Disinvestment from South Africa - Wikipedia Disinvestment from South Africa Jump to : navigation , search The campaign gained prominence in the mid-1980s on university campuses in the US . The debate headlined the October 1985 issue ( above ) of Vassar College 's student newspaper . Disinvestment ( or divestment ) from South Africa was first advocated in the 1960s , in protest of South Africa 's system of apartheid , but was not implemented on a significant scale until the mid-1980s . The disinvestment campaign , after being realized in federal legislation enacted in 1986 by the United States , is credited by some as pressuring the South African Government to embark on negotiations ultimately leading to the dismantling of the Apartheid system . Contents ( hide ) 1 United Nations campaigns 1.1 Attempts to persuade British policymakers 1.2 Steadfast rejection by the West 1.3 1970s 2 United States campaign ( 1977 -- 1989 ) 2.1 The Sullivan Principles ( 1977 ) 2.2 Achieving critical mass ( 1984 -- 1989 ) 2.3 University campuses 2.3. 1 Michigan State University 2.3. 2 Columbia University 2.3. 3 Smith College 2.3. 4 Harvard University 2.3. 5 University of California 2.3. 6 Gettysburg College 2.4 States and cities 2.5 Federal involvement 2.5. 1 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act 2.5. 2 Budget Reconciliation Act 2.5. 3 Further legislative efforts 3 Effects on South Africa 3.1 Economic effects 4 Anti-apartheid opposition 5 Outside criticism 6 Further reading 7 See also 8 References 9 External links United Nations campaigns ( edit ) International opposition to apartheid in South Africa Campaigns ( show ) Academic boycott Sporting boycott Disinvestment Constructive engagement Free South Africa Movement International anti-apartheid music Instruments and legislation ( show ) 1962 UN Resolution 1761 1973 Crime of Apartheid Convention 1977 Gleneagles Agreement 1977 Sullivan principles 1986 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act Organisations ( show ) Anti-Apartheid Movement Artists United Against Apartheid Commonwealth of Nations Halt All Racist Tours Organisation of African Unity TransAfrica UN Special Committee against Apartheid Conferences ( show ) 1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions 1978 World Conference against Racism UN Security Council Resolutions ( show ) Resolution 134 ( Sharpeville massacre ) Resolution 181 ( voluntary arms embargo ) Resolution 191 ( sanctions feasibility ) Resolution 282 ( arms embargo strengthening ) Resolution 418 ( mandatory arms embargo ) Resolution 435 ( South - West Africa ceasefire ) Resolution 591 ( arms embargo strengthening ) Other aspects ( show ) Elimination of Racism Day `` Biko '' ( song ) Activists Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute Equity television programming ban Rugby union and apartheid In November 1962 , the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1761 , a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa . All Western nations were unhappy with the call for sanctions and as a result boycotted the committee . Following this passage of this resolution the UK - based Anti-Apartheid Movement spearheaded the arrangements for an international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964 . According to Lisson , `` The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their implications on the economies of South Africa , the UK , the US and the Protectorates . Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West ( and within the West , Britain ) , the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the Conference findings would be regarded as objective . '' The conference was named the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa . This conference , Lisson writes , established the necessity , the legality and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa , whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world . Its findings also pointed out that in order to be effective , a programme of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the US , who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy . Attempts to persuade British policymakers ( edit ) The conference was not successful in persuading Britain to take up economic sanctions against South Africa though . Rather , the British government `` remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional ' because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies ' '' . The AAM tried to make sanctions an election issue in the 1964 General Election in Britain . Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government . Most candidates who responded answered in the affirmative . After the Labour Party sweep to power though , commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated . In short order , Labour Party leader Harold Wilson told the press that his Labour Party was `` not in favour of trade sanctions partly because , even if fully effective , they would harm the people we are most concerned about - the Africans and those white South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there '' . Even so , Lisson writes that the `` AAM still hoped that the new Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the previous Government . '' But by the end of 1964 , it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the governments overall unwillingness to imposing sanctions . Steadfast rejection by the West ( edit ) Lisson summarizes the situation at the UN in 1964 : At the UN , Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under Chapter VII of the ( United Nations ) Charter . Instead , in collaboration with the US , it worked for a carefully worded appeal on the Rivonia and other political trials to try to appease Afro - Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad ; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum . According to Lisson , Britain 's rejection was premised on its economic interests in South Africa , which would be put at risk if any type of meaningful economic sanctions were put in place . 1970s ( edit ) In 1977 , the voluntary UN arms embargo became mandatory with the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 . An oil embargo was introduced on 20 November 1987 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted a voluntary international oil embargo . United States campaign ( 1977 -- 1989 ) ( edit ) The Sullivan Principles ( 1977 ) ( edit ) Main article : Sullivan Principles Knight writes that anti-apartheid movement in the U.S. found that Washington was unwilling to get involved in economically isolating South Africa . The movement responded by organized lobbying of individual businesses and institutional investors to end their involvement with or investments in the apartheid state as a matter of corporate social responsibility . This campaign was coordinated by several faith - based institutional investors eventually leading to the creation of the Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility . An array of celebrities , including singer Paul Simon , also participated . The key instrument of this campaign was the so - called Sullivan Principles , authored by and named after the Rev. Dr. Leon Sullivan . Leon Sullivan was an African - American preacher in Philadelphia who , in 1977 , was also a board member of the corporate giant General Motors . At that time , General Motors was the largest employer of blacks in South Africa . The principles required that the corporation ensure that all employees are treated equally and in an integrated environment , both in and outside the workplace , and regardless of race , as a condition of doing business . These principles directly conflicted with the mandated racial discrimination and segregation policies of apartheid - era South Africa , thus making it impossible for businesses adopting the Sullivan Principles to continue doing business there . While the anti-Apartheid movement lobbied individual businesses to adopt and comply with the Sullivan Principles , the movement opened an additional front with the institutional investors . Besides advocating that institutional investors withdraw any direct investments in South African - based companies , anti-Apartheid activists also lobbied for the divestment from all U.S. - based companies having South African interests who had not yet themselves adopted the Sullivan Principles . The institutional investors such as public pension funds were the most susceptible to these types of lobbying efforts . Public companies with South Africa interests were thus confronted on two levels : First , shareholder resolutions were submitted by concerned stockholders who , admitted , posed more of a threat to the often - cherished corporate reputations than to the stock price . Second , the companies were presented with the significant financial threat whereby one or more of their major institutional investors decides to withdraw their investments . Achieving critical Mass. ( 1984 -- 1989 ) ( edit ) Part of a series on Apartheid Events ( show ) 1948 general election Coloured vote constitutional crisis 1956 Treason Trial Sharpeville massacre Rivonia Trial Soweto uprising Church Street bombing Trojan Horse Incident Khotso House bombing Cape Town peace march CODESA Assassination of Chris Hani Saint James Church massacre Shell House massacre Organisations ( show ) ANC APLA IFP AWB Black Sash CCB Conservative Party DP ECC FOSATU PP RP PFP HNP MK PAC UDF Broederbond National Party COSATU SACC SADF SAIC SAMA SAP SACP State Security Council People ( show ) P.W. Botha Steve Biko Mangosuthu Buthelezi F.W. de Klerk Ruth First Bram Fischer Arthur Goldreich Chris Hani Bantu Holomisa Joel Joffe Ahmed Kathrada Albert Luthuli Winnie Madikizela - Mandela Mac Maharaj D.F. Malan Nelson Mandela Govan Mbeki Thabo Mbeki Raymond Mhlaba Benjamin Moloise Albertina Sisulu Walter Sisulu JG Strijdom Joe Slovo Robert Sobukwe Helen Suzman Adelaide Tambo Oliver Tambo Eugène Terre'Blanche Desmond Tutu H.F. Verwoerd B.J. Vorster Jacob Zuma Places ( show ) Bantustan District Six Robben Island Sophiatown South - West Africa Soweto Sun City Vlakplaas Related topics ( show ) Afrikaner nationalism Apartheid in popular culture Apartheid legislation Cape Qualified Franchise Freedom Charter Sullivan Principles Kairos Document Disinvestment campaign Rhodes Must Fall South African Police Music in the movement against apartheid Category The disinvestment campaign in the United States , which had been in existence for quite some years , gained critical mass following the Black political resistance to the 1983 South African constitution which included a `` complex set of segregated parliaments '' . Richard Knight writes : In a total rejection of apartheid , black South Africans mobilized to make the townships ungovernable , black local officials resigned in droves , and the government declared a State of Emergency in 1985 and used thousands of troops to quell `` unrest '' . Television audiences throughout the world were to watch almost nightly reports of massive resistance to apartheid , the growth of a democratic movement , and the savage police and military response . The result of the widely televised South African response was `` a dramatic expansion of international actions to isolate apartheid , actions that combined with the internal situation to force dramatic changes in South Africa 's international economic relations '' . University campuses ( edit ) Students organized to demand that their universities `` divest '' , meaning that the universities were to cease investing in companies that traded or had operations in South Africa . At many universities , many students and faculty protested in order to force action on the issue . The first organized Anti-Apartheid Organization on University Campuses in the United States was CUAA founded at the University of California Berkeley by Ramon Sevilla . Sevilla was a principal organizer that had support from Nelson Mandela , with whom Sevilla was in communication while Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island in South Africa as well as with The African National Congress ( the ANC ) . Some of the most effective actions in support of the divestment of investments of U.S. companies doing business in South Africa took place between the years of 1976 and 1985 , as Sevilla travelled throughout the American Continent and Europe gathering support for the overthrow of the South African Apartheid Government , which also led to his arrest at U.C. Berkeley on several occasions in the successful effort to force the University of California to divest all of their investments in companies doing business in South Africa , which also became the driving force for divestment worldwide in all companies doing business in the country of Apartheid South Africa . For example , in April 1986 , 61 students were arrested after building a shantytown in front of the chancellor 's office at UC Berkeley , Ramon Sevilla Chair CUAA . As a result of these organized `` divestment campaigns '' , the boards of trustees of several prominent universities voted to divest completely from South Africa and companies with major South African interests . The first of these was Hampshire College in 1977 . These initial successes set a pattern which was later repeated and many more campuses across the country . Activism surged in 1984 on the wave of public interest created by the wide television coverage of the then recent resistance efforts of the black South Africans . Overall , according to Knight 's analysis , the numbers year over year for educational institutions fully or partially divesting from South Africa were : 1984 Number of institutions divesting 53 128 155 Michigan State University ( edit ) The anti-Apartheid disinvestment campaign on campuses began on the West coast and Midwest in 1977 at Michigan State University and Stanford University . It had some early successes in 1978 at Michigan State University , which voted total divestiture , at Columbia University ; and the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . Following the Michigan State University divestiture in 1978 , in 1982 , the State of Michigan Legislature and Governor voted for divestiture by all of the more than 30 State of Michigan colleges and universities , an action later struck down as unconstitutional by the Michigan Court of Appeals in response to a suit against the Act by the University of Michigan . Columbia University ( edit ) The initial Columbia divestment , focused largely on bonds and financial institutions directly involved with the South African regime . It followed a year long campaign first initiated by students who had worked together to block the appointment of former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to an endowed chair at the University in 1977 . Broadly backed by a diverse array of student groups and many notable faculty members the Committee Against Investment in South Africa held numerous teach - ins and demonstrations through the year focused on the trustees ties to the corporations doing business with South Africa . Trustee meetings were picketed and interrupted by demonstrations culminating in May 1978 in the takeover of the Graduate School of Business . Smith College ( edit ) Smith College , in Northampton , Mass. , which is connected to Hampshire College in Amherst , Mass. , through the Five College Consortium engaged with divesting from South Africa several years later . In the spring semester of 1986 students at Smith College protested the Board of Trustee 's decision not to fully divest the college 's endowment from companies in South Africa . Student protests included a sit - in in College Hall , the main administrative office which included nearly 100 students sleeping in over night on 24 February 1986 . The next day students staged a full blockade of the building , not allowing any staff into the building and anticipating arrest , though the President of the college at the time , Mary Maples Dunn , refused to have the students arrested . Students of Smith College blocking the entrance to College Hall in 1986 as an act of protest urging the Board of Trustees to divest the college 's endowment from South Africa A comprehensive list of the demands they made throughout the demonstration was published on 28 February 1986 , at 8 : 30 am . The `` Women at College Hall '' agreed to end the blockade if The Board of Trustees agreed to `` issue a statement of intent to deliberate again , with a quorum , the issue of divestment '' before Spring Break , and that the Investor Responsibility Committee would meet with representatives from the South African Task Force , the Ethical Investment Committee , and students from the Divestment Committee to look at `` a restructuring of the investment policy '' . Students also demanded that the Board of Trustees `` recognize the need for more dialogue with the Smith College community '' and that they act on this with more meetings and transparency . In relation to the action , students demanded that a required teach - in be conducted to educate the college and the Board of Trustees on divestment , South African apartheid , and the College Hall Occupation , in addition , a booklet would be compiled by the demonstrators that would be distributed to the college to educate the community on the movement . They also demanded that the president grant amnesty to anyone who directly or indirectly participated in the occupation . On 1 March 1986 , the protest ended when negotiations with administrators led to an agreement that the trustees would re-evaluate their decision , a mandatory teach - in would be held , and amnesty would be granted to anyone involved in the demonstration . After student pressures , Smith College voted to divest all $39 million in stocks that they held in companies working in South Africa by 31 October 1988 . Harvard University ( edit ) Harvard University only undertook a partial `` divestment '' from South Africa and only after significant resistance . Adam Soften and Aln Wirzbicki give this description : Throughout the 1980s , Harvard professors for the most part avoided involvement with South Africa in protest of apartheid , and then president Derek C. Bok was a vocal supporter of work by the U.S. to prompt reform in South Africa . But the University was slow to pull its own investments out of companies doing business in South Africa , insisting that through its proxy votes , it could more effectively fight apartheid than by purging stocks from its portfolio . But after a decade of protests , Harvard did adopt a policy of selective divestment , and by the end of the 1980s was almost completely out of South Africa . University of California ( edit ) University of California , in contrast to the limited action undertaken by Harvard , authorized the withdrawal of three billion dollars worth of investments from the apartheid state . Nelson Mandela stated his belief that the University of California 's massive divestment was particularly significant in abolishing white - minority rule in South Africa . Gettysburg College ( edit ) In 1989 , after a three - year review by the Gettysburg College Board of Trustees and a five - month campaign by the Salaam Committee -- a campus group made up of students and faculty -- the college voted to divest $5.4 million from companies connected to South Africa . States and cities ( edit ) Boycott - Contaminated with apartheid - South African goods - 12 inch sticker used by activists , from the collection of the Library of Congress In addition to campuses , anti-apartheid activists found concerned and sympathetic legislators in cities and states . Several states and localities did pass legislation ordering the sale of such securities , most notably the City and County of San Francisco , which passed legislation on June 5 , 1978 not to invest `` in corporations and banks doing business in or with South Africa '' . The result was that `` by the end of 1989 26 states , 22 counties and over 90 cities had taken some form of binding economic action against companies doing business in South Africa '' . Many public pension funds connected to these local governments were legislated to disinvestment from South African companies . These local governments also exerted pressure via enacting selective purchasing policies , `` whereby cities give preference in bidding on contracts for goods and services to those companies who do not do business in South Africa '' . Federal involvement ( edit ) The activity at the state and city level set the stage for action at the federal level . Comprehensive anti-apartheid Act ( edit ) Main article : Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act This began when the Senate and House of Representatives presented Ronald Reagan with the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 which had been introduced by Congressman Ronald Dellums , supported by the members of the Congressional Black Caucus in the House , and piloted through the House by Congressman Howard Wolpe , chairman of the House Africa Subcommittee . Ronald Reagan responded by using his veto , but surprisingly and , in testament to the strength of the anti-Apartheid movement , the Republican controlled Senate overrode his veto . Knight gives this description the act : The Act banned new U.S. investment in South Africa , sales to the police and military , and new bank loans , except for the purpose of trade . Specific measures against trade included the prohibition of the import of agricultural goods , textiles , shellfish , steel , iron , uranium and the products of state - owned corporations . The results of the act were mixed in economic terms according to Knight : Between 1985 and 1987 , U.S. imports from South Africa declined 35 % , although the trend reverses in 1988 when imports increased by 15 % . Between 1985 and 1998 , U.S. exports to South Africa increased by 40 % . Knight attributes some of the increase in imports in 1988 to lax enforcement of the 1986 Act citing a 1989 study by the General Accounting Office . Knight writes that a `` major weakness of the Act is that it does little to prohibit exports to South Africa , even in such areas as computers and other capital goods '' . Budget Reconciliation Act ( edit ) A second federal measure introduced by Representative Charles Rangel in 1987 as an amendment to the Budget Reconciliation Act halted the ability of U.S. corporations from attaining tax reimbursements for taxes paid in South Africa . The result was that U.S. corporations operating in South Africa were subject to double taxation . According to Knight : The sums of money involved are large . According to the Internal Revenue Service , taxes involved in 1982 were $211,593,000 on taxable income of $440,780,000 . The U.S. Chamber of Commerce in South Africa has estimated that the measure increases the tax bill for U.S. companies from 57.5 % to 72 % of profits in South Africa . Further legislative efforts ( edit ) An additionally and much harsher sanctions bill was passed by the House of Representatives ( Congress ) in August 1988 . This bill mandated `` the withdrawal of all U.S. companies from South Africa , the sale by U.S. residents of all investments in South African companies and an end to most trade , except for the import of certain strategic minerals '' . In the end , the bill did n't become law as was n't able to pass the Senate . ( In the United States legislative system a bill must be passed by both the Senate and the House of Representatives before it can be signed into law by the President . ) Even so , the fact that such a harsh bill made any progress at all through the legislature `` alerted both the South African government and U.S. business that significant further sanctions were likely to be forthcoming '' if the political situation in South Africa remained unchanged . Effects on South Africa ( edit ) Economic effects ( edit ) Main article : Economic history of South Africa § Sanctions Four exchange control stamps in a South African passport from the mid-1980s allowing the passport holder to take a particular amount of currency out of the country . Exchange controls such as these were imposed by the South African government to restrict the outflow of capital from the country . While post-colonial African countries had already imposed sanctions on South Africa in solidarity with the Defiance Campaign , these measures had little effect because of the relatively small economies of those involved . The disinvestment campaign only impacted South Africa after the major Western nations , including the United States , got involved beginning in mid-1984 . From 1984 onwards , according to Knight , because of the disinvestment campaign and the repayment of foreign loans , South Africa experienced considerable capital flight . The net capital movement out of South Africa was : R9. 2 billion in 1985 R6. 1 billion in 1986 R3. 1 billion in 1987 R5. 5 billion in 1988 The capital flight triggered a dramatic decline in the international exchange rate of the South African currency , the rand . The currency decline made imports more expensive which in turn caused inflation in South Africa to rise at a very steep 12 - 15 % per year . The South African government did attempt to restrict the damaging outflow of capital . Knight writes that `` in September 1985 it imposed a system of exchange control and a debt repayments standstill . Under exchange control , South African residents are generally prohibited from removing capital from the country and foreign investors can only remove investments via the financial rand , which is traded at a 20 % to 40 % discount compared to the commercial rand . This means companies that disinvest get significantly fewer dollars for the capital they withdraw . '' Anti-apartheid opposition ( edit ) While disinvestment , boycotts and sanctions aimed at the removal of the apartheid system , there was also considerable opposition from within the anti-apartheid movement within South Africa coming from both black and white leaders . Mangosuthu Buthelezi , Chief Minister of KwaZulu and leading black figure slammed sanctions , stating that `` They can only harm all the people of Southern Africa . They can only lead to more hardships , particularly for the blacks . '' Well known anti-apartheid opposition MPs Helen Suzman and Harry Schwarz also strongly opposed moves to disinvest from South Africa . Both politicians of the Progressive Federal Party , they argued that disinvestment would cause further economic hardships for black people , which would ultimately worsen the political climate for negotiations . Suzman described them as `` self defeating , wrecking the economy and do not assist anybody irrespective of race '' . Schwarz also argued that `` Morality is cheap when someone else is paying . '' Outside criticism ( edit ) Many criticised disinvestment because of its economic impact on ordinary black South Africans , such as British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , who described sanctions and disinvestment as `` the way of poverty , starvation and destroying the hopes of the very people -- all of them -- whom you wish to help . '' John Major , then her Foreign Secretary , said disinvestment would `` feed white consciences outside South Africa , not black bellies within it '' , although in 2013 , he said that the Conservative Government led by Margaret Thatcher was wrong to oppose tougher sanctions against South Africa during the apartheid era . Many conservatives opposed the disinvestment campaign , accusing its advocates of hypocrisy for not also proposing that the same sanctions be leveled on either the Soviet Union or the People 's Republic of China . Libertarian Murray Rothbard also opposed this policy , asserting that the most - direct adverse impact of the boycott would actually be felt by the black workers in that country , and the best way to remedy the problem of apartheid was by promoting trade and the growth of free market capitalism in South Africa . Ronald Reagan , who was the President of the United States during the time the disinvestment movement was at its peak , also opposed it , instead favoring a policy of `` constructive engagement '' with the Pretoria government . Further reading ( edit ) `` For U.S. Firms in South Africa , The Threat of Coercive Sullivan Principles '' . Heritage Foundation . 12 November 1984 . `` On ' Constructive Engagement ' in South Africa '' . The MIT Tech. 105 ( 47 ) . 5 November 1985 . `` The Choice for U.S. Policy in South Africa : Reform or Vengeance '' . Heritage Foundation . 25 July 1986 . Misconceptions about U.S. policy toward South Africa . US Department of State Bulletin . September 1986 . Richard Knight . Chapter : `` Sanctions , Disinvestment , and U.S. Corporations in South Africa '' . Sanctioning Apartheid ( Africa World Press ) . 1990 . `` Disinvestment from South Africa : They Did Well by Doing Good '' . Contemporary Economic Policy . XV ( 1 ) : 76 - 86 . January 1997 . Robert Kinloch Massie , Loosing the Bonds , The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years , Doubleday , New York , 1997 See also ( edit ) Anti-Apartheid Movement Academic boycotts of South Africa Disinvestment Economic history of South Africa Socially responsible investing Disinvestment from Iran Disinvestment from Israel References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Fergusson Years : Vassar , 1986 - 2006 '' Archived 28 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine. , Vassar College Libraries Archives & Special Collections . Poughkeepsie , NY . 2006 . Jump up ^ See the debate in Nature : `` Boycott of Israel ? It worked for South Africa '' , Steven Rose and Hilary Rose , Nature , volume 417 , p. 221 ( 2002 ) and the response `` Did an academic boycott help to end apartheid ? '' , George Fink , Nature , Volume 417 , Issue 6890 , p. 690 ( 2002 ) . ^ Jump up to : Arianna Lisson , `` The Anti-Apartheid Movement , Britain and South Africa : Anti-Apartheid Protest vs Real Politik '' Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. , PhD Dissertation , 15 September 2000 Jump up ^ `` Policies of apartheid of the Government of South Africa & International solidarity with the liberation struggle in South Africa '' . United Nations General Assembly . 1987 - 11 - 20 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Richard Knight . Chapter : `` Sanctions , Disinvestment , and U.S. Corporations in South Africa '' . Sanctioning Apartheid ( Africa World Press ) , 1990 Jump up ^ `` Around the Nation ; 61 Arrested at Berkeley in Protest of Apartheid '' . The New York Times . AP . 1986 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ Schutt , Randy . `` A Powerful and Inspiring Campaign : A Short History of SCRIP 's Efforts to End Stanford University 's Support of South African Apartheid in 1977 '' . Vernal Education Project . 1998 - 02 - 03 . Jump up ^ D. ( pseudonym ) , Bob . `` Students Organize Against Stanford 's Investment Policy '' . Grapevine . Volume 5 , Number 6 . Palo Alto , Calif . June 1977 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ U.S. Senate Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs . ( 1985 ) . The Anti-Apartheid Act of 1985 . Washington : U.S. Government Printing Office . p. 213 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Columbia Senate Supports Selling South African Stocks Selectively '' . The New York Times . 1978 - 05 - 07 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ David Rosenberg ( 1978 - 06 - 08 ) . `` Trustees vote for divestiture from backers of S. African government '' . Columbia Spectator . p. 1 . Jump up ^ Mary Alice McDonaugh ( 1977 - 03 - 03 ) . `` 400 sign petition against offering Kissinger faculty post ; Anthony Lewis of the Times also blasts former Secretary '' . Columbia Spectator . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Demonstration at Columbia '' . New York Daily News . 1978 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Student Sit - in at Columbia '' . New York Post . 1978 - 05 - 02 -- via Getty Images . Jump up ^ `` Clark , Smith Decide to Divest '' . The Harvard Crimson . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Smith College Archives . `` College Hall Occupation Oral History Project '' . 5 College Archives and Manuscript Collections. Smith College Archives . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` AROUND THE NATION ; Smith College to End South Africa Investments '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : A CONFLICTED RELATIONSHIP : Harvard supported South Africa through investments , but partially divested under protest Archived 7 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . in Harvard Honors Nelson Mandela Archived 13 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine ... Adam A. Sofen and Alan E. Wirzbicki . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 8 June 2011 . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 09 . Jump up ^ White , Lauren ( 30 September 2016 ) . `` 1990 : Students Take Action to Protest Apartheid '' . Jump up ^ Milk , Harvey ( 2012 ) . The Harvey Milk Interviews : In His Own Words . Vince Emery Productions . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9725898 - 8 - 8 . , p. 328 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 22 March 2012 . Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 13 September 2015 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Press Conference ending visit to Zimbabwe '' , 30 March 1989 Jump up ^ British Foreign Secretaries Since 1974 , Kevin Theakston Routledge , 2004 , page 190 Jump up ^ `` Sir John Major : Margaret Thatcher 's government was wrong to oppose South Africa sanctions '' , The Independent , 10 December 2013 Jump up ^ Rothbard , Murray . `` The Crusade Against South Africa '' . Making Economic Sense . Chapter 90 . Auburn , AL : Mises Institute , 1995 . Online Edition , Accessed 19 November 2009 . External links ( edit ) African Activist Archive - more than 7,000 documents , posters , T - shirts , buttons , photos , video , and memories of activism in the U.S. to support the struggles of African peoples against apartheid , colonialism , and social injustice , 1950s - 1990s . Also includes a directory of African activist organizations across the U.S. Documenting the U.S. Solidarity Movement : With reflections on the sanctions and divestment campaigns U.S. Economic Involvement with Apartheid South Africa An Analysis of U.S. Disinvestment from South Africa : Unity , Rights , and Justice Black South African Opinion on Disinvestment The Crusade Against South Africa Inkatha Freedom Party - Inkatha and the disinvestment campaign Economy of South Africa By province Western Cape Gauteng Natural resources Mining industry Coal Agriculture Whaling Industry Automotive industry Services Banks Gambling Tourism Ecotourism LGBT tourism Telecommunications Nuclear power Power stations Economic history Mineral Revolution Witwatersrand Gold Rush Great Depression Disinvestment Affirmative action Black Economic Empowerment Broad - Based Black Economic Empowerment Qualifying Small Enterprises Scorecard Exempted Micro Enterprises Macroeconomics National Treasury Taxation South African rand Reserve Bank Consumer price index Provinces by HDI Misc . Trade unions Corruption Companies JSE Limited Traded companies Krugerrand Political history of South Africa Defunct polities Kingdom of Mapungubwe ( c. 1075 -- c. 1220 ) Dutch Cape Colony ( 1652 -- 1806 ) Mthethwa Paramountcy ( c. 1780 -- 1817 ) Ndwandwe Kingdom ( c. 1780 -- 1819 ) Cape Colony ( 1795 -- 1910 ) Zulu Kingdom ( 1816 -- 97 ) Natalia Republic ( 1839 -- 43 ) Natal Colony ( 1843 -- 1910 ) Orange Free State ( 1854 -- 1902 ) South African Republic ( 1856 -- 1902 ) Griqualand East ( 1861 -- 79 ) Griqualand West ( 1870 -- 73 ) Goshen ( 1882 -- 83 ) Stellaland ( 1882 -- 85 ) Nieuwe Republiek ( 1884 -- 88 ) Upingtonia ( 1885 -- 87 ) Klein Vrystaat ( 1886 -- 91 ) Orange River Colony ( 1902 -- 10 ) Transvaal Colony ( 1902 -- 10 ) Union of South Africa ( 1910 -- 61 ) Transkei ( 1976 -- 94 ) Bophuthatswana ( 1977 -- 94 ) Venda ( 1979 -- 94 ) Ciskei ( 1981 -- 94 ) Events 1652 -- 1815 Dutch settlement French Huguenot settlement Khoikhoi -- Dutch Wars Xhosa Wars Battle of Muizenberg Battle of Blaauwberg Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814 1815 -- 1910 Mfecane 1820 Settlers Great Trek Boer Republics Transvaal Civil War Mineral Revolution Witwatersrand Gold Rush South African Wars South Africa Act 1909 1910 -- 1948 Maritz Rebellion Rand Rebellion Great Depression 1946 African Mine Workers ' Union strike Bantustans Apartheid era 1948 general election Apartheid legislation Pass laws Internal resistance Coloured - vote constitutional crisis Defiance Campaign Congress of the People Freedom Charter Women 's March 1956 1957 Alexandra bus boycott Sharpeville massacre 1960 republic referendum International isolation Academic boycott Disinvestment Sporting boycott Olympics Rugby union Rivonia Trial Tar Baby Option Durban Moment Border War Israeli alliance Israel -- South Africa Agreement Soweto Uprising Weapons of mass destruction Project Coast Constructive engagement Church Street bombing 1983 constitutional reform referendum Langa massacre Rubicon speech Dakar Conference Third Force CODESA 1992 apartheid referendum Saint James Church massacre Bophuthatswana crisis Shell House massacre Post-apartheid 1994 general election Government of National Unity Reconstruction and Development Programme Truth and Reconciliation Commission Arms Deal Floor crossing Soweto bombings African Renaissance Xenophobia Marikana massacre 2012 Western Cape farm workers ' strike Nkandlagate 2014 platinum strike # RhodesMustFall protests # FeesMustFall student protests Tshwane riots Political culture African nationalism Afrikaner Calvinism Afrikaner nationalism Azania Baasskap Boerehaat Black Consciousness Movement Day of the Vow Greater South Africa Honorary whites Rooi gevaar Slavery Swart gevaar Uitlander Volkstaat Defunct organisations Civic and political organisations Afrikaner Bond Afrikaner Broederbond Afrikaner Party AITUP APO AVF BPC Black Sash CDA CTEG COD Congress Alliance COSG CP Dominion Party DP ( 1973 -- 1977 ) DP ( 1989 -- 2000 ) DPP ECC FA FD Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners GNP Het Volk HNP IDASA ID IP ISL Jeugkrag Johannesburg Reform Committee Labour Party ( 1910 -- 1958 ) Labour Party ( 1969 -- 1994 ) Liberal Party ( 1953 -- 1968 ) NA NCP Natal Indian Congress NLP NNP NP NPP NRP NUSAS PFP Progressive Party ( Cape Colony ) Progressive Party PRP Radio Freedom Reform Party SABP SADECO SAIC SASO SAYCO SAYRCO South African Party ( Cape Colony ) South African Party ( 1911 -- 1934 ) South African Party ( 1977 -- 1980 ) TNIP Torch Commando UFP United Party Unionist Party Volksparty Workers Party WOSA Trade unions and social movements APF BCM BLATU CNETU CTSWU FCWU FNETU FOSATU ICU IWW MUSA NEUM NURHS PAWE SAAPAWU SACTU SAIF SARHU SATUC Die Spoorbund UDF Umkosi Wezintaba Paramilitary and terrorist organisations APLA ARM BBB Boeremag Greyshirts MK Ossewabrandwag Orde van die Dood SANF Histories of political parties African National Congress Democratic Alliance Pan Africanist Congress of Azania Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinvestment_from_South_Africa&oldid=815033839 '' Categories : Boycotts of apartheid South Africa International sanctions South Africa -- United States relations Economy of South Africa Disinvestment Foreign trade of South Africa Investment in South Africa Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use dmy dates from September 2012 Use South African English from September 2012 All Wikipedia articles written in South African English All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 Library of Congress Africa Collection related Talk Contents About Wikipedia 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2017 , at 10 : 22 . 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Question: what was the divestment social movement in south africa


CLS group - wikipedia CLS group Jump to : navigation , search This article 's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia . See Wikipedia 's guide to writing better articles for suggestions . ( July 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) CLS Group Holdings AG Type Edge Act Corporation Industry Banking , financial services Founded 2002 Headquarters New York Area served Worldwide Website www.cls-group.com CLS ( originally Continuous Linked Settlement ) is a specialist US financial institution that provides settlement services to its members in the foreign exchange market ( FX ) . Although the forex market is decentralised and has no central exchange or clearing facility , firms that chose to use CLS to settle their FX transactions can mitigate the settlement risk associated with their trades . CLS does this through the operation of a payment versus payment ( PvP ) settlement service which mitigates settlement risk for the FX transactions of its settlement members and their customers ( third parties ) . The service started operating in 2002 as an Edge Act Corporation , a limited purpose bank regulated by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York . Since it began operations in 2002 , CLS has rapidly increased and by March 2017 was settling just over 50 % of global FX transactions . As a result , the Financial Stability Oversight Council ( FSOC ) officially designated CLS a Systemically Important Financial Market Utility in July 2012 . The single day record for value settled is US $11.11 trillion , set on 21 June 2017 . The single day record for volume settled is 2.58 million , set on 14 November 2016 . In 2002 , CLS was launched with 39 members and seven currencies . As of September 2017 , CLS settles 18 currencies , has 79 shareholders , 66 settlement members and 24,000 + third - party clients . Contents ( hide ) 1 Service 1.1 How it works 1.1. 1 In / Out Swaps 1.2 Currencies 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Service ( edit ) CLS operates a global multi-currency cash settlement system through which settlement risk can be mitigated with finality using a combination of PvP settlement over CLS central bank accounts , local real - time gross settlements systems ( RTGS ) and multilateral payment netting supported by a resilient infrastructure . In a PvP system both sides ' payment instructions for a FX transaction are settled simultaneously . Without PvP there is a serious risk that one party to a FX transaction will deliver the currency it owes , but not receive the other currency from its counterparty , resulting in the loss of principal . This is known as settlement risk , or `` Herstatt Risk '' , after the German bank , Bankhaus Herstatt , which collapsed in June 1974 leaving many of its FX counterparties with significant losses . How it works ( edit ) Following an FX transaction , Settlement Members submit payment instructions to CLS . These instructions are authenticated and matched by CLS and maintained by the system until settlement date . The CLS daily settlement cycle operates with settlement and funding occurring during a five - hour window when all real time gross settlement ( RTGS ) systems in the CLS settlement currency jurisdictions are open and able to make and receive payments . This enables simultaneous settlement of the payments on both sides of a FX transaction . Each Settlement Member holds a single multi-currency account with CLS . At the start and end of a normal settlement day , each Settlement Member has a zero balance on its account . Under normal operations of the settlement service , CLS starts and ends the day with a zero balance in its central bank accounts and in its Settlement Member accounts . Settlement Members may submit instructions relating to their own FX transactions as well as the FX transactions of their third party customers directly to CLS . CLS holds accounts with each of the central banks whose currencies it settles . On each settlement date , upon determining that the accounts of the submitting Settlement Members satisfy several risk management tests , CLS simultaneously settles each pair of matched payment instructions by making the corresponding debit and credit entries in the Settlement Members ' accounts at CLS . The settlement of the payment instructions and the associated payments are final and irrevocable . For example , ( GBP / USD = 1.50 , EUR / USD = 1.25 ) : By trades : Member 1 : Buys 1,000 GBP / USD from Member 2 Member 2 : Buys 1,000 EUR / USD from Member 3 Member 3 : Buys 1,000 GBP / USD from Member 1 By currency positions : Member 1 : Owes USD1500 and GBP1000 , collects USD1500 and GBP1000 Member 2 : Owes USD1250 and GBP1000 , collects EUR1000 and USD1500 Member 3 : Owes USD1500 and EUR1000 , collects USD1250 and GBP1000 CLS then multi-laterally nets the total obligations : Member 1 : Pays 0.0 and receives 0.0 Member 2 : Pays GBP1000 , and receives EUR1000 and USD250 Member 3 : Pays USD250 and EUR1000 , and receives GBP1000 These obligations are funded into and from each member 's respective multi-currency account . Another key element of the CLS Settlement Service is the liquidity efficiencies delivered through multilateral payment netting . On each day participants will very likely have more than one trade to settle -- in practice , major banks will have hundreds or thousands of trades each day . Each day prior to settlement , CLS calculates the funding required of each Settlement Member on a multilateral netted basis . The amount of cash required by CLS to settle all payment instructions is reduced , allowing each Settlement Member to transfer only the net amount of its payment obligations in each currency , rather than the total amount of each trade to be settled . On average , CLS netting efficiency is in the region of 96 percent . In / Out Swaps ( edit ) In addition to the usual settlement service , the In / Out Swap process is done before the settlement windows to reduce the payment obligations to CLS and to mitigate liquidity pressures . An In / Out Swap is an intraday swap consisting of two equal and opposite FX transactions that are agreed as an intraday swap . One of the `` legs '' is settled inside CLS in order to reduce each Settlement Member 's net position in the two relevant currencies . The other `` leg '' is settled outside CLS . The In / Out Swap further compresses payment obligation by an average of 75 % , which results in a funding requirement in CLS of less than 1 % of the total gross settlement value . Currencies ( edit ) CLS has expanded the number of currencies it settles over the years and currently settles the following currencies : Country / entity Symbol Currency Australia AUD Australian dollar Canada CAD Canadian dollar Denmark DKK Danish krone Eurozone EUR Euro Hong Kong HKD Hong Kong dollar Hungary HUF Hungarian forint Israel ILS Israeli new shekel Japan JPY Japanese yen Mexico MXN Mexican peso New Zealand NZD New Zealand dollar Norway NOK Norwegian krone Singapore SGD Singapore dollar South Africa ZAR South African rand South Korea KRW South Korean won Sweden SEK Swedish krona Switzerland CHF Swiss franc United Kingdom GBP Pound sterling United States USD United States dollar See also ( edit ) Clearing ( finance ) Bank for International Settlements delivery versus payment References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` BIS report '' ( PDF ) . BIS.org . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` About CLS '' . Cls-group.com . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Daily FX trade more like $3 trillion than 5 - CLS '' . CNBC . March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Financial Stability Oversight Council Makes First Designations in Effort to Protect Against Future Financial Crises '' . treasury.gov . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` CLS Bank settles new record value '' . CLS . March 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` CLS Settlement '' . Cls-group.com . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Bank Failures in Mature Economies '' . Bis.org . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` CLS Bank & the World of FX Settlement '' . Forex Magnates . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` In / Out Swaps '' . CLS . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` FX Week - CLS Pushes Transformation Agenda '' . FXWeek.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 01 . External links ( edit ) CLS website CLS Bank settles new record volume Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CLS_Group&oldid=800931084 '' Categories : Foreign exchange market Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing style editing from July 2012 All articles needing style editing Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Italiano עברית Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 16 September 2017 , at 16 : 26 . About Wikipedia

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Ratification - wikipedia Ratification Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ratification is a principal 's approval of an act of its agent that lacked the authority to bind the principal legally . Ratification defines the international act in which a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties intended to show their consent by such an act . In the case of bilateral treaties , ratification is usually accomplished by exchanging the requisite instruments , and in the case of multilateral treaties , the usual procedure is for the depositary to collect the ratifications of all states , keeping all parties informed of the situation . The institution of ratification grants states the necessary time - frame to seek the required approval for the treaty on the domestic level and to enact the necessary legislation to give domestic effect to that treaty . The term applies to private contract law , international treaties , and constitutions in federal states such as the United States and Canada . The term is also used in parliamentary procedure in deliberative assemblies . Contents ( hide ) 1 Private law 2 Ratification of an international treaty 2.1 India 2.2 United Kingdom 2.3 United States 2.4 Australia 2.5 Japan 3 Ratification of a constitution 3.1 Ratification in the Constitution of India 3.2 Ratification in the United States Constitution 4 Use in parliamentary procedure 5 See also 6 References Private law ( edit ) In contract law , the need for ratification can arise in two ways : if the agent attempts to bind the principal despite lacking the authority to do so ; and if the principal authorizes the agent to make an agreement , but reserves the right to approve it . An example of the former situation is an employee not normally responsible for procuring supplies contracting to do so on the employer 's behalf . The employer 's choice on discovering the contract is to ratify it or to repudiate it . The latter situation is common in trade union collective bargaining agreements . The union authorizes one or more people to negotiate and sign an agreement with management . A collective bargaining agreement can not become legally binding until the union members ratify the agreement . If they do not approve it , the agreement is void , and negotiations resume . Ratification of an international treaty ( edit ) Main article : Treaty See also : List of treaties by number of parties The ratification of international treaties is always accomplished by filing instruments of ratification as provided for in the treaty . In most democracies , the legislature authorizes the government to ratify treaties through standard legislative procedures by passing a bill . India ( edit ) Further information : Constitution of India The President of India makes a treaty in exercise of his executive power , on the aid and the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister , and no court of law in India may question its validity . The president is allowed to ratify , under Article 73 ( 1 ) ( b ) of the Constitution of India , but no agreement or treaty entered into by the president is enforceable by the courts , even on ratification by the Parliament of India , as India follows a dualist theory for the implementation of international laws . If the parliament wishes to codify the agreement entered into by the executive thereby making it enforceable by the courts of India , it may do so under Article 253 of the constitution . United kingdom ( edit ) Treaty ratification was a Royal Prerogative , exercised by Her Majesty on the advice of her Government . By a convention called the Ponsonby Rule , treaties were usually placed before parliament for 21 days before ratification . It was put onto a statutory footing by the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010 . United states ( edit ) Treaty power is a co-ordinated effort between the Executive branch and the Senate . The President may form and negotiate , but the treaty must be advised and consented to by a two - thirds vote in the Senate . Only after the Senate approves the treaty can the President ratify it . Once it is ratified , it becomes binding on all the states under the Supremacy Clause . While the House of Representatives does not vote on it at all , the requirement for the Senate 's advice and consent to ratification makes it considerably more difficult to rally enough political support for international treaties . Also , if implementation of the treaty requires the expenditure of funds , the House of Representatives may be able to block or at least impede such implementation by refusing to vote for the appropriation of the necessary funds . The President usually submits a treaty to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee ( SFRC ) along with an accompanying resolution of ratification or accession . If the treaty and resolution receive favorable committee consideration ( a committee vote in favor of ratification or accession ) , the treaty is then forwarded to the floor of the full Senate for such a vote . The treaty or legislation does not apply until it has been ratified . A multilateral agreement may provide that it will take effect upon its ratification by less than all of the signatories . Even though such a treaty takes effect , it does not apply to signatories that have not ratified it . Accession has the same legal effect as ratification , for treaties already negotiated and signed by other states . An example of a treaty to which the Senate did not advise and consent to ratification is the Treaty of Versailles , which failed to garner support because of the Covenant of the League of Nations . The US can also enter into international agreements by way of executive agreements . They are not made under the Treaty Clause and do not require ratification of two thirds of the Senate . Congressional - executive agreements are passed by a majority of both houses of Congress as a regular law . If the agreement is completely within the President 's constitutional powers , it can be made by the President alone without Congressional approval , but it will have the force of an executive order and can be unilaterally revoked by a future President . All types of agreements are treated internationally as `` treaties '' . See Foreign policy of the United States # Law . Australia ( edit ) In Australia , power to enter into treaties is an executive power within Section 51 of the Australian Constitution so the Australian Government may enter into a binding treaty without seeking parliamentary approval . However , implementation of treaties requires legislation by the Australian parliament , following Section 51 ( xxix ) of the Australian Constitution , signed by the Governor - General of Australia . Japan ( edit ) In Japan , in principle both houses of the parliament ( the National Diet ) must approve the treaty for ratification . If the House of Councilors rejects a treaty approved by the House of Representatives , and a joint committee of both houses can not come to agreement on amendments to the original text of the treaty , or the House of Councilors fails to decide on a treaty for more than thirty days , the House of Representatives the will be regarded as the vote of the National Diet approving the ratification . The approved treaty will then be promulgated into law by the act of the Emperor . Ratification of a Constitution ( edit ) Federations usually require the support of both the federal government and some given percentage of the constituent governments for amendments to the federal constitution to take effect . Ratification in the Constitution of India ( edit ) Further information : Amendment of the Constitution of India Not all constitutional amendments in India require ratification by the states . Only constitutional amendments that seek to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368 of the Constitution of India , must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States . These provisions relate to certain matters concerning the federal structure or of common interest to both the Union and the States viz. , the election of the President ( articles 54 and 55 ) ; the extent of the executive power of the Union and the States ( articles 73 and 162 ) ; the High Courts for Union territories ( article 241 ) ; The Union Judiciary and the High Courts in the States ( Chapter IV of Part V and Chapter V of Part VI ) ; the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States ( Chapter I of Part XI and Seventh Schedule ) ; the representation of States in Parliament ; and the provision for amendment of the Constitution laid down in article 368 . Ratification is done by a resolution passed by the State Legislatures . There is no specific time limit for the ratification of an amending Bill by the State Legislatures . However , the resolutions ratifying the proposed amendment must be passed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent . Ratification in the United states Constitution ( edit ) Main article : History of the United States Constitution Article Seven of the constitution of the United States describes the process by which the entire document was to become effective . It required that conventions of nine of the thirteen original States ratify the constitution . If fewer than thirteen states ratified the document , it would become effective only among the states ratifying it . New Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify , doing so on June 21 , 1788 , but , as a practical matter , it was decided to delay implementation of the new government until New York and Virginia could be persuaded to ratify . Congress intended that New York City should be the first capital , and that George Washington , of Mount Vernon , Virginia , should be the first President , and both of those things would have been somewhat awkward if either New York or Virginia were not part of the new government . Ratification by those states was secured - Virginia on June 25 and New York on July 26 - and the government under the Constitution began on March 4 , 1789 . For subsequent amendments , Article Five describes the process of a potential amendment 's adoption . Proposals to adopt an amendment may be called either by a two - thirds vote by both houses of Congress or by a national convention as a result of resolutions adopted by two - thirds ( presently at least 34 out of 50 ) of the states ' legislatures . For an amendment to be adopted , three - quarters of the states ( presently at least 38 out of 50 ) must ratify the amendment either by a vote of approval in each state 's legislature or by state ratifying conventions -- Congress may specify which method must be used to ratify the amendment . Congress may also set a deadline by which the threshold for adoption must be met . Use in parliamentary procedure ( edit ) A deliberative assembly , using parliamentary procedure , could ratify action that otherwise was not validly taken . For example , action taken where there was no quorum at the meeting is not valid until it is later ratified at a meeting where a quorum is present . See also ( edit ) Constitutional amendment Veto Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties References ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://treaties.un.org/pages/Overview.aspx?path=overview/glossary/page1_en.xml#ratification Jump up ^ Robert , Henry M. ( 2011 ) . Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised , 11th ed. , p. 124 - 125 Jump up ^ `` Glossary of terms relating to Treaty actions '' . United Nations . Jump up ^ An example for such a treaty can be seen in the Convention on Cluster Munitions , which enters into force as soon as it has been ratified by at least 30 states ( Article 17 ) . Jump up ^ United Nations Treaty Collection , Treaty Reference Guide ( 1999 ) Jump up ^ `` Constitution Amendment : Nature and Scope of the Amending Process '' ( PDF ) . Lok Sabha Secretariat . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 3 December 2013 . Retrieved 1 December 2013 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ U.S. Const . art . VII . Jump up ^ Robert , Henry M. ( 2011 ) . Robert 's Rules of Order Newly Revised , 11th ed. , p. 124 GND : 4197285 - 5 NDL : 00575060 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ratification&oldid=837342756 '' Categories : Democracy Constitutional law Criminal law Statutory law Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from October 2009 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Basa Jawa Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 30 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2018 , at 06 : 52 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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Question: who is in charge of ratifying treaties in the us


Tami Lynn - wikipedia Tami Lynn Jump to : navigation , search Tami Lynn Also known as Tamiya Lynn 1942 ( age 75 -- 76 ) Gert Town , New Orleans , Louisiana , United States Years active 1965 -- present Labels Mojo Records , Atlantic Records Tami Lynn ( born 1942 , Gert Town , New Orleans , Louisiana , United States ) is an American soul singer . She scored a Top Ten hit on the UK Singles Chart in 1971 , with the song `` I 'm Gonna Run Away From You '' . Biography ( edit ) Lynn was discovered by Jerry Wexler in 1965 after hearing her sing at a talent show . Wexler had her record the Bert Berns penned and produced song , `` I 'm Gonna Run Away From You '' , for Atco Records , but the song was not released at the time , although it was released in the UK on Atlantic , AT. 4071 . She then sang backup for musicians such as The Rolling Stones ( backing vocalist on Exile on Main St . ) , Dr. John , Wilson Pickett , and Sonny & Cher . In 1971 , `` I 'm Gonna Run Away From You '' was released as a single , with `` The Boy Next Door '' as the b - side , on Mojo and Atlantic , where it became a hit in the UK among devotees of Northern soul . The tune hit number 4 in the UK Singles Chart in 1971 . A full - length album , Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone , followed in 1972 , produced by John Abbey . `` I 'm Gonna Run Away From You '' returned to the UK chart in 1975 after being reissued , hitting number 36 the second time around . Another album was the 1992 CD , Tamiya Lynn . Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone was reissued on CD in 2005 , by DBK Works . Discography ( edit ) Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone ( 1972 , reissued 2005 ) Tamiya Lynn ( 1992 ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ ( 1 ) ^ Jump up to : Roberts , David ( 2006 ) . British Hit Singles & Albums ( 19th ed . ) . London : Guinness World Records Limited . p. 334 . ISBN 1 - 904994 - 10 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dusted Reviews : Tami Lynn - Love Is Here And Now You 're Gone '' . Dustedmagazine.com. 2006 - 01 - 05 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` Home of the Groove : Tami Lynn 's Unlikely Hit Had A Funky Flip '' . Homeofthegroove.blogspot.com. 2008 - 02 - 23 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone - Tami Lynn , Tamiya Lynn : Releases '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 30 . MusicBrainz : b92e2ed6 - 9c1c - 470c - b6d1 - 298159ed878d Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tami_Lynn&oldid=823926891 '' Categories : 1942 births Living people American soul singers American female singers R&B musicians from New Orleans Atlantic Records artists Singers from Louisiana Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2013 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 4 February 2018 , at 07 : 33 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: who sang i'm gonna run away from you


Fluid compartments - wikipedia Fluid compartments Jump to : navigation , search `` Third space '' redirects here . For the concept of informal shared public space in community planning , see Third place . The human body and even its individual body fluids may be conceptually divided into various fluid compartments , which , although not literally anatomic compartments , do represent a real division in terms of how portions of the body 's water , solutes , and suspended elements are segregated . The two main fluid compartments are the intracellular and extracellular compartments . The intracellular compartment is the space within the organism 's cells ; it is separated from the extracellular compartment by cell membranes . About two thirds of the total body water of humans is held in the cells , mostly in the cytosol , and the remainder is found in the extracellular compartment . The extracellular fluids may be divided into three types : interstitial fluid in the `` interstitial compartment '' ( surrounding tissue cells and bathing them in a solution of nutrients and other chemicals ) , blood plasma and lymph in the `` intravascular compartment '' ( inside the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels ) , and small amounts of transcellular fluid such as ocular and cerebrospinal fluids in the `` transcellular compartment '' . The interstitial and intravascular compartments readily exchange water and solutes but the third extracellular compartment , the transcellular , is thought of as separate from the other two and not in dynamic equilibrium with them . Contents ( hide ) 1 Intracellular compartment 2 Extracellular compartment 2.1 Interstitial compartment 2.2 Intravascular compartment 2.3 Transcellular compartment 3 Fluid shift 3.1 Third spacing 4 See also 5 References Intracellular compartment ( edit ) The intracellular fluid is all fluid contained inside the cells . Most of this is cytosol , the matrix in which cellular organelles are suspended . The cytosol and organelles together compose the cytoplasm . The cell membranes are the outer barrier . In humans , the intracellular compartment contains on average about 28 litres of fluid , and under ordinary circumstances remains in osmotic equilibrium . It contains moderate quantities of magnesium and sulphate ions . Extracellular compartment ( edit ) The interstitial , intravascular and transcellular compartments comprise the extracellular compartment . Its extracellular fluid ( ECF ) contains about one - third of total body water . Interstitial compartment ( edit ) The interstitial compartment ( also called `` tissue space '' ) surrounds tissue cells . It is filled with interstitial fluid . Interstitial fluid provides the immediate microenvironment that allows for movement of ions , proteins and nutrients across the cell barrier . This fluid is not static , but is continually being refreshed by the blood capillaries and recollected by lymphatic capillaries . In the average male ( 70 kg ) human body , the interstitial space has approximately 10.5 litres of fluid . Intravascular compartment ( edit ) The main intravascular fluid in mammals is blood , a complex mixture with elements of a suspension ( blood cells ) , colloid ( globulins ) , and solutes ( glucose and ions ) . The blood represents both the intracellular compartment ( the fluid inside the blood cells ) and the extracellular compartment ( the blood plasma ) . The other intravascular fluid is lymph . It too represents both the intracellular compartment ( the fluid inside its lymphocytes ) and the extracellular compartment ( the noncellular matrix of the lymph , which is roughly equivalent to serum ) . The average volume of plasma in the average ( 70 kg ) male is approximately 3.5 liters . The volume of the intravascular compartment is regulated in part by hydrostatic pressure gradients , and by reabsorption by the kidneys . Transcellular compartment ( edit ) The third extracellular compartment , the transcellular , consists of those spaces in the body where fluid does not normally collect in larger amounts , or where any significant fluid collection is physiologically nonfunctional . Examples of transcellular spaces include the eye , the central nervous system , the peritoneal and pleural cavities , and the joint capsules . A small amount of fluid , called transcellular fluid , does exist normally in such spaces . For example , the aqueous humor , the vitreous humor , the cerebrospinal fluid , the serous fluid produced by the serous membranes , and the synovial fluid produced by the synovial membranes are all transcellular fluids . They are all very important , yet there is not much of each . For example , there is only about 150 mL of cerebrospinal fluid in the entire central nervous system at any moment . All of the aforementioned fluids are produced by active cellular processes working with blood plasma as the raw material , and they are all more or less similar to blood plasma except for certain modifications tailored to their function . For example , the cerebrospinal fluid is made by various cells of the CNS , mostly the ependymal cells , from blood plasma . Fluid shift ( edit ) Fluid shifts occur when the body 's fluids move between the fluid compartments . Physiologically , this occurs by a combination of hydrostatic pressure gradients and osmotic pressure gradients . Water will move from one space into the next passively across a semi permeable membrane until the hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients balance each other . Many medical conditions can cause fluid shifts . When fluid moves out of the intravascular compartment ( the blood vessels ) , blood pressure can drop to dangerously low levels , endangering critical organs such as the brain , heart and kidneys ; when it shifts out of the cells ( the intracellular compartment ) , cellular processes slow down or cease from intracellular dehydration ; when excessive fluid accumulates in the interstitial space , oedema develops ; and fluid shifts into the brain cells can cause increased cranial pressure . Fluid shifts may be compensated by fluid replacement or diuretics . Third spacing ( edit ) `` Third spacing '' is the abnormal accumulation of fluid into an extracellular and extravascular space . In medicine , the term is often used with regard to loss of fluid into interstitial spaces , such as with burns or edema , but it can also refer to fluid shifts into a body cavity ( transcellular space ) , such as ascites and pleural effusions . With regard to severe burns , fluids may pool on the burn site ( i.e. fluid lying outside of the interstitial tissue , exposed to evaporation ) and cause depletion of the fluids . With pancreatitis or ileus , fluids may `` leak out '' into the peritoneal cavity , also causing depletion of the intracellular , interstitial or vascular compartments . Patients who undergo long , difficult operations in large surgical fields can collect third - space fluids and become intravascularly depleted despite large volumes of intravenous fluid and blood replacement . The precise volume of fluid in a patient 's third spaces changes over time and is difficult to accurately quantify . Third spacing conditions may include peritonitis , pyometritis , and pleural effusions . Hydrocephalus and glaucoma are theoretically forms of third spacing , but the volumes are too small to induce significant shifts in blood volumes , or overall body volumes , and thus are generally not referred to as third spacing . See also ( edit ) Volume of distribution Compartment ( pharmacokinetics ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Rodney A. Rhoades ; David R. Bell ( 18 January 2012 ) . Medical Phisiology : Principles for Clinical Medicine . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . pp. 5 -- 6 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60913 - 427 - 3 . Jump up ^ Jacob M , Chappell D , Rehm M ( 2009 ) . `` The ' third space ' -- fact or fiction ? '' . Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 23 ( 2 ) : 145 -- 57 . PMID 19653435 . Jump up ^ Barbara Kuhn Timby ( 1 January 2008 ) . Fundamental Nursing Skills and Concepts . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . pp. 319 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7817 - 7909 - 8 . Retrieved 9 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Redden M , Wotton K ( June 2002 ) . `` Third - space fluid shift in elderly patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery : Part 1 : Pathophysiological mechanisms '' . Contemp Nurse. 12 ( 3 ) : 275 -- 83 . PMID 12219956 . Jump up ^ Drain , Cecil B. ( 2003 ) . Perianesthesia nursing : a critical care approach . Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders Co . ISBN 0 - 7216 - 9257 - 5 . ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE THERAPY '' . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 08 . ( hide ) Physiology of the kidneys and acid - base physiology Renal function Secretion clearance Pharmacokinetics Clearance of medications Urine flow rate Reabsorption Solvent drag sodium chloride urea glucose oligopeptides protein Renal function Glomerular filtration rate Creatinine clearance Renal clearance ratio Urea reduction ratio Kt / V Standardized Kt / V Measures of dialysis Hemodialysis product PAH clearance ( Effective renal plasma flow Extraction ratio ) Filtration Renal blood flow Ultrafiltration Countercurrent exchange Filtration fraction Hormones Antidiuretic hormone Aldosterone Atrial natriuretic peptide Renin Erythropoietin Calcitriol Prostaglandins Acid - base balance Fluid balance Darrow Yannet diagram Body water : Intracellular fluid / Cytosol Extracellular fluid ( Interstitial fluid Plasma Transcellular fluid ) Base excess Davenport diagram Anion gap Arterial blood gas Winters ' formula Buffering Bicarbonate buffer system Respiratory compensation Renal compensation Other Fractional sodium excretion BUN - to - creatinine ratio Tubuloglomerular feedback Natriuresis Urine Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluid_compartments&oldid=800654672 '' Categories : Physiology Cell biology Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bosanski Edit links This page was last edited on 14 September 2017 , at 21 : 47 . 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Question: what are the two extracellular fluid compartments in the body

interstitial fluid in the "interstitial compartment"