Liberal arts education - wikipedia Liberal arts education Jump to : navigation , search `` Liberal arts '' redirects here . For the corporation , see Liberal Arts , Inc . For the 2012 film , see Liberal Arts ( film ) . Philosophia et septem artes liberales , The seven liberal arts -- Picture from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg ( 12th century ) Liberal arts education ( Latin : liberalis , free and ars , art or principled practice ) can claim to be the oldest programme of higher education in Western history . It has its origin in the attempt to discover first principles -- ' those universal principles which are the condition of the possibility of the existence of anything and everything ' . The liberal arts are those subjects or skills that in classical antiquity were considered essential for a free person ( Latin : liberalis , `` worthy of a free person '' ) to know in order to take an active part in civic life , something that ( for Ancient Greece ) included participating in public debate , defending oneself in court , serving on juries , and most importantly , military service . Grammar , logic , and rhetoric were the core liberal arts ( the Trivium ) , while arithmetic , geometry , the theory of music , and astronomy also played a ( somewhat lesser ) part in education ( as the Quadrivium ) . Liberal arts education can refer to academic subjects such as literature , philosophy , mathematics , and social and physical sciences , or it can also refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program . For both interpretations , the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional , vocational , or technical curriculum . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Modern usage 3 Secondary school 4 In the United States 5 In Europe 6 In Asia 7 In Australia 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History ( edit ) Page from Marriage of Mercury and Philology Rooted in the basic curriculum -- the enkuklios paideia or `` education in a circle '' -- of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece , the `` liberal arts '' or `` liberal pursuits '' ( Latin liberalia studia ) were already so called in formal education during the Roman Empire . The first recorded use of the term `` liberal arts '' ( artes liberales ) occurs in De Inventione by Marcus Tullius Cicero , but it is unclear if he created the term . Seneca the Younger discusses liberal arts in education from a critical Stoic point of view in Moral Epistle 88 . The exact classification of the liberal arts varied however in Roman times , and it was only after Martianus Capella in the 5th century AD influentially brought the seven liberal arts as bridesmaids to the Marriage of Mercury and Philology , that they took on canonical form . The four ' scientific ' artes -- music , arithmetic , geometry and astronomy ( or astrology ) -- were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the Quadrivium . After the 9th century , the remaining three arts of the ' humanities ' -- grammar , logic , and rhetoric -- were classed as well , as the Trivium . It was in that two-fold form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university . During the Middle Ages , logic gradually came to take predominance over the other parts of the Trivium . In the Renaissance , the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts , despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages , reversed that process . Re-christening the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name : Studia humanitatis , and also increasing its scope , they downplayed logic as opposed to the traditional Latin grammar and rhetoric , and added to them history , Greek , and moral philosophy ( ethics ) , with a new emphasis on poetry as well . The educational curriculum of humanism spread throughout Europe during the sixteenth century and became the educational foundation for the schooling of European elites , the functionaries of political administration , the clergy of the various legally recognized churches , and the learned professions of law and medicine . The ideal of a liberal arts , or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature , persisted until the middle of the twentieth century . Modern usage ( edit ) Some subsections of the liberal arts are in the trivium -- the verbal arts : grammar , logic , and rhetoric ; and in the quadrivium -- the numerical arts : arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy . Analyzing and interpreting information is also included . Academic areas that are associated with the term liberal arts include : Arts ( fine arts , music , performing arts , literature ) Mathematics Natural science ( biology , chemistry , physics , astronomy , earth science ) Philosophy Religious studies Social science ( anthropology , economics , geography , history , jurisprudence , linguistics , political science , psychology , sociology ) For example , the core courses for Georgetown University 's Doctor of Liberal Studies program cover philosophy , theology , history , art , literature , and the social sciences . Wesleyan University 's Master of Arts in Liberal Studies program includes courses in visual arts , art history , creative and professional writing , literature , history , mathematics , film , government , education , biology , psychology , and astronomy . Secondary school ( edit ) The liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares the student for higher education at a university . They are thus meant for the more academically minded students . In addition to the usual curriculum , students of a liberal arts education often study Latin and Ancient Greek . Some liberal arts education provide general education , others have a specific focus . ( This also differs from country to country . ) The four traditional branches are : humanities education ( specializing in classical languages , such as Latin and Greek ) modern languages ( students are required to study at least three languages ) mathematical - scientific education economical and social - scientific education ( students are required to study economics , world history , social studies and business informatics ) Curricula differ from school to school , but generally include language , mathematics , informatics , physics , chemistry , biology , geography , art ( as well as crafts and design ) , music , history , philosophy , civics / citizenship , social sciences , and several foreign languages . Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects , but on producing well - rounded individuals , so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory , even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent . For example , the German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state , so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory , students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all . Today , a number of other areas of specialization exist , such as gymnasiums specializing in economics , technology or domestic sciences . In some countries , there is a notion of progymnasium , which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium , with the rights to continue education in a gymnasium . Here , the prefix `` pro '' is equivalent to `` pre '' . In the United States ( edit ) Main article : Liberal arts college Further information : Liberal arts colleges in the United States and Great books In the United States , liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts . The teaching at liberal arts colleges is often Socratic , typically with small classes , and often has a lower student - to - teacher ratio than at large universities ; professors teaching classes are often allowed to concentrate more on their teaching responsibilities than primary research professors or graduate student teaching assistants in universities . In addition , most four - year colleges that are not devoted exclusively or primarily to liberal arts degrees also offer those degrees , and students not majoring in liberal arts take courses to satisfy distribution requirements in liberal arts . Traditionally , a bachelor 's degree either in liberal arts in general or in one particular area within liberal arts , with substantial study outside that main area , is earned over four years of full - time study . However , some universities such as Saint Leo University , Pennsylvania State University , Florida Institute of Technology and New England College have begun to offer an associate degree in liberal arts . Colleges like New Saint Andrews College in Moscow , Idaho , offer a unique program with only one degree offering , a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies , and colleges like the University of Oklahoma College of Liberal Studies offers an online , part - time option for adult and nontraditional students . Most students earn either a Bachelor of Arts degree or a Bachelor of Science degree ; on completing undergraduate study , students might progress to either a liberal arts graduate school or a professional school ( public administration , engineering , business , law , medicine , theology ) . In Europe ( edit ) In most parts of Europe , liberal arts education is deeply rooted . In Germany , Austria and countries influenced by their education system , e.g. it is called `` humanistische Bildung '' ( humanistic education ) . The term is not to be mixed up with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording . Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a `` Gymnasium '' ( high school , grammar school ) . They aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education ( Bildung ) in order to form personality with regard to a pupil 's own humanity as well as his / her innate intellectual skills . Going back to the long tradition of the liberal arts in Europe , education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking and re-shaped by the theorists of enlightenment . In particular , Wilhelm von Humboldt played a key role in that regard . Since students are considered to have received a comprehensive liberal arts education at grammar schools , very often , the role of liberal arts education in undergraduate education at universities is reduced compared to the US educational system . Students are expected to use their skills received at the grammar school in order to further develop their personality in their own responsibility , e.g. in universities ' music clubs , theatre groups , language clubs etc . Universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities but do not make such activities part of the university 's curriculum . Thus , on the level of higher education , despite the European origin of the liberal arts college , the term liberal arts college usually denotes liberal arts colleges in the United States . With the exception of pioneering institutions such as Franklin University Switzerland ( formerly known as Franklin College ) , established as a Europe - based , US - style liberal arts college in 1969 , only recently some efforts have been undertaken to systematically `` re-import '' liberal arts education to continental Europe , as with Leiden University College The Hague , University College Utrecht , University College Maastricht , Amsterdam University College , Roosevelt Academy ( now University College Roosevelt ) , ATLAS University College , Erasmus University College , University College Groningen , Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts , and Bard College Berlin , formerly known as the European College of Liberal Arts . As well as the colleges listed above , some universities in the Netherlands offer bachelors programs in Liberal Arts and Sciences ( Tilburg University ) . Liberal arts ( as a degree program ) is just beginning to establish itself in Europe . For example , University College Dublin offers the degree , as does St. Marys University College Belfast , both institutions coincidentally on the island of Ireland . In the Netherlands , universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the terminology university college since the late 1990s . The four - year bachelor 's degree in Liberal Arts and Sciences at University College Freiburg is the first of its kind in Germany . It started in October 2012 with 78 students . The first Liberal Arts degree program in Sweden was established at Gothenburg University in 2011 , followed by a Liberal Arts Bachelor Programme at Uppsala University 's Campus Gotland in the autumn of 2013 . The first Liberal Arts program in Georgia was introduced in 2005 by American - Georgian Initiative for Liberal Education ( AGILE ) , an NGO . In collaboration with AGILE , Ilia State University became the first higher education institution in Georgia to establish a liberal arts program . In France , Chavagnes Studium , a Liberal Arts Study Centre in partnership with the Institut Catholique d'études supérieures , and based in a former Catholic seminary , is launching a two - year intensive BA in the Liberal Arts , with a distinctively Catholic outlook . It has been suggested that the liberal arts degree may become part of mainstream education provision in the United Kingdom , Ireland and other European countries . In 1999 , the European College of Liberal Arts ( now Bard College Berlin ) was founded in Berlin and in 2009 it introduced a four - year Bachelor of Arts program in Value Studies taught in English , leading to an interdisciplinary degree in the humanities . In England , the first institution to retrieve and update a liberal arts education at undergraduate level was The University of Winchester with their BA ( Hons ) Modern Liberal Arts programme which launched in 2010 . In 2012 , University College London began its interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences BASc degree ( which has kinship with the liberal arts model ) with 80 students . King 's College London launched the BA Liberal Arts , which has a slant towards arts , humanities and social sciences subjects . The New College of the Humanities also launched a new liberal education programme . The University of Nottingham has a Liberal Arts BA that provides an interdisciplinary approach , study abroad options and links with its Natural Sciences degrees . In 2016 , the University of Warwick launched a three / four - year liberal arts BA degree , which focuses on transdisciplinary approaches and Problem - based learning techniques in addition to providing structured disciplinary pathways . And for 2017 entry UCAS lists 20 providers of liberal arts programmes . In Scotland , the four - year undergraduate Honours degree , specifically the Master of Arts , has historically demonstrated considerable breadth in focus . In the first two years of Scottish MA and BA degrees students typically study a number of different subjects before specialising in their Honours years ( third and fourth year ) . The University of Dundee and the University of Glasgow ( at its Crichton Campus ) are the only Scottish universities that currently offer a specifically named ' Liberal Arts ' degree . In Asia ( edit ) The Commission on Higher Education of the Philippines mandates a General Education curriculum required of all higher education institutions ; it includes a number of liberal arts subjects , including history , art appreciation , and ethics , plus interdisciplinary electives . Many universities have much more robust liberal arts core curricula ; most notably , the Jesuit universities such as Ateneo de Manila University have a strong liberal arts core curriculum that includes philosophy , theology , literature , history , and the social sciences . Forman Christian College ( A Chartered University ) is a liberal arts education institution in Lahore , Pakistan . It is one of the oldest institutions in Indo - Pakistan subcontinent . It is a chartered university recognized by Higher Education Commission Pakistan . Habib University in Karachi , Pakistan offers a holistic liberal arts and sciences experience to its students through its uniquely tailored liberal core program which is compulsory for all undergraduate degree students . The Underwood International College of Yonsei University , Korea , has compulsory liberal arts course for all the student body . Symbiosis & FLAME University in Pune , Ahmedabad University , Ashoka University , Lingnan University and University of Liberal Arts - Bangladesh ( ULAB ) are also a few such liberal arts colleges in Asia . International Christian University in Tokyo is the first and one of the very few liberal arts universities in Japan . In Australia ( edit ) Main article : Campion College Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college , located in the western suburbs of Sydney . Founded in 2006 , it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its type in Australia . Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree . The key disciplines studied are history , literature , philosophy , and theology . See also ( edit ) Education portal Artes Mechanicae -- `` The Mechanical Arts '' Bachelor of General Studies Bachelor of Liberal Arts Bachelor of Liberal Studies College of Arts and Sciences Doctor of Liberal Studies Education reform § Reforms of classical education Four Arts Great books Great Books programs in Canada Humanitas Liberal arts college Liberal education List of liberal arts colleges Transcendentalism References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Nigel. , Tubbs , . Philosophy and modern liberal arts education : freedom is to learn . Houndmills , Basingstoke , Hampshire . ISBN 9781137358912 . OCLC 882530818 . Jump up ^ Ernst Robert Curtius , European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages ( 1948 ) , trans . Willard R. Trask ( Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1973 ) , p. 37 . The classical sources include Cicero , De Oratore , I. 72 -- 73 , III. 127 , and De re publica , I. 30 . Jump up ^ E.B. Castle , Ancient Education and Today ( 1969 ) p. 59 Jump up ^ `` Oxford Dictionary '' . The Oxford Dictionary . Jump up ^ Kimball , Bruce . Orators and Philosophers . New York : College Entrance Examination Board , 1995 . p. 13 Jump up ^ Cicero . De Inventione . Book 1 , Section 35 Jump up ^ Ben Schneider . `` Seneca Epistle 88 '' . Stoics.com . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . ^ Jump up to : H. Lausberg , Handbook of Literary Rhetoric ( 1998 ) p. 10 Jump up ^ Helen Waddell , The Wandering Scholars ( 1968 ) p. 25 Jump up ^ `` James Burke : The Day the Universe Changed In the Light Of the Above '' . Jump up ^ Wagner , David Leslie ( 1983 ) . The Seven liberal arts in the Middle Ages . Indiana University Press . ISBN 9780253351852 . Retrieved 5 January 2013 . at Questia ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Helen Waddell , The Wandering Scholars ( 1968 ) pp. 141 -- 3 Jump up ^ G. Norton ed. , The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism Vol 3 ( 1999 ) p. 46 and pp. 601 -- 4 Jump up ^ Paul Oskar Kristeller , Renaissance Thought II : Papers on Humanism and the Arts ( New York : Harper Torchbooks , 1965 ) , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Charles G. Nauert , Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe ( New Approaches to European History ) ( Cambridge University Press , 2006 ) , pp. 172 -- 173 . Jump up ^ Bod , Rens ; A New History of the Humanities , Oxford University Press , Oxford , 2014 . Jump up ^ Georgetown University Doctor of Liberal Studies curriculum http://scs.georgetown.edu/departments/6/doctor-of-liberal-studies/about-the-program/curriculum#curriculum Jump up ^ http://www.wesleyan.edu/masters/index.html Jump up ^ this subject has different names in the different states of Germany . See de : Gemeinschaftskunde Jump up ^ `` Defining Liberal Arts Education '' ( PDF ) . Wabash College . Retrieved 9 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Online Liberal Arts Associate Degree '' . Saint Leo University . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Online Associate in Arts in Letters , Arts , and Sciences Overview '' . Penn State University . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Associate 's Degree in Liberal Arts -- Liberal Arts Degree Online '' . Florida Institute of Technology . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Associates in Liberal Studies '' . New England College . Jump up ^ For example , Georgia Institute of Technology 's bachelor of science degree in Applied Languages and Intercultural Studies http://www.modlangs.gatech.edu Jump up ^ Harriman , Philip L. ( 1935 ) . `` Antecedents of the Liberal - Arts College '' . The Journal of Higher Education . Ohio State University Press . 6 ( 2 ) : 63 -- 71 . doi : 10.2307 / 1975506 . ISSN 1538 - 4640 . JSTOR 1975506 -- via JSTOR . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` About Franklin '' . Franklin University Switzerland Official Web Site. Franklin University Switzerland . Archived from the original on 8 April 2014 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Liberal Arts and Sciences Program ( LAS ) '' . University College Freiburg . Archived from the original on 20 August 2013 . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Liberal Arts , Gothenburg University '' . Flov.gu.se. 22 May 2013 . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Liberal Arts Programme at Uppsala University '' Jump up ^ `` Agile '' . Agile.ge . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ილიაუნი - მთავარი '' . Iliauni.edu.ge . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bachelor Degree '' . Iliauni . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ http://www.chavagnes.org/studium Jump up ^ `` Berlin 's sturdiest ivory tower '' . Expatica.com . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` GERMANY : New approach to liberal studies '' . Universityworldnews.com. 15 March 2009 . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` It 's the breadth that matters '' . 2010 - 12 - 23 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Arts and Sciences ( BASc ) programmes '' . University College London . Retrieved 26 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` KCL -- About Liberal Arts '' . Retrieved 15 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Liberal Arts programme -- BA Hons Y002 -- The University of Nottingham '' . www.nottingham.ac.uk . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/courses/la99/ Jump up ^ `` UCAS Search tool -- Venue Results '' . search.ucas.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 13 . Jump up ^ http://www.newslinemagazine.com/2014/12/liberal-classes/ Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 24 . Further reading ( edit ) Barzun , Jacques . The House of Intellect , Reprint Harper Perennial , 2002 . Blaich , Charles , Anne Bost , Ed Chan , and Richard Lynch . `` Defining Liberal Arts Education . '' Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts , 2004 . Blanshard , Brand . The Uses of a Liberal Education : And Other Talks to Students . ( Open Court , 1973 . ISBN 0 - 8126 - 9429 - 5 ) Friedlander , Jack . Measuring the Benefits of Liberal Arts Education in Washington 's Community Colleges . Los Angeles : Center for the Study of Community Colleges , 1982a . ( ED 217 918 ) Grafton Anthony and Lisa Jardine . From Humanism to the Humanities : The Institutionalizing of the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth - and Sixteenth - century Europe , Harvard University Press , 1987 . Guitton , Jean . A Student 's Guide to Intellectual Work , The University of Notre Dame Press , 1964 . Highet , Gilbert . The Art of Teaching , Vintage Books , 1950 . Joseph , Sister Miriam . The Trivium : The Liberal Arts of Logic , Grammar , and Rhetoric . Paul Dry Books Inc , 2002 . Kimball , Bruce A . The Liberal Arts Tradition : A Documentary History . University Press Of America , 2010 . Kimball , Bruce A. Orators and Philosophers : A History of the Idea of Liberal Education . College Board , 1995 . T. Kaori Kitao ; William R. Kenan , Jr. ( 27 March 1999 ) . The Usefulness Of Uselessness ( PDF ) . Keynote Address , The 1999 Institute for the Academic Advancement of Youth 's Odyssey at Swarthmore College . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2 October 2008 . McGrath , Charles . `` What Every Student Should Know '' , New York Times , 8 January 2006 . Parker , H. `` The Seven Liberal Arts , '' The English Historical Review , Vol . V , 1890 . Pfnister , Allan O. ( 1984 ) . `` The Role of the Liberal Arts College : A Historical Overview of the Debates '' . The Journal of Higher Education . Ohio State University Press . 55 ( 2 ) : 145 -- 70 . doi : 10.2307 / 1981183 . ISSN 1538 - 4640 . JSTOR 1981183 -- via JSTOR . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Reeves , Floyd W. ( 1930 ) . `` The Liberal - Arts College '' . The Journal of Higher Education . Ohio State University Press . 1 ( 7 ) : 373 -- 80 . doi : 10.2307 / 1974170 . ISSN 1538 - 4640 . JSTOR 1974170 -- via JSTOR . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Saint - Victor , Hugh of . The Didascalicon , Columbia University Press , 1961 . Schall , James V. Another Sort of Learning , Ignatius Press , 1988 . Seidel , George J. ( 1968 ) . `` Saving the Small College '' . The Journal of Higher Education . Ohio State University Press . 39 ( 6 ) : 339 -- 42 . doi : 10.2307 / 1979916 . ISSN 1538 - 4640 . JSTOR 1979916 -- via JSTOR . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Sertillanges , A.G. The Intellectual Life , The Catholic University of America Press , 1998 . Tubbs , N. ( 2011 ) `` Know Thyself : Macrocosm and Microcosm '' in Studies in Philosophy and Education Volume 30 no. 1 David L. Wagner , The Seven Liberal Arts in Middle Ages , Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 1983 . Winterer , Caroline . The Culture of Classicism : Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life , 1780 -- 1910 . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 2002 . Wriston , Henry M. The Nature of a Liberal College . Lawrence University Press , 1937 . Zakaria , Fareed . In Defense of a Liberal Education . New York : W.W. Norton & Company , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Liberal education Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liberal arts . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seven liberal arts . `` Arts , Liberal '' . New International Encyclopedia . 1905 . Definition and short history of the Seven Liberal Arts from 1905 . Fr . Herve de la Tour , `` The Seven Liberal Arts '' , Edocere , a Resource for Catholic Education , February 2002 . Thomas Aquinas 's definition of and justification for a liberal arts education . Otto Willmann . `` The Seven Liberal Arts '' . In The Catholic Encyclopedia . New York : Robert Appleton Company , 1907 . Retrieved 13 August 2012 . `` ( Renaissance ) Humanists , over-fond of change , unjustly condemned the system of the seven liberal arts as barbarous . It is no more barbarous than the Gothic style , a name intended to be a reproach . The Gothic , built up on the conception of the old basilica , ancient in origin , yet Christian in character , was misjudged by the Renaissance on account of some excrescences , and obscured by the additions engrafted upon it by modern lack of taste ... That the achievements of our forefathers should be understood , recognized , and adapted to our own needs , is surely to be desired . '' `` The Aim of Liberal Education '' , Andrew Chrucky , 1 September 2003 . `` The content of a liberal education should be moral problems as provided by history , anthropology , sociology , economics , and politics . And these should be discussed along with a reflection on the nature of morality and the nature of discussions , i.e. , through a study of rhetoric and logic . Since discussion takes place in language , an effort should be made to develop a facility with language . '' Philosophy of Liberal Education A bibliography , compiled by Andrew Chrucky , with links to essays offering different points of view on the meaning of a liberal education . Mark Peltz , `` The Liberal Arts and Leadership '' , College News ( The Annapolis Group ) , 14 May 2012 . A defense of liberal education by the Associate Dean of Grinnell College ( first appeared in Inside Higher Ed ) . `` Liberal Arts at the Community College '' , an ERIC Fact Sheet . ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges Los Angeles CA . `` A Descriptive Analysis of the Community College Liberal Arts Curriculum '' . ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges Los Angeles CA The Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts . Website about The Wabash Study ( for improving liberal education ) . Sponsored by the Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts at Wabash College ( Indiana ) , the Wabash Study began in the fall of 2010 -- scheduled to end in 2013 . Participants include 29 prominent colleges and universities . Academic Commons . An online platform in support of the liberal education community . It is a forum for sharing practices , outcomes , and lessons learned of online learning . Formerly sponsored by the Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts , The Academic Commons is hosted by the National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education ( `` NITLE '' . ) . The Liberal Arts Advantage -- for Business . Website dedicated to `` Bridging the gap between business and the liberal arts '' . `` A liberal arts education is aimed at developing the ability to think , reason , analyze , decide , discern , and evaluate . That 's in contrast to a professional or technical education ( business , engineering , computer science , etc . ) which develops specific abilities aimed at preparing students for vocations . '' Video explanation by Professor Nigel Tubbs of liberal arts curriculum and degree requirements of Winchester University , UK ... `` Liberal arts education ( Latin : liberalis , free , and ars , art or principled practice ) involves us in thinking philosophically across many subject boundaries in the humanities , the social and natural sciences , and fine arts . The degree combines compulsory modules covering art , religion , literature , science and the history of ideas with a wide range of optional modules . This enables students to have flexibility and control over their programme of study and the content of their assessments . '' Trivium Education . A website featuring online lectures in the liberal arts . 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Question: the roman name for a liberal arts education is known as


Horrid Henry ( book ) - wikipedia Horrid Henry ( book ) Jump to : navigation , search Horrid Henry The cover for Horrid Henry . Author Francesca Simon Illustrator Tony Ross Cover artist Tony Ross Country United Kingdom Language English Series Horrid Henry Genre Fantasy Publisher Orion Publishing Group Publication date 1994 Published in English 1994 Media type Print ( hardback ) Pages 96 ISBN 978 - 1 - 85881 - 070 - 6 Followed by Horrid Henry and the Secret Club Horrid Henry is the first book of the Horrid Henry series . It was published in 1994 and written by Francesca Simon and illustrated by Tony Ross . The book is a collection of short stories about the same characters , along the lines of the Just William books . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 1.1 Horrid Henry 's Perfect Day 1.2 Horrid Henry 's Dance Class 1.3 Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret 1.4 Horrid Henry 's Holiday 2 Publication history 3 Television 4 References 5 External links Plot ( edit ) Horrid Henry 's perfect day ( edit ) Horrid Henry is a horrid boy who loves doing unimaginable horrible things . He throws food , he snatches things , he pushes , shoves and pinches . He has a younger brother called Perfect Peter . He is an extremely perfect boy who does uncountable good deeds . He always says `` Please '' and `` Thank You '' , he loves vegetables and refuses cake and he never ever picks his nose . One day , Horrid Henry wonders what would happen if he were perfect ? ! So , the next day , Henry does n't wake Peter up by splashing water on his head , and Peter and his parents wake up late . Due to this , Henry and Peter are late for a class . Back at home , Henry does n't bully Peter , instead , he reads a book about super-mice . At dinner time , Henry helps lay the table and ignores Peter 's whining that he always lays the table . When the family eat spaghetti and meatballs , Henry does not kick Peter or slurp his food or leave behind his vegetables . Peter wants Henry to become horrid again and tries many ways to get Henry to hit him but Henry is resilient . When Henry 's Mum gives Henry some fudge cake and a kiss for being so good , Peter ca n't stand it any longer and flings his plate at Henry but hits Mum . Mum screams at Peter to go to his room and when Henry laughs , she sends him to his room too . The story ends with Henry being surprised that being perfect was so much fun . but before all that happened great Aunt Greta came . Horrid Henry 's Dance class ( edit ) Henry and Peter have to go to the school 's dance class taught by Miss Impatience Tutu , a very impatient woman who claims she is patient that Henry hates . The class has to play a concert and everyone is practicing for it . Impatience Tutu makes Henry sit behind a false bush for being horrid at her class so he wo n't embarrass everyone at the concert . When its time for the concert , Henry decides to make his part bigger and by doing so , makes Impatience Tutu stop the concert . The story ends with Henry being happy to finally go for karate . Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret ( edit ) Horrid Henry has an archenemy , and that is Moody Margaret . Margaret lives next door to Henry , is in Henry 's class and owns all the things that Henry 's goody - goody parents do n't let him have . This is the only reason that Henry plays with Margaret . The two of them are playing pirates and squabbling over who is going to be Captain Hook and Peter is begging to not be the prisoner . When Margaret reluctantly hands over her Captain Hook role to Henry and takes his role as Mr. Smee and Henry orders her and Peter to walk the plank , she decides not to play pirates . Henry gets fed up and orders her to play but Margaret shrieks at him . Since no one can shriek as loud as her or as piercingly as her , Henry gives her back the hook and she decides to eat something . Selfish Henry does n't want to share his food with her and gives her horrible choices . When he mentions `` Glop '' ( A dish of horrible food mixed together ) , Margaret decides that she and Henry make the yuckiest Glop of all and eat it . After putting in horrible ingredients , Margaret eats a spoonful of it and does n't show how much she hates it , in fact stating that it is good . When Henry does n't want to eat it but takes a tiny spoonful , Margaret is about to do an unrevealed horrible thing if Perfect Peter had not intervened . He asks for some food and Henry gives him the glop ! Horrid Henry 's Holiday ( edit ) Henry hates holidays but when his family is going to France for camping , he gets excited . However , the place is n't as good as Henry thought it would be . A rainy campsite with filthy toilets and he gets angry again . He tries to knock down tents and play horrible music but Dad stops him . Just as they are about to eat baked beans , it rains . The Family sleeps in the tent soundly but Henry ca n't due to the sharp rocks and mosquitoes . When they wake up , the family goes for a walk and Henry has to collect firewood . Henry uses the wooden pegs holding up the tents as the firewood and creates a big fire . Henry feels he is dreaming that he is floating but when he wakes up , he finds that he is floating ! The tent has collapsed and the rain has soaked everyone wet . Henry then takes his family to the campsite that he wanted to go with modernized things and the story ends with Henry and Peter sharing a bag of chips Publication history ( edit ) The book was originally published in hardback in Great Britain , 1994 . It was first published in paperback in 1995 . It was reissued in paperback in 2008 . `` Horrid Henry 's Holiday '' and `` Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret '' have been reprinted individually as part of the Horrid Henry Early Readers series . `` Horrid Henry 's Holiday '' has been reprinted in Horrid Henry 's Wicked Ways . `` Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret '' has been reprinted in Horrid Henry 's Evil Enemies . `` Horrid Henry 's Dance Class '' has been reprinted in Horrid Henry Rules The World . The whole book has been reprinted in A Handful of Horrid Henry . Television ( edit ) `` Horrid Henry 's Perfect Day '' , `` Horrid Henry 's Dance Class '' and `` Horrid Henry 's Holiday '' were all episodes from the Horrid Henry TV series . The making of `` Glop '' from `` Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret '' was used as a challenge between Henry and Margaret in the episode `` Horrid Henry and the Secret Club '' except that Margaret did n't eat the `` Glop '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Horrid Henry `` Horrid Henry 's Perfect Day '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry `` Horrid Henry 's Dance Class '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry `` Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Early Readers `` Horrid Henry 's Holiday Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Early Readers `` Horrid Henry and Moody Margaret '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry 's Wicked Ways Jump up ^ Horrid Henry 's Evil Enemies Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Rules The World Jump up ^ A Handful of Horrid Henry Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Episode # 21 : `` Horrid Henry 's Perfect Day '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Episode # 47 : `` Horrid Henry 's Dance Class '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Episode # 52 : `` Horrid Henry 's Holiday '' Jump up ^ Horrid Henry Episode # 20 : `` Horrid Henry and the Secret Club '' External links ( edit ) Horrid Henry at the Horrid Henry Official Website . ( hide ) Horrid Henry Creators Francesca Simon Tony Ross Publishers Orion Children 's Books Individual Books Horrid Henry Horrid Henry and the Secret Club Horrid Henry Tricks the Tooth Fairy Horrid Henry 's Nits Horrid Henry Gets Rich Quick Horrid Henry 's Haunted House Horrid Henry and the Mummy 's Curse Horrid Henry 's Revenge Horrid Henry and the Bogey Babysitter Horrid Henry 's Stinkbomb Horrid Henry 's Underpants Horrid Henry Meets the Queen Horrid Henry and the Mega-Mean Time Machine Horrid Henry and the Football Fiend Horrid Henry 's Christmas Cracker Horrid Henry and the Abominable Snowman Horrid Henry Robs the Bank Horrid Henry Wakes the Dead Horrid Henry and the Zombie Vampire Horrid Henry 's Monster Movie Horrid Henry 's Nightmare Horrid Henry 's Krazy Ketchup Horrid Henry 's Cannibal Curse Characters Horrid Henry Perfect Peter Moody Margaret Miscellaneous Horrid Henry : Television Series Horrid Henry : The Movie See also : List of Horrid Henry characters Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horrid_Henry_(book)&oldid=819631159 '' Categories : Horrid Henry 1994 short story collections Children 's short story collections British children 's books 1994 children 's books Hidden categories : Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cymraeg Gaeilge Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2018 , at 12 : 37 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: when was the first horrid henry book written


Indirect rule - wikipedia Indirect rule Jump to : navigation , search A 20th century Yoruba ( Nigerian ) depiction of a British District Officer on tour of indirect rulers Indirect rule is a system of government used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires , particularly in Africa and Asia , through pre-existing local power structures . These dependencies were often called `` protectorates '' or `` trucial states '' . By this system , the day - to - day government and administration of areas both small and large was left in the hands of traditional rulers , who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica , at the cost of losing control of their external affairs , and often of taxation , communications , and other matters , usually with a small number of European `` advisors '' effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas . Contents ( hide ) 1 British Empire 1.1 In Africa 1.2 In India 2 Practical implementation of indirect rule 3 Interpretations 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources and references 6.1 Period writings British Empire ( edit ) 1895 cartoon of Frederick Lugard , considered the pioneer of indirect rule in colonial Africa Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London , while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors . In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate ( not a colony ) of Britain . Prime minister Salisbury explained his position : The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilized races , and more suitable for them than direct dominion . It is cheaper , simpler , less wounding to their self - esteem , gives them more career as public officials , and spares of unnecessary contact with white men . The Princely States of India were ruled indirectly . So too was much of the West African holdings . In Africa ( edit ) The ideological underpinnings , as well as the practical application , of indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria is usually traced to the work of Frederick Lugard , the High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1906 . In the lands of the Sokoto Caliphate , conquered by the British Empire at the turn of the century , Lugard instituted a system whereby external , military , and tax control was operated by the British , while most every other aspect of life was left to local pre-British aristocracies who may have sided with the British during or after their conquest . The theory behind this solution to a very practical problem ( a problem referred to as ' The Native Problem ' by Mahmood Mamdani in his work Citizen and Subject ) of domination by a tiny group of foreigners of huge populations is laid out in Lugard 's influential work , The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa . In India ( edit ) The largest application of Indirect rule was in British Asia , in hundreds of pre-colonial states , first seen at work under the East India Company 's system of subsidiary alliances in the Indian subcontinent . The areas thus brought into the British sphere of influence became known as the Indian Princely States . Subsequently , the same principle was applied in strategic regions on the sea routes to India , especially in the Persian Gulf protected states . In the British colonies , the laws were typically made by a British Governor and legislative council , but in the protectorates and princely states local rulers retained their traditional administrative authority and ability to legislate , subject to British control of certain areas . Indirect rule was particularly effective in enabling the British to exploit natural resources and raw materials of vast subordinate nations . The establishment of naval and military bases in strategic points around the globe maintained the necessary power to underpin such control . Practical implementation of indirect rule ( edit ) Indirect rule was cheaper and easier for the European powers , and in particular it required fewer administrators , but it did have a number of problems . In many cases , European authorities empowered local traditional leaders , as in the case of the monarchy of Uganda , but if no suitable leader could be found ( in the traditional Western sense of the term ) , the Europeans would simply choose local rulers to suit them . This was the case in Kenya and Southern Nigeria , and the new leaders , often called `` warrant chiefs '' , were not always supported by the local population . The European ruling classes also often chose local leaders with similar traits to their own , despite these traits not being suited to native leadership . Many were conservative elders , and thus indirect rule fostered a conservative outlook among the indigenous population and marginalised the young intelligentsia . Written laws , which replaced oral laws , were less flexible to the changing social nature , old customs of retribution and justice were removed or banned , and the removal of more violent punishments in some areas led to an increase in crime . Furthermore , leaders empowered by the governments of European powers were often not familiar with their new tasks , such as recruitment and tax . Interpretations ( edit ) From the early 20th century , French and British writers helped establish a dichotomy between British Indirect rule , exemplified by the Indian princely states and by Lord Lugard 's writings on the administration of northern Nigeria , and French colonial direct rule . As with British theorists , French colonial officials like Félix Eboué or Robert Delavignette wrote and argued throughout the first half of the 20th century for a distinct French style of rule that was centralized , uniform , and aimed at assimilating colonial subjects into the French polity . French rule , sometimes labeled Jacobin , was said in these writings to be based on the twin ideologies of the centralized unitary French government of the Metropole , with the French colonial ideology of Assimilation . Colonial Assimilation argued that French law and citizenship was based on universal values that came from the French Revolution . Mirroring French domestic citizenship law , French colonial law allowed for anyone who could prove themselves culturally French ( the `` Évolués '' ) to become equal French citizens . In French West Africa , only parts of the Senegalese `` Four Communes '' ever extended French citizenship outside a few educated African elite . This was contrasted with British Indirect Rule , which never foresaw subject Protectorates becoming legally assimilated into `` the home nations '' . While making more subtle distinctions , this model of direct versus indirect rule was dominant in academia from the 1930s until the 1970s . Academics since the 1970s have problematised the Direct versus Indirect Rule dichotomy , arguing the systems were in practice intermingled in both British and French colonial governance , and that the perception of indirect rule was sometimes promoted to justify quite direct rule structures . Mahmood Mamdani and other academics have discussed extensively how both Direct and Indirect rule were attempts to implement identical goals of foreign rule , but how the `` Indirect '' strategy helped to create ethnic and racial cleavages within ruled societies which persist in hostile communal relations and dysfunctional strategies of government . Mamdani himself famously described indirect rule as `` decentralised despotism '' . Some political scientists have even expanded the debate on how direct versus indirect rule experiences continue to effect contemporary governance into how governments which have never experienced colonialism rule . See also ( edit ) British Empire portal Politics portal Bussa revolt - a 1915 uprising against indirect rule in Northern Nigeria Direct colonial rule Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The American Historical Association . `` ENGLAND 'S INDIRECT RULE IN ITS AFRICAN COLONIES '' in THROUGH THE LENS OF HISTORY : BIAFRA , NIGERIA , THE WEST AND THE WORLD . AHA teaching guide , historians.org , n.d. Accessed 2012 - 09 - 20 http://www.historians.org/tl/lessonplans/nc/trask/indirect.htm Jump up ^ Andrew Roberts , Salisbury : Victorian Titan ( 1999 ) p 529 Jump up ^ Lakshmi Iyer , `` Direct versus indirect colonial rule in India : Long - term consequences . '' The Review of Economics and Statistics ( 2010 ) 92 # 4 pp : 693 - 713 online Archived 2014 - 09 - 03 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo , The Warrant Chiefs : indirect rule in southeastern Nigeria , 1891 - 1929 ( London : Longman , 1972 ) Jump up ^ Eric J. Hobsbawm , Terence O. Ranger , ' The Invention of Tradition ' ( 1983 ) Jump up ^ Collins and Burns , pp. 297 - 308 Jump up ^ Robert Louis Delavignette . Freedom and Authority in French West Africa . originally published as Les vrais chefs de l'empire : 1939 . Oxford University : 1946 . Jump up ^ Georges Hardy , Histoire sociale de la colonisation française . ( Paris , 1953 ) Jump up ^ Raymond F. Betts , Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory , 1890 - 1914 ( New York , 1961 ) Jump up ^ Martin D. Lewis , `` One Hundred Million Frenchmen : The Assimilationist Theory in French Colonial Policy , '' Comparative Studies in Society and History IV ( January 1962 ) , 129 - 153 . Jump up ^ Erik Bleich , ' The legacies of history ? Colonization and immigrant integration in Britain and France . Theory and Society , Volume 34 , Number 2 , April 2005 . Jump up ^ Michael Crowder ' in Senegal : A Study in French Assimilation Policy ( London : Oxford University Press , 1962 ) Jump up ^ Mamadou Diouf , ' The French Colonial Policy of Assimilation and the Civility of the Originaires of the Four Communes ( Senegal ) : A Nineteenth Century Globalization Project ' in Development and Change , Volume 29 , Number 4 , October 1998 , pp. 671 -- 696 ( 26 ) Jump up ^ M.M. Knight , ' French Colonial Policy -- the Decline of `` Association '' ' in The Journal of Modern History , Vol. 5 , No. 2 ( Jun. , 1933 ) , pp. 208 -- 224 Jump up ^ Michael Lambert , ' From Citizenship to Negritude : Making a difference in elite ideologies of colonized Francophone West Africa ' in Comparative Studies in Society and History , Vol. 35 , No. 2 . ( Apr. , 1993 ) , pp. 239 -- 262 Jump up ^ G. Wesley Johnson , Jr. , The Emergence of Black Politics in Senegal : The Struggle for Power in the Four Communes , 1900 -- 1920 ( 1972 ) Jump up ^ James F. Searing , ' Senegal : Colonial Period : Four Communes : Dakar , Saint - Louis , Gorée , and Rufisque ' , in Kevin Shillington ( editor ) , Encyclopedia of African History ( New York , 2005 ) : 3 Volumes , 3 , 1334 -- 35 Jump up ^ Ralph J. Bunche , ' French and British Imperialism in West Africa ' in The Journal of Negro History , Vol. 21 , No. 1 . ( Jan. , 1936 ) , pp. 31 -- 46 Jump up ^ Michael Crowder , ' Indirect Rule : French and British Style ' in Africa : Journal of the International African Institute , Vol. 34 , No. 3 . ( Jul. , 1964 ) , pp. 197 -- 205 Jump up ^ Alec G. Hargreaves , ed . Memory , Empire , and Postcolonialism : Legacies of French Colonialism ( Lanham : Lexington Books , 2005 ; ISBN 9780739108215 ) Jump up ^ Ann Laura Stoler ( 1989 ) , ' Rethinking Colonial Categories : European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule ' in Comparative Studies in Society and History , 31 , pp 134 - 161 doi : 10.1017 / S0010417500015693 Jump up ^ Jonathan Derrick , ' The ' Native Clerk ' in Colonial West Africa ' in African Affairs , Vol. 82 , No. 326 . ( Jan. , 1983 ) , pp. 61 -- 74 . Jump up ^ Emily Lynn Osborn ( 2003 ) . ' CIRCLE OF IRON ' : AFRICAN COLONIAL EMPLOYEES AND THE INTERPRETATION OF COLONIAL RULE IN FRENCH WEST AFRICA . The Journal of African History , 44 , pp 29 - 50 doi : 10.1017 / S0021853702008307 Jump up ^ Anthony I. Nwabughuogu . The Role of Propaganda in the Development of Indirect Rule in Nigeria , 1890 - 1929 . The International Journal of African Historical Studies Vol. 14 , No. 1 ( 1981 ) , pp. 65 - 92 Jump up ^ Paul Rich . The Origins of Apartheid Ideology : The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration , c. 1902 - 1932 . African Affairs , Vol. 79 , No. 315 . ( Apr. , 1980 ) , pp. 171 -- 194 . Jump up ^ Lakshmi Iyer ( 2010 ) . Direct versus Indirect Colonial Rule in India : Long - Term Consequences . The Review of Economics and Statistics . November 2010 , Vol. 92 , No. 4 , Pages 693 - 713 Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani . Indirect Rule , Civil Society , and Ethnicity : The African Dilemma . Social Justice Vol. 23 , No. 1 / 2 ( 63 - 64 ) , The World Today ( Spring - Summer 1996 ) , pp. 145 - 150 Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani . Historicizing power and responses to power : indirect rule and its reform . Social Research Vol. 66 , No. 3 , PROSPECTS FOR DEMOCRACY ( FALL 1999 ) , pp. 859 - 886 Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani , Citizen and Subject : Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism ( 1996 ) , p. 37 . Jump up ^ John Gerring , Daniel Ziblatt , Johan Van Gorp and Julián Arévalo ( 2011 ) . An Institutional Theory of Direct and Indirect Rule . World Politics , 63 , pp 377 - 433 doi : 10.1017 / S0043887111000104 This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( September 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sources and references ( edit ) Michael Crowder . Indirect Rule : French and British Style . Africa : Journal of the International African Institute , Vol. 34 , No. 3 . ( Jul. , 1964 ) , pp. 197 -- 205 . Paul Rich . The Origins of Apartheid Ideology : The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration , c. 1902 - 1932 . African Affairs , Vol. 79 , No. 315 . ( Apr. , 1980 ) , pp. 171 -- 194 . Omipidan Teslim Indirect Rule in Nigeria OldNaija H.F. Morris . A History of the Adoption of Codes of Criminal Law and Procedure in British Colonial Africa , 1876 - 1935 . Journal of African Law , Vol. 18 , No. 1 , Criminal Law and Criminology . ( Spring , 1974 ) , pp. 6 -- 23 . Jonathan Derrick . The ' Native Clerk ' in Colonial West Africa . African Affairs , Vol. 82 , No. 326 . ( Jan. , 1983 ) , pp. 61 -- 74 . Diana Wylie . Confrontation over Kenya : The Colonial Office and Its Critics 1918 - 1940 . The Journal of African History , Vol. 18 , No. 3 . ( 1977 ) , pp. 427 -- 447 . P.A. Brunt . Empires : Reflections on British and Roman Imperialism . Comparative Studies in Society and History , Vol. 7 , No. 3 . ( Apr. , 1965 ) , pp. 267 -- 288 . R.O. Collins and J.M. Burns . A History of Sub-Saharan Africa , Cambridge , 2007 . Harrington , Jack ( 2010 ) , Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India , Chs. 4 & 5. , New York : Palgrave Macmillan. , ISBN 978 - 0 - 230 - 10885 - 1 Period writings ( edit ) Harold Nicolson . The Colonial Problem . International Affairs ( Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931 - 1939 ) , Vol. 17 , No. 1 . ( Jan . - Feb. , 1938 ) , pp. 32 -- 50 . W.E. Rappard . The Practical Working of the Mandates System . Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs , Vol. 4 , No. 5 . ( Sep. , 1925 ) , pp. 205 -- 226 . Jan Smuts . Native Policy in Africa . Journal of the Royal African Society , Vol. 29 , No. 115 . ( Apr. , 1930 ) , pp. 248 -- 268 . Ralph J. Bunche . French and British Imperialism in West Africa . The Journal of Negro History , Vol. 21 , No. 1 . ( Jan. , 1936 ) , pp. 31 -- 46 . ( hide ) Colonial empires American Austro - Hungarian Belgian British Couronian Danish Dutch English French German Italian Japanese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Ottoman Portuguese Russian Spanish Swedish Colonies in antiquity Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indirect_rule&oldid=822759343 '' Categories : Governance of the British Empire History of European colonialism French colonels Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles lacking in - text citations from September 2012 All articles lacking in - text citations Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 한국어 Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 28 January 2018 , at 09 : 35 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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Question: what was generally the preferred way for european powers to control colonial regions