pinyon Stone pine Angiosperms Brazil nut Macadamia Macadamia nut Queensland macadamia nut Paradise nut Peanut Peanut tree Soybean Taxon identifiers Wd : Q133712 EoL : 28872220 ITIS : 846506 Tropicos : 43000115 GND : 4129481 - 6 NDL : 00569301 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&oldid=820812101 '' Categories : Gymnosperms Plant taxonomy Extant Late Devonian first appearances Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with ' species ' microformats Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikispecies Afrikaans Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt West - Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2018 , at 19 : 19 . 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Question: the seed of a gymnosperm seed is made in the


Subcutaneous injection - wikipedia Subcutaneous injection Jump to : navigation , search `` Subcut '' redirects here . For the song by Grand Mixer DXT featuring Bill Laswell , see Aftermathematics . Play media 3D animation of a subcutaneous injection A subcutaneous injection is administered as a bolus into the subcutis , the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis , collectively referred to as the cutis . Subcutaneous injections are highly effective in administering vaccines and medications such as insulin , morphine , diacetylmorphine and goserelin . Subcutaneous , as opposed to intravenous , injection of recreational drugs is referred to as `` skin popping '' . Subcutaneous administration may be abbreviated as SC , SQ , sub-cu , sub-Q , SubQ , or subcut . Subcut is the preferred abbreviation for patient safety . Subcutaneous tissue has few blood vessels and so drugs injected here are for slow , sustained rates of absorption . It is slower than intramuscular injections but still faster than intradermal injections . Contents ( hide ) 1 Injection sites 2 Equipment 3 Procedure 4 Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus 5 See also 6 References Injection sites ( edit ) Subcutaneous injection sites Sites include , The outer area of the upper arm . The abdomen , from the rib margin to the iliac crest and avoiding a 2 - inch circle around the navel . This has the fastest rate of absorption among the sites . The front of the thigh , midway to the outer side , 4 inches below the top of the thigh to 4 inches above the knee . This has a slower rate of absorption than the upper arm . The upper back . The upper area of the buttock , just behind the hip bone . This has the slowest rate of absorption among the sites . Equipment ( edit ) A 25 to 31 gauge thick , 3 / 8 '' to 1 '' long needle can be used . The size is determined by the amount of subcutaneous tissue present , which is based on patient build . The 3 / 8 '' and 5 / 8 '' needles are most commonly used . Usually , no more than 1 mL of solution is given , compared to intradermal injections , where no more than 0.5 mL is usually given . Procedure ( edit ) Subcutaneous injections are inserted at 45 to 90 degree angles , depending on amount of subcutaneous tissue present and length of needle - a shorter , 3 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted 90 degrees and a 5 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted at 45 degrees . Medication is administered slowly , about 10 seconds / milliliter . Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus ( edit ) An insulin pump with a subcutaneous injection site . A person with insulin - dependent ( either type 1 or type 2 ) diabetes mellitus typically injects insulin subcutaneously . The injection should be given under the skin , into the fat layer . See also ( edit ) Intramuscular injection Intravenous injection Intradermal injection References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` subcutaneous injection '' at Dorland 's Medical Dictionary Jump up ^ `` ISMP 's List of Error - Prone Abbreviations , Symbols , and Dose Designations '' ( PDF ) . www.ismp.org. 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Taylor , C.R. , Lillis , C. , LeMone , P. , Lynn , P. ( 2011 ) Fundamentals of nursing : The art and science of nursing care . Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins , page 749 . Jump up ^ `` Insulin Administration '' . Diabetes Care . 25 ( suppl 1 ) : s112 -- s115 . January 2002 . doi : 10.2337 / diacare. 25.2007. s112 . ( hide ) Routes of administration , dosage forms Oral Digestive tract ( enteral ) Solids Pill Tablet Capsule Pastille Time release technology Osmotic delivery system ( OROS ) Liquids Decoction Elixir Electuary Emulsion Extended - release syrup Effervescent powder or tablet Herbal tea Hydrogel Molecular encapsulation Powder Softgel Solution Suspension Syrup Syrup Concentrate for dilution and / or addition of carbonated water Tincture Buccal ( sublabial ) , sublingual Solids Orally disintegrating tablet ( ODT ) Film Lollipop Sublingual drops Lozenges Effervescent buccal tablet Chewing gum Liquids Mouthwash Toothpaste Ointment Oral spray Respiratory tract Solids Smoking device Dry - powder inhaler ( DPI ) 0 0 Liquids Anaesthetic vaporizer Vaporizer Nebulizer Metered - dose inhaler ( MDI ) Gas Oxygen mask and Nasal cannula Oxygen concentrator Anaesthetic machine Relative analgesia machine Ophthalmic , otologic , nasal Nasal spray Ear drops Eye drops Ointment Hydrogel Nanosphere suspension Insufflation Mucoadhesive microdisc ( microsphere tablet ) Urogenital Ointment Pessary ( vaginal suppository ) Vaginal ring Vaginal douche Intrauterine device ( IUD ) Extra-amniotic infusion Intravesical infusion Rectal ( enteral ) Ointment Suppository Enema Solution Hydrogel Murphy drip Nutrient enema Dermal Ointment Topical cream Topical gel Liniment Paste Film DMSO drug solution Electrophoretic dermal delivery system Hydrogel Liposomes Transfersome vesicles Cream Lotion Lip balm Medicated shampoo Dermal patch Transdermal patch Contact ( rubbed into break in the skin ) Transdermal spray Jet injector Injection , infusion ( into tissue / blood ) Skin Intradermal Subcutaneous Transdermal implant Organs Intracavernous Intravitreal Intra-articular injection Transscleral Central nervous system Intracerebral Intrathecal Epidural Circulatory , musculoskeletal Intravenous Intracardiac Intramuscular Intraosseous Intraperitoneal Nanocell injection Patient - Controlled Analgesia pump PIC line WikiProject Pharmacy portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subcutaneous_injection&oldid=827949994 '' Categories : Dosage forms Routes of administration Injection ( medicine ) Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Slovenščina Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 6 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 February 2018 , at 18 : 16 . 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Question: where would a subcutaneous injection be made in the skin

into the subcutis,[1] the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis


Small intestine - wikipedia Small intestine Jump to : navigation , search Small Intestine Diagram showing the small intestine and surrounding structures Details System Digestive system Artery Superior mesenteric artery Vein Hepatic portal vein Nerve Celiac ganglia , vagus Lymph Intestinal lymph trunk Identifiers Latin Intestinum tenue MeSH D007421 TA A05. 6.01. 001 FMA 7200 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine , and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place . The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum . The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins . It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct , controlled by the sphincter of Oddi . The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food , using small finger - like protrusions called villi . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Size 1.2 Parts 1.3 Blood supply 1.4 Histology 1.5 Development 2 Function 2.1 Digestion 2.2 Absorption 2.3 Immunological 3 Gene and protein expression 4 Clinical significance 5 Other animals 6 Society and culture 7 Additional images 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Structure ( edit ) Size ( edit ) The length of the small intestine can vary greatly , from as short as 2.75 m ( 9.0 ft ) to as long as 10.49 m ( 34.4 ft ) . The average length in a living person is 3m - 5m . The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured . Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty . It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age , and 2.5 -- 3 cm ( 1 inch ) in diameter in adults . On abdominal X-rays , the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm . On CT scans , a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated . The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa , due to enlargement caused by folds , villi and microvilli , averages 30 square meters . Parts ( edit ) The small intestine is divided into three structural parts . The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm ( 7.9 inches ) to 25 cm ( 9.8 inches ) in length , and shaped like a `` C '' . It surrounds the head of the pancreas . It receives gastric chyme from the stomach , together with digestive juices from the pancreas ( digestive enzymes ) and the liver ( bile ) . The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles . The duodenum contains Brunner 's glands , which produce a mucus - rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate . These secretions , in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas , neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme . The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine , connecting the duodenum to the ileum . It is about 2.5 m long , and contains the plicae circulares , and villi that increase its surface area . Products of digestion ( sugars , amino acids , and fatty acids ) are absorbed into the bloodstream here . The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum . The ileum : The final section of the small intestine . It is about 3 m long , and contains villi similar to the jejunum . It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids , as well as any other remaining nutrients . The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction . The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery . The mesentery is part of the peritoneum . Arteries , veins , lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery . Blood supply ( edit ) The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery . These are both branches of the aorta . The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery . These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose . The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery . Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades , which may be several layers deep . Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves . Histology ( edit ) Main article : Gastrointestinal wall Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn . The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level , but there are some important differences . The parts of the intestine are as follows : Layer Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Serosa 1st part serosa , 2nd -- 4th adventitia Normal Normal Muscularis externa Longitudinal and circular layers , with Auerbach 's ( myenteric ) plexus in between Same as duodenum Same as duodenum Submucosa Brunner 's glands and Meissner 's ( submucosal ) plexus No BG No BG Mucosa : muscularis mucosae Normal Normal Normal Mucosa : lamina propria No PP No PP Peyer 's patches Mucosa : intestinal epithelium Simple columnar . Contains goblet cells , Paneth cells Similar to duodenum ? Development ( edit ) See also : Development of the digestive system The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube . By the fifth week of embryological life , the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate , forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop . The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus . By week 10 , the loop retracts back into the abdomen . Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise , as viewed from the front of the embryo . It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen . This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine . Function ( edit ) Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter . Digestion ( edit ) The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place . Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct . Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin , which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients . Secretin , another hormone produced in the small intestine , causes additional effects on the pancreas , where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach . The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins , lipids ( fats ) and carbohydrates : Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption . Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine . Proteolytic enzymes , including trypsin and chymotrypsin , are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides . Carboxypeptidase , which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme , splits one amino acid at a time . Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products . Lipids ( fats ) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol . Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides . Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder . Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them , which aids access by pancreatic lipase . This occurs because the lipase is water - soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings . The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption . Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars , or monosaccharides ( e.g. , glucose ) . Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates ( notably starch ) into oligosaccharides . Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria . Brush border enzymes take over from there . The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase , which further break down oligosaccharides . Other brush border enzymes are maltase , sucrase and lactase . Lactase is absent in some adult humans and , for them , lactose , like most poly - saccharides , is not digested in the small intestine . Some carbohydrates , such as cellulose , are not digested at all , despite being made of multiple glucose units . This is because the cellulose is made out of beta - glucose , making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch , which consists of alpha - glucose . Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta - glucose - bonds , something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine . Absorption ( edit ) Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport . The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed . The inner wall , or mucosa , of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue . Structurally , the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares , which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ . They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction . From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi ( Latin for `` shaggy hair '' ) . The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli . The functions of the plicae circulares , the villi , and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients , and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna . Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface . The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries ( amino acids and carbohydrates ) and lacteals ( lipids ) . The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body . The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine . Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum , with the following notable exceptions : Iron is absorbed in the duodenum . Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum . Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine . Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion . Immunological ( edit ) The small intestine supports the body 's immune system . The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system . Peyer 's patches , located within the ileum of the small intestine , are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system . They are part of the lymphatic system , and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled , and subsequently presented to the immune system . Gene and protein expression ( edit ) Further information : Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum . Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine . The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa , such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6 . Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum , for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells . Clinical significance ( edit ) See also : Gastrointestinal disease The small intestine is a complex organ , and as such , there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel . A few of them are listed below , some of which are common , with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives , while others are vanishingly rare . Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders Paralytic ileus Volvulus Hernia Intussusception Adhesions Obstruction from external pressure Obstruction by masses in the lumen ( foreign bodies , bezoar , gallstones ) Infectious diseases Giardiasis Ascariasis Tropical sprue Tape worm ( Diphyllobothrium latum , Taenia solium , Hymenolepsis nana ) Hookworm ( e.g. Necator americanus , Ancylostoma duodenale ) Nematodes ( e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides ) Other Protozoa ( e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum , Cyclospora , Microsporidia , Entamoeba histolytica ) Bacterial infections Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Salmonella enterica Campylobacter Shigella Yersinia Clostridium difficile ( antibiotic - associated colitis , Pseudomembranous colitis ) Mycobacterium ( Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis , disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis ) Whipple 's disease Vibrio ( cholera ) Enteric ( typhoid ) fever ( Salmonella enterica var . typhii ) and paratyphoid fever Bacillus cereus Clostridium perfringens ( gas gangrene ) Viral infections Rotavirus Norovirus Astrovirus Adenovirus Calicivirus Neoplasms ( cancers ) Adenocarcinoma Carcinoid Gastrointestinal stromal tumor ( GIST ) Lymphoma Sarcoma Leiomyoma Metastatic tumors , especially SCLC or melanoma Developmental , congenital or genetic conditions Duodenal ( intestinal ) atresia Hirschsprung 's disease Meckel 's diverticulum Pyloric stenosis Pancreas divisum Ectopic pancreas Enteric duplication cyst Situs inversus Cystic fibrosis Malrotation Persistent urachus Omphalocele Gastroschisis Disaccharidase ( lactase ) deficiencies Primary bile acid malabsorption Gardner syndrome Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome ( FAP ) Other conditions Crohn 's disease , and the more general inflammatory bowel disease Typhlitis ( neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed Coeliac disease ( sprue or non-tropical sprue ) Mesenteric ischemia Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein Arteriovenous malformation Gastric dumping syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome Duodenal ( peptic ) ulcers Gastrointestinal perforation Hyperthyroidism Diverticulitis Radiation enterocolitis Mesenteric cysts Peritoneal Infection Sclerosing retroperitonitis Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth Endometriosis Other animals ( edit ) The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts , although its form and length vary enormously between species . In teleosts , it is relatively short , typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body . It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca , small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food . There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts , with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu In tetrapods , the ileocaecal valve is always present , opening into the colon . The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts , but is especially so in herbivores , as well as in mammals and birds , which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles . The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates , but only in mammals do these develop into true villi . The boundaries between the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans , and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals , or are essentially arbitrary . There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish , such as sharks , sturgeons , and lungfish . Instead , the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine , connecting the stomach to the rectum . In this type of gut , the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion , sometimes for dozens of turns . This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine . The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods . In lampreys , the spiral valve is extremely small , possibly because their diet requires little digestion . Hagfish have no spiral valve at all , with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine , which is not subdivided into different regions . Society and culture ( edit ) In traditional Chinese medicine , the small intestine is a yang organ . Additional images ( edit ) Small intestine in situ , greater omentum folded upwards . Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400 Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium ( lesser omentum ) have been cut . The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint . First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum , seen from the side ( diagrammatic ) . From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Small intestine . Large intestine Stomach References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Physiology : 6 / 6ch2 / s6ch2_30 - Essentials of Human Physiology Jump up ^ human body Britannica.com ^ Jump up to : DiBaise , John K. ; Parrish , Carol Rees ; Thompson , Jon S. ( 2016 ) . Short Bowel Syndrome : Practical Approach to Management . CRC Press . p. 31 . ISBN 9781498720809 . Jump up ^ Tortora , Gerard ( 2014 ) . Principles of Anatomy & Physiology . USA : Wiley . p. 913 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 34500 - 9 ... its length is about 3m in a living person and about 6.5 m in a cadaver due to loss of smooth muscle tone after death . Jump up ^ Standring , Susan ( 2016 ) . Gray 's Anatomy . UK : Elsevier . p. 1124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7020 - 5230 - 9 ... and has a mean length of 5 metres ( 3 - 8.5 metres ) when measured intraoperatively in the living adult ( Tietelbaum et al 2013 ) . Jump up ^ Debora Duro , Daniel Kamin ( 2007 ) . `` Overview of short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation '' . Colombia Médica. 38 ( 1 ) . ^ Jump up to : Ali Nawaz Khan ( 2016 - 09 - 22 ) . `` Small - Bowel Obstruction Imaging '' . Medscape . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Abdominal X-ray - Abnormal bowel gas pattern '' . radiologymasterclass.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ Gazelle , GS ; Goldberg , MA ; Wittenberg , J ; Halpern , EF ; Pinkney , L ; Mueller , PR ( 1994 ) . `` Efficacy of CT in distinguishing small - bowel obstruction from other causes of small - bowel dilatation '' . American Journal of Roentgenology. 162 ( 1 ) : 43 -- 47 . doi : 10.2214 / ajr. 162.1. 8273687 . ISSN 0361 - 803X . Jump up ^ Helander , Herbert F ; Fändriks , Lars ( 2015 ) . `` Surface area of the digestive tract -- revisited '' . Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 49 ( 6 ) : 681 -- 689 . doi : 10.3109 / 00365521.2014. 898326 . ISSN 0036 - 5521 . PMID 24694282 . Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 273 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 271 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . pp. 295 -- 299 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Schoenwolf , Gary C. ; Bleyl , Steven B. ; Brauer , Philip R. ; Francis - West , Philippa H. ( 2009 ) . `` Development of the Urogenital system '' . Larsen 's human embryology ( 4th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . p. 237 . ISBN 9780443068119 . Jump up ^ Silk DB ( 1974 ) . `` Progress report . Peptide absorption in man '' . Gut. 15 ( 6 ) : 494 -- 501 . doi : 10.1136 / gut. 15.6. 494 . PMC 1413009 . PMID 4604970 . Jump up ^ `` Intestinal immune cells play an unexpected role in immune surveillance of the bloodstream '' . Massachusetts General Hospital . 13 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Canny , G.O. ; McCormick , B.A. ( 2008 ) . `` Bacteria in the Intestine , Helpful Residents or Enemies from Within ? '' . Infection and Immunity. 76 ( 8 ) : 3360 -- 3373 . doi : 10.1128 / IAI. 00187 - 08 . ISSN 0019 - 9567 . PMC 2493210 . PMID 18474643 . Jump up ^ `` The human proteome in small intestine - The Human Protein Atlas '' . www.proteinatlas.org . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 26 . Jump up ^ Uhlén , Mathias ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn M. ; Lindskog , Cecilia ; Oksvold , Per ; Mardinoglu , Adil ; Sivertsson , Åsa ; Kampf , Caroline ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ( 2015 - 01 - 23 ) . `` Tissue - based map of the human proteome '' . Science . 347 ( 6220 ) : 1260419 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1260419 . ISSN 0036 - 8075 . PMID 25613900 . Jump up ^ Gremel , Gabriela ; Wanders , Alkwin ; Cedernaes , Jonathan ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn ; Edlund , Karolina ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ; Uhlén , Mathias ; Pontén , Fredrik ( 2015 - 01 - 01 ) . `` The human gastrointestinal tract - specific transcriptome and proteome as defined by RNA sequencing and antibody - based profiling '' . Journal of Gastroenterology. 50 ( 1 ) : 46 -- 57 . doi : 10.1007 / s00535 - 014 - 0958 - 7 . ISSN 0944 - 1174 . ^ Jump up to : Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . pp. 349 -- 353 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X . Jump up ^ Porter ( ed . ) , Roy ( 1997 ) . Medicine : a history of healing . ( S.l. ) : Diane Pub Co. p. 104 . ISBN 9780756751432 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Bibliography ( edit ) Sherwood , Lauralee ( 2006 ) . Fundamentals of physiology : a human perspective ( Third ed . ) . Florence , KY : Cengage Learning . p. 768 . ISBN 0 - 534 - 46697 - 4 . Solomon et al. ( 2002 ) Biology Sixth Edition , Brooks - Cole / Thomson Learning ISBN 0 - 03 - 033503 - 5 Townsend et al. ( 2004 ) Sabiston Textbook of Surgery , Elsevier ISBN 0 - 7216 - 0409 - 9 Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 1 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1546 -- 64 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024719925058 . PMID 12924651 . Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 2 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1565 -- 81 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024724109128 . PMID 12924652 . External links ( edit ) Small intestine at the Human Protein Atlas ( hide ) Anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract , excluding the mouth Upper Pharynx Muscles Spaces peripharyngeal retropharyngeal parapharyngeal retrovisceral danger prevertebral Pterygomandibular raphe Pharyngeal raphe Buccopharyngeal fascia Pharyngobasilar fascia Piriform sinus Esophagus Sphincters upper lower glands Stomach Curvatures greater lesser Angular incisure Cardia Body Fundus Pylorus antrum canal sphincter Gastric mucosa Gastric folds Microanatomy Gastric pits Gastric glands Cardiac glands Fundic glands Pyloric glands Foveolar cell Parietal cell Gastric chief cell Enterochromaffin - like cell Lower Small intestine Microanatomy Intestinal villus Intestinal gland Enterocyte Enteroendocrine cell Goblet cell Paneth cell Duodenum Suspensory muscle Major duodenal papilla Minor duodenal papilla Duodenojejunal flexure Brunner 's glands Jejunum No substructures Ileum Ileocecal valve Peyer 's patches Microfold cell Large intestine Cecum Appendix Colon Ascending colon Hepatic flexure Transverse colon Splenic flexure Descending colon Sigmoid colon Continuous taenia coli haustra epiploic appendix Rectum Transverse folds Ampulla Anal canal Anus Anal columns Anal valves Anal sinuses Pectinate line Internal anal sphincter Intersphincteric groove External anal sphincter Wall Serosa / Adventitia Subserosa Muscular layer Submucosa Circular folds Mucosa Muscularis mucosa GND : 4013218 - 3 NDL : 00987719 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Small_intestine&oldid=837499657 '' Categories : Abdomen Digestive system Organs ( anatomy ) Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца )  Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kapampangan Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 88 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2018 , at 06 : 33 . 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Question: where are most nutrients absorbed in the human digestive tract