Nodar Kumaritashvili - wikipedia Nodar Kumaritashvili Jump to : navigation , search Nodar Kumaritashvili Nodar Kumaritashvili , official IOC picture Full name Nodar Kumaritashvili ( ნოდარ ქუმარიტაშვილი ) Nationality Georgian ( 1988 - 11 - 25 ) 25 November 1988 Borjomi , Georgian SSR , Soviet Union 12 February 2010 ( 2010 - 02 - 12 ) ( aged 21 ) Whistler , British Columbia , Canada Residence Bakuriani , Georgia Education Georgian Technical University Height 1.79 m ( 5 ft 10 ⁄ in ) Weight 80 kg ( 176 lb ) Sport Country Georgia Sport Luge Turned pro 2008 Nodar Kumaritashvili ( Georgian : ნოდარ ქუმარიტაშვილი ; pronounced ( nɔdar khumaritʼaʃvili ) ; 25 November 1988 -- 12 February 2010 ) was a Georgian one - man luger who suffered a fatal crash during a training run for the 2010 Winter Olympics competition in Whistler , British Columbia , Canada , on the day of the opening ceremony . He became the fourth athlete to die during preparations for a Winter Olympics , and the seventh athlete to die in either a Summer or Winter Olympic Games . Kumaritashvili , who first began to participate in luge when he was 13 , came from a family of seasoned lugers : his grandfather had introduced the sport to the Soviet republic of Georgia , and both his father and uncle had competed when they were younger , with his uncle later serving as the head of the Georgian Luge Federation . Kumaritashvili himself began competing in the 2008 -- 09 Luge World Cup . He had also been a student at the Georgian Technical University , where he earned an economics degree in 2009 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Life and career 2 Olympic luge track 3 Accident and death 3.1 Mourning 3.2 Emergency safety measures 3.3 International Luge Federation report 3.4 Coroner 's report 3.5 Mont Hubbard report 4 See also 5 Notes 6 External links Life and career ( edit ) Kumaritashvili was born on 25 November 1988 , in Borjomi , Georgian SSR , present - day Georgia , to David and Dodo Kumaritashvili . He had one sister , Mariam , who was four years younger . Kumaritashvili 's family had a long association with luge . His grandfather Aleko Kumaritashvili introduced luge to Georgia after first training for it in East Germany . Aleko helped build a primitive luge run in Bakuriani in 1970 ; a more finished track , funded by the Soviet authorities , was built in 1973 . Kumaritashvili 's uncle and coach , Felix Kumaritashvili , served as the head of the Georgian Luge Federation , and his father , David , won a USSR Youth Championship when Georgia was part of the Soviet Union , and was a three - time champion at the Spartakiad , once in two - man bobsled and twice in luge . Kumaritashvili grew up in nearby Bakuriani , which is known for its many ski slopes . He enjoyed several winter sports and started luge when he was 13 years old . While attending the Georgian Technical University , where he graduated with a bachelor 's degree in economics in 2009 , Kumaritashvili maintained a rigorous training and competition schedule . Though his family endured economic hardship , Kumaritashvili attended as many luge events as he could , often driving for days to reach World Cup events . As a devout member of the Georgian Orthodox Church , he prayed at church before every competition . During his first season of competition , Kumaritashvili finished 55th out of 62 competitors at the 2008 -- 09 Luge World Cup , where he was entered in four races . He finished 28th out of 32 competitors at the 2009 -- 10 Luge World Cup event at Cesana Pariol in January , which was his fifth and last World Cup event . At the time of his death , he was ranked 44th out of 65 competitors in the 2009 -- 10 World Cup season and was regarded as one of the best lugers to come from Georgia . By 31 December 2009 , the cut - off date for luge qualifications for the Olympics , Kumaritashvili was ranked 38th overall . He qualified for the luge men 's singles event at the 2010 Winter Olympics , his Olympic debut , by racing in five World Cup races over two years . Olympic luge track ( edit ) The venue for the Olympic luge competition , the Whistler Sliding Centre , was designed by Udo Gurgel and his firm , Ingenieurburo Gurgel ( IBG ) of Leipzig , with the final version produced on October 23 , 2004 . Using the specified track dimensions for a variety of sled entrance and exit trajectories , IBG calculated the speeds and G forces along each curve of the track . The new curve configurations , rather than the speed , were expected to provide the main challenge . The maximum calculated speed for men 's luge was 136.3 km / h ( 84.7 mph ) . In February 2005 , concerns arose regarding the difficulties posed by Cesana Pariol , the track built for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy . Several serious crashes occurred , prompting calls for physical modifications to that track . The International Luge Federation ( FIL ) was concerned that similar modifications might be required at the Whistler track and communicated these concerns to the Vancouver Organizing Committee ( VANOC ) in March 2005 . Uncertainty about the track design persisted into 2006 until the scheduled start of track construction , when it was determined that construction would be based on the original design . After construction , during the track homologation ( certification ) process , the track produced speeds exceeding the design calculations by at least 10 km / h ( 6.2 mph ) . Following the Olympic test event in February 2009 , Josef Fendt , president of FIL , sent a letter to IBG expressing surprise that a record speed of 153.937 km / h ( 95.652 mph ) had been reached , concluding that the designer 's calculations were incorrect , and stating that the high speed `` makes me worry . '' The letter also said that `` overstepping this limit would be an absolute unreasonable demand for the athletes . '' He asked IBG to respond , in particular with regard to the future Sochi Olympic track . Fendt also informed VANOC that the Whistler track was not supplied as ordered . VANOC , however , concluded that no action was required regarding the Whistler track , since the focus of Fendt 's letter to IBG was the new Sochi track . In April 2009 , IBG explained that the differences between the calculated and actual observed speeds were caused by new sled technology that reduced drag coefficients and ice friction coefficients . Because of the secrecy inherent in sled development , the IBG engineers had difficulty obtaining the latest sled specifications required for their engineering calculations . In the view of the Games organizers , the high speeds and technical challenges could be safely mitigated by imposing additional practice and graduated training requirements on the athletes . Accident and death ( edit ) Spectators at the Whistler Sliding Centre look down the track as sliders pass the point where Kumaritashvili crashed . On 12 February 2010 , after 25 previous attempts , 15 of them from the men 's start , Kumaritashvili was fatally injured in a crash during his final training run , after losing control in the penultimate turn of the course . He was thrown off his luge and over the sidewall of the track , striking an unprotected steel support pole at the end of the run . He was travelling 143.6 km / h ( 89.2 mph ) at the moment of impact . Medics were at Kumaritashvili 's side immediately after the crash . Both cardio - pulmonary and mouth - to - mouth resuscitation were performed . He was airlifted to a Whistler hospital , where he died of his injuries . It was luge 's first fatality since 10 December 1975 , when an Italian luger had been killed . Kumaritashvili became the fourth athlete to die during preparations for a Winter Olympics , after British luger Kazimierz Kay - Skrzypeski and Australian skier Ross Milne ( both 1964 Innsbruck ) , and Swiss speed skier Nicolas Bochatay ( 1992 Albertville ) . He was also the seventh athlete to die in either a Summer or Winter Olympic Games . Mourning ( edit ) After footage of Kumaritashvili 's death was televised , there was shock and mourning in Georgia . In response to the accident , the Georgian team announced that it would consider skipping the opening ceremonies or withdrawing from the games entirely , but Nika Rurua , the Georgian minister for sports and culture , later announced the team would stay in Vancouver and `` dedicate their efforts to their fallen comrade '' . During the opening ceremony , the seven remaining members of the Georgian Olympic team wore black armbands , bore the Georgian flag with a black ribbon tied to it , and left a space vacant in the procession , as marks of respect . Upon entering BC Place Stadium , the Georgian team was greeted with a standing ovation from the assembled crowd . The team left the stadium immediately after the procession . Georgian athletes during the opening ceremony Later , during the opening ceremonies , a moment of silence was held to honour Kumaritashvili 's memory , and both the Canadian and Olympic flags were lowered to half - staff . Fellow teammate and luger Levan Gureshidze , who was to compete with Kumaritashvili , withdrew after the crash , telling teammates that he `` could n't go on '' , and went home to attend the funeral . The lugers who stayed to compete all wore a black stripe on their helmets in honour of Kumaritashvili . Early in the morning of 17 February 2010 , Kumaritashvili 's body arrived in Tbilisi . It reached his hometown of Bakuriani later that day . Thousands of Georgians attended a funeral feast for him on 19 February , and he was buried on Saturday , 20 February , at the church he had attended . Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili attended the funeral service dressed in a Georgian Olympic uniform . In Bakuriani , the street of Kumaritashvili 's childhood home was renamed in his honour . Felix Loch of Germany , who won the gold medal in luge at the Vancouver Olympics , had his medal melted down and refashioned into two disks , giving one , etched with an image of Kumaritashvili and the years of his birth and death , to Kumaritashvili 's parents . In spite of several donations of money to the Kumaritashvili family , the tragedy was hard on them ; twice in the years afterwards Dodo , who continued to fix a meal for Kumaritashvili every day , tried to kill herself , while David dealt with severe health problems resulting in multiple hospital stays . Emergency safety measures ( edit ) The wall that was installed just past the final turn of the Whistler Sliding Centre after the death of Kumaritashvili The FIL stated that Kumaritashvili 's death `` was not caused by an unsafe track '' , but as a preventive measure , the walls at the exit of curve 16 were raised , and the ice profile was adjusted . Padding was also added to exposed metal beams near the finish line . Olympic officials claimed the changes were `` not for safety reasons but to accommodate the emotional state of the lugers '' . In addition , the start of the men 's luge was moved to the women 's starting point , to reduce speed , while the start of the women 's luge was also moved farther down the track . Training runs on the track resumed on 13 February , after the changes to the track were finished . Three lugers , including the departed Gureshidze , did not participate in any training runs on that day . International luge Federation report ( edit ) On 19 April 2010 , the FIL published its final report to the International Olympic Committee on Kumaritashvili 's death . The report found that the sled used by Kumaritashvili had met all FIL standards . It attributed the accident to `` driving errors starting in curve 15 / 16 which as an accumulation ended in the impact that resulted in him leaving the track and subsequently hitting a post ... This is a tragic result that should not have occurred as a result of an initial driving error '' . As the sled hit the wall at the curve - 16 exit , it catapulted off the track , causing Kumaritashvili to lose control of it entirely . This was a type of accident not seen before , and therefore `` ( w ) ith the unknown and unpredictable dynamics of this crash , the calculation and construction of the walls in that section of the track did not serve to prevent the tragedy that happened '' . However , the report also determined that during the homologation process and later sessions at the Whistler Sliding Centre , the track was faster than originally calculated . Instead of the expected 136 km / h ( 85 mph ) , the highest speed recorded was 153.98 km / h ( 95.68 mph ) . The FIL felt that luge athletes were able to cope with this speed , but `` this was not a direction the FIL would like to see the sport head ( in ) '' . FIL President Fendt wrote to the Sochi 2014 Olympic Organizing Committee that the FIL would homologize the proposed Sochi track only if speeds did not exceed 130 to 135 km / h ( 81 to 84 mph ) . The FIL also said it was `` determined '' to do what it could to prevent such accidents from occurring again . It would re-examine changes to the sport , sled design , and track technology . FIL Secretary General Svein Romstad summarized : `` What happened to Nodar has been an unforeseeable fatal accident '' . Coroner 's report ( edit ) Kumaritashvili memorial , Whistler , 2010 The British Columbia coroner 's office investigated the incident . It was reported to be considering , among other pieces of evidence , written complaints about the safety of the Whistler track by Venezuelan luger Werner Hoeger -- who crashed on the track on 13 November 2009 , suffering a severe concussion -- and information suggesting that the track was constructed in such a narrow and steep location , near the Whistler and Blackcomb mountains , for commercial reasons . The track designer , Udo Gurgel , said : `` The track had to be near Whistler , for use after the Olympics . You do n't want to ruin an investment so the track is on terrain that 's a little steep . '' According to John Furlong , the chief executive of the 2010 Winter Olympics organizing committee , proposals to build the sliding centre on Grouse Mountain near Vancouver were rejected early in the bid phase due to reservations expressed by the international luge , and the bobsled and skeleton , federations . In a report dated 16 September 2010 , the coroner ruled Kumaritashvili 's death an accident brought on by an `` interaction of factors '' , including the high speed of the track , its technical difficulty , and the athlete 's relative unfamiliarity with the track . He wrote that during Kumaritashvili 's training runs , it was reasonable to assume that `` Mr. Kumaritashvili was sliding faster than ever before in his life , and was attempting to go even faster , while simultaneously struggling to learn the intricacies of the track and the dynamics it created '' . The coroner accepted that luging would always carry an element of risk and that the best practices known at the time had been followed in the construction of the Whistler track . He also called upon the FIL to require athletes to engage in more mandatory training sessions prior to the Olympic Games and other major competitions . 2010 Georgian postal stamp commemorating Kumaritashvili The coroner also commented , `` The organizers , regulatory bodies and venue owners must ensure that no effort is spared to anticipate the unforeseeable as far as safety is concerned , '' and to `` err on the side of caution , insisting on more , rather than less . '' Responding to the report , Kumaritashvili 's father said : `` I do n't accept the statement about Nodar 's lack of experience . He would n't have won the right to take part in the Olympics if he lacked experience . '' Mont Hubbard report ( edit ) In 2013 , Mont Hubbard , a University of California , Davis , mechanical and aerospace professor , issued a report claiming that Kumaritashvili 's crash was probably caused by a `` fillet '' , a joint between the lower edge of the curve and a vertical wall . Hubbard suggested that the right runner of Kumaritashvili 's sled rose up the fillet , launching him into the air . Terry Gudzowsky , the president of ISC / IBG Group , a consortium involved in the construction of the Whistler track , dismissed Hubbard 's theory as `` flawed '' , stating that the data to replicate the ice surface at the site of the accident in three dimensions do not exist . The luge track built for use at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia , was designed with two uphill sections to reduce speeds , and for runs about 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) slower than the Whistler track . See also ( edit ) Lists of sportspeople who died during their careers Sergei Chalibashvili Biography portal Georgia ( country ) portal Olympics portal Sports portal Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Borden , Sam ( 1 February 2014 ) . `` A Swift and Fatal Luge Plunge , and Then an Abyss of Sorrow '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 5 August 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Aivazov , Shakh ( 18 February 2010 ) . `` Olympic Photos : Wednesday February 18th , 2010 '' . Macleans.ca . Archived from the original on 1 November 2010 . Retrieved 1 January 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Potter , Mitch ( 28 March 2010 ) . `` Georgian hamlet grieves for son lost at Olympics '' . The Toronto Star . Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Liu Lihang ( 21 February 2010 ) . `` Georgian town in deepmourning for Olympic luger Nodar Kumaritashvili '' . en.Olympic.cn . Archived from the original on 10 March 2012 . Retrieved 1 January 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Wolff , Alexander ( 10 February 2014 ) . `` On the Edge '' . Sports Illustrated . Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Lomsadze , Giorgi ( 16 February 2010 ) . `` Georgia : Olympic luger Nodar Kumaritashvili 's hometown mourns his death '' . EurasiaNet.org . Archived from the original on 23 February 2010 . Retrieved 27 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Associated Press ( 15 February 2010 ) . `` Georgian luger told dad ' I will either win or die ' '' . Denver Post . Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Official Report to the International Olympic Committee on the accident of Georgian Athlete Nodar Kumaritashvili at Whistler Sliding Center , Canada on February 12 , 2010 , during official luge training for the XXI . Olympic Winter Games ( FIL Report ) ( PDF ) , International Luge Federation , 19 April 2010 , p. 3 , archived ( PDF ) from the original on 15 September 2017 , retrieved 15 September 2017 ^ Jump up to : FIL Report , p. 9 Jump up ^ Baldwin , Alan ( 12 February 2010 ) . `` Dead Georgian just wanted to live his dreams '' . Reuters.com . Retrieved 1 January 2011 . Jump up ^ FIL Report , pp. 9 -- 10 ^ Jump up to : Jacquelin Magnay ( 20 February 2010 ) . `` Officials accused on being forewarned of luge danger '' . The Daily Telegraph ( Sport ) . London . Archived from the original on 22 February 2010 . Retrieved 20 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` IBG + Partner '' . Retrieved February 3 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Pawlowski , Tom ( 16 September 2010 ) , Coroner 's Report into the Death of Kumaritashvili Nodar of Bakuriani , Georgia ( PDF ) , Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General , British Columbia , p. 8 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 19 October 2010 , retrieved 1 January 2018 Jump up ^ Branch , John ( 10 February 2010 ) . `` Tempting fate at the Winter Games '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 18 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Coroner 's Report , p. 10 Jump up ^ Coroner 's Report , p. 11 ^ Jump up to : Longman , Jeré ( 14 February 2010 ) . `` Quick to Blame in Luge , and Showing No Shame '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 . Retrieved 1 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Branch , John ; Abrams , Jonathan ( 12 February 2010 ) . `` Luge Athlete 's Death Casts Pall Over Games '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 September 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kumaritashvili killed in luge training '' . ESPN . 24 December 2010 . Archived from the original on 30 January 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Bondy , Filip ; Nathaniel Vinton ( 12 February 2010 ) . `` Olympic luger Nodar Kumaritashvili from Georgia is killed after horrific training crash '' . New York Daily News . Archived from the original on 15 February 2010 . Retrieved 13 February 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Telegraph Staff ( 13 February 2010 ) . `` Winter Olympics 2010 : Georgia mourns loss of luger Nodar Kumaritashvili '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Luge : Luge start moved as officials defend Whistler Sliding track '' . Vancouver2010.com. 13 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 14 February 2010 . Retrieved 13 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Alex Sundby ( 12 February 2010 ) . `` Athlete deaths rare during Olympics '' . CBS News . Retrieved 12 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Bell , Terry ; Lee , Jeff ( 13 February 2010 ) . `` Slider 's death sparks track probe '' . The Gazette . Montreal . Archived from the original on 19 August 2017 . Retrieved 19 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Georgian team wears black during opening ceremony '' . english.Pravda.ru. 13 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 6 October 2012 . Retrieved 1 January 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Chadband , Ian ( 13 February 2010 ) . `` Winter Olympics 2010 : Nodar Kumaritashvili 's death overshadows opening ceremony '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Associated Press ( 14 February 2010 ) . `` Olympians slide with heavy hearts '' . ESPN . Archived from the original on 3 January 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Olympic luger 's body returned from Vancouver to Georgia '' . BBC.co.uk. 17 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 17 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Georgian luger killed at Olympics practice run laid to rest '' . CNN . 20 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 23 February 2010 . Retrieved 21 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Associated Press ( 17 February 2010 ) . `` Luger 's mother overwhelmed by grief '' . ESPN . Archived from the original on 19 February 2010 . Retrieved 18 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Magnay , Jacquelin ( 19 April 2010 ) . `` Nodar Kumaritashvili 's Winter Olympic luge death blamed on ' driving errors ' '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 18 September 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Russo , Michael ( 14 February 2010 ) . `` No longer a fast track '' . Star Tribune . Minneapolis , Minnesota . Archived from the original on 19 February 2010 . Retrieved 6 January 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Joint VANOC -- FIL Statement on Men 's Luge Competition '' . vancouver2010.com. 12 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 13 February 2010 . Retrieved 13 February 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Luger was afraid of a turn , father says '' . ESPN . 15 February 2010 . Archived from the original on 30 January 2016 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Secretary General Svein Romstad : `` Unforeseeable fatal accident '' `` . FIL-luge.org. 19 April 2010 . Archived from the original on 15 September 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . Jump up ^ FIL Report , p. 15 Jump up ^ FIL Report , p. 19 Jump up ^ FIL Report , p. 18 Jump up ^ FIL Report , pp. 19 -- 20 ^ Jump up to : Coroner 's Report , p. 16 Jump up ^ Thomas , Katie ( 4 October 2010 ) . `` Coroner calls for changes in luge training '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 14 May 2013 . Retrieved 4 October 2010 ... ^ Jump up to : Hubbard , Mont ( 21 December 2012 ) , Luge Track Safety ( PDF ) , arXiv.com , p. 10 ^ Jump up to : Branch , John ( 4 February 2014 ) . `` On the Luge , Safety Built Into Swerves '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 March 2014 . Retrieved 6 February 2014 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nodar Kumaritashvili . Wikinews has related news : Georgian Olympian luge competitor dies in training accident FIL - Luge profile : Nodar Kumaritashvili at the Wayback Machine ( archived 11 April 2015 ) Nodar Kumaritashvili at the International Luge Federation The New York Times interactive play - by - play recap of Nodar Kumaritashvili 's fatal run ( hide ) Olympic Games scandals and controversies By year 2008 ( summer ) 2010 ( winter ) 2012 ( summer ) 2014 ( winter ) 2016 ( summer ) 2018 ( winter ) 2020 ( summer ) 2022 ( winter ) Boycotts 1936 1956 1964 1976 1980 1984 Alternative competitions People 's Olympiad ( 1936 ) Games of the New Emerging Forces ( 1963 ) Liberty Bell Classic ( 1980 ) Friendship Games ( 1984 ) Goodwill Games ( 1986 -- 2001 ) Events Football match between Peru and Austria ( 1936 ) `` Blood in the Water '' water polo match ( 1956 ) Tlatelolco massacre ( 1968 ) Black Power salute ( 1968 ) Munich massacre ( 1972 ) Basketball gold - medal match controversy ( 1972 ) Kozakiewicz 's gesture ( 1980 ) Centennial Olympic Park bombing ( 1996 ) Winter Olympic bid scandal ( 1998 ) Figure - skating judging scandal ( 2002 ) Underage gymnasts controversy ( 2008 ) Death of Nodar Kumaritashvili ( 2010 ) One minute of silence campaign ( 2012 ) LGBT rights protests ( 2014 ) Sochi Ladies ' singles judging controversy ( 2014 ) Russian doping scandal ( 2015 -- present ) Ireland Summer Olympics ticket scandal ( 2016 ) Death of Bahman Golbarnezhad ( 2016 ) Lochtegate ( 2016 ) Rule 40 ( 2016 ) List of stripped Olympic medals Doping at the Olympic Games Apartheid - era South Africa and the Olympics Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nodar_Kumaritashvili&oldid=834111186 '' Categories : 1988 births 2010 controversies 2010 deaths 2010 Winter Olympics Accidental deaths in British Columbia Eastern Orthodox Christians from Georgia ( country ) Filmed deaths in sports Lugers at the 2010 Winter Olympics Male lugers from Georgia ( country ) Members of the Georgian Orthodox Church Olympic deaths Olympic Games controversies Olympic lugers of Georgia ( country ) People from Samtskhe - Javakheti Sport deaths in Canada Hidden categories : Featured articles Use dmy dates from November 2017 Use British English from October 2017 Articles containing Georgian - language text Webarchive template wayback links FIL ID same as Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 27 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018 , at 00 : 24 . 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Question: who died doing the luge in the olympics


List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union Jump to : navigation , search Map of the United States with names and borders of states The order in which the original 13 states ratified the 1787 Constitution , then the order in which the others were admitted to the union A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government . Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside , due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government . Kentucky , Massachusetts , Pennsylvania , and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names . States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution , such as regulating intrastate commerce , running elections , creating local governments , and ratifying constitutional amendments . Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles , and government consisting of executive , legislative , and judicial branches . All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each state is represented by two Senators , while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census . Additionally , each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College , the body that elects the President of the United States , equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state . Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states . The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood . The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence , and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781 , upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation , its first constitution . ( A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates . ) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution , thus joining the present federal Union of states . The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress . Contents ( hide ) 1 List of U.S. states 2 Articles of Confederation ratification dates 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links List of U.S. states ( edit ) State Date ( admitted or ratified ) Formed from Delaware 000000001787 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 1787 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Delaware Pennsylvania 000000001787 - 12 - 12 - 0000 December 12 , 1787 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Pennsylvania New Jersey 000000001787 - 12 - 18 - 0000 December 18 , 1787 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of New Jersey Georgia 000000001788 - 01 - 02 - 0000 January 2 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Georgia 5 Connecticut 000000001788 - 01 - 09 - 0000 January 9 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Connecticut 6 Massachusetts 000000001788 - 02 - 06 - 0000 February 6 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Massachusetts Bay 7 Maryland 000000001788 - 04 - 28 - 0000 April 28 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Maryland 8 South Carolina 000000001788 - 05 - 23 - 0000 May 23 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of South Carolina 9 New Hampshire 000000001788 - 06 - 21 - 0000 June 21 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of New Hampshire 10 Virginia 000000001788 - 06 - 25 - 0000 June 25 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Virginia 11 New York 000000001788 - 07 - 26 - 0000 July 26 , 1788 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of New York 12 North Carolina 000000001789 - 11 - 21 - 0000 November 21 , 1789 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of North Carolina 13 Rhode Island 000000001790 - 05 - 29 - 0000 May 29 , 1790 ( ratified ) Crown Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 14 Vermont 000000001791 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 1791 ( admitted ) Vermont ! Vermont Republic 15 Kentucky 000000001792 - 06 - 01 - 0000 June 1 , 1792 ( admitted ) Virginia ( District of Kentucky : Fayette , Jefferson , and Lincoln counties ) 16 Tennessee 000000001796 - 06 - 01 - 0000 June 1 , 1796 ( admitted ) Southwest Territory 17 Ohio 000000001803 - 03 - 01 - 0000 March 1 , 1803 ( admitted ) Northwest Territory ( part ) 18 Louisiana 000000001812 - 04 - 30 - 0000 April 30 , 1812 ( admitted ) Orleans ! Territory of Orleans 19 Indiana 000000001816 - 12 - 11 - 0000 December 11 , 1816 ( admitted ) Indiana Territory 20 Mississippi 000000001817 - 12 - 10 - 0000 December 10 , 1817 ( admitted ) Mississippi Territory 21 Illinois 000000001818 - 12 - 03 - 0000 December 3 , 1818 ( admitted ) Illinois Territory ( part ) 22 Alabama 000000001819 - 12 - 14 - 0000 December 14 , 1819 ( admitted ) Alabama Territory 23 Maine 000000001820 - 03 - 15 - 0000 March 15 , 1820 ( admitted ) Massachusetts ( District of Maine ) 24 Missouri 000000001821 - 08 - 10 - 0000 August 10 , 1821 ( admitted ) Missouri Territory ( part ) 25 Arkansas 000000001836 - 06 - 15 - 0000 June 15 , 1836 ( admitted ) Arkansas Territory 26 Michigan 000000001837 - 01 - 26 - 0000 January 26 , 1837 ( admitted ) Michigan Territory 27 Florida 000000001845 - 03 - 03 - 0000 March 3 , 1845 ( admitted ) Florida Territory 28 Texas 000000001845 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29 , 1845 ( admitted ) Texas ! Republic of Texas 29 Iowa 000000001846 - 12 - 28 - 0000 December 28 , 1846 ( admitted ) Iowa Territory ( part ) 30 Wisconsin 000000001848 - 05 - 29 - 0000 May 29 , 1848 ( admitted ) Wisconsin Territory ( part ) 31 California 000000001850 - 09 - 09 - 0000 September 9 , 1850 ( admitted ) Unorganized ! unorganized territory ( part ) 32 Minnesota 000000001858 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11 , 1858 ( admitted ) Minnesota Territory ( part ) 33 Oregon 000000001859 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14 , 1859 ( admitted ) Oregon Territory ( part ) 34 Kansas 000000001861 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29 , 1861 ( admitted ) Kansas Territory ( part ) 35 West Virginia 000000001863 - 06 - 20 - 0000 June 20 , 1863 ( admitted ) Virginia ( Trans - Allegheny region counties ) 36 Nevada 000000001864 - 10 - 31 - 0000 October 31 , 1864 ( admitted ) Nevada Territory 37 Nebraska 000000001867 - 03 - 01 - 0000 March 1 , 1867 ( admitted ) Nebraska Territory 38 Colorado 000000001876 - 08 - 01 - 0000 August 1 , 1876 ( admitted ) Colorado Territory 39 North Dakota 000000001889 - 11 - 02 - 0000 November 2 , 1889 ( admitted ) Dakota Territory ( part ) 40 South Dakota 000000001889 - 11 - 02 - 0000 November 2 , 1889 ( admitted ) Dakota Territory ( part ) 41 Montana 000000001889 - 11 - 08 - 0000 November 8 , 1889 ( admitted ) Montana Territory 42 Washington 000000001889 - 11 - 11 - 0000 November 11 , 1889 ( admitted ) Washington Territory 43 Idaho 000000001890 - 07 - 03 - 0000 July 3 , 1890 ( admitted ) Idaho Territory 44 Wyoming 000000001890 - 07 - 10 - 0000 July 10 , 1890 ( admitted ) Wyoming Territory 45 Utah 000000001896 - 01 - 04 - 0000 January 4 , 1896 ( admitted ) Utah Territory 46 Oklahoma 000000001907 - 11 - 16 - 0000 November 16 , 1907 ( admitted ) Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory 47 New Mexico 000000001912 - 01 - 06 - 0000 January 6 , 1912 ( admitted ) New Mexico Territory 48 Arizona 000000001912 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14 , 1912 ( admitted ) Arizona Territory 49 Alaska 000000001959 - 01 - 03 - 0000 January 3 , 1959 ( admitted ) Alaska ! Territory of Alaska 50 Hawaii 000000001959 - 08 - 21 - 0000 August 21 , 1959 ( admitted ) Hawaii ! Territory of Hawaii Articles of Confederation ratification dates ( edit ) The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15 , 1777 . The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1 , 1781 , after being ratified by all 13 states . On March 4 , 1789 , the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution . State Date 13 ! 1 Virginia 000000001777 - 12 - 16 - 0000 December 16 , 1777 12 ! 2 South Carolina 000000001778 - 02 - 05 - 0000 February 5 , 1778 08 ! 3 New York 000000001778 - 02 - 06 - 0000 February 6 , 1778 11 ! 4 Rhode Island 000000001778 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1778 01 ! 5 Connecticut 000000001778 - 02 - 12 - 0000 February 12 , 1778 03 ! 6 Georgia 000000001778 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 1778 06 ! 7 New Hampshire 000000001778 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 1778 10 ! 8 Pennsylvania 000000001778 - 03 - 05 - 0000 March 5 , 1778 05 ! 9 Massachusetts 000000001778 - 03 - 10 - 0000 March 10 , 1778 09 ! 10 North Carolina 000000001778 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1778 07 ! 11 New Jersey 000000001778 - 11 - 19 - 0000 November 19 , 1778 02 ! 12 Delaware 000000001779 - 02 - 01 - 0000 February 1 , 1779 04 ! 13 Maryland 000000001781 - 02 - 02 - 0000 February 2 , 1781 See also ( edit ) North America portal United States portal Enabling Act of 1802 , authorizing residents of the eastern portion of the Northwest Territory to form the state of Ohio Missouri Compromise , 1820 federal statute enabling the admission of Missouri ( a slave state ) and Maine ( a free state ) into the Union Toledo War , 1835 -- 36 boundary dispute between Ohio and the adjoining Michigan Territory , which delayed Michigan 's admission to the Union Texas annexation , the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States as a state in the Union Legal status of Texas Compromise of 1850 , a package of congressional acts , one of which provided for the admission of California to the Union Bleeding Kansas , a series of violent conflicts in Kansas Territory involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions in the years preceding Kansas statehood , 1854 -- 61 Enabling Act of 1889 , authorizing residents of Dakota , Montana , and Washington territories to form state governments ( Dakota to be divided into two states ) and to gain admission to the Union Enabling Act of 1906 authorizing residents of Oklahoma , Indian , New Mexico , and Arizona territories to form state governments ( Indian and Oklahoma territories to be combined into one state ) and to gain admission to the Union Alaska Statehood Act , admitting Alaska as a state in the Union as of January 3 , 1959 Legal status of Alaska Hawaii Admission Act , admitting Hawaii as a state in the Union as of August 21 , 1959 Legal status of Hawaii List of states and territories of the United States Federalism in the United States Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ This list does not account for the secession of 11 states ( Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , Florida , Alabama , Mississippi , Tennessee , Arkansas , Louisiana , and Texas ) during the Civil War to form the Confederate States of America , nor for the subsequent restoration of those states to the Union , or each state 's `` readmission to representation in Congress '' after the war , as the federal government does not give legal recognition to their having left the Union . Also , the Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede from the Union , but the Supreme Court held that a state can not unilaterally do so in Texas v. White ( 1869 ) . Jump up ^ Also known as the `` Three Lower Counties Upon Delaware '' . Delaware became a state on June 15 , 1776 , when the Delaware Assembly formally adopted a resolution declaring an end to Delaware 's status as a colony of Great Britain and establishing the three counties as an independent state under the authority of `` the Government of the Counties of New Castle , Kent and Sussex Upon Delaware '' . Jump up ^ Between 1749 and 1764 the provincial governor of New Hampshire , Benning Wentworth , issued approximately 135 grants for unoccupied land claimed by New Hampshire west of the Connecticut River ( in what is today southern Vermont ) , territory that was also claimed by New York . The resulting `` New Hampshire Grants '' dispute led to the rise of the Green Mountain Boys , and the later establishment of the Vermont Republic . New Hampshire 's claim upon the land was extinguished in 1764 by royal order of George III , and in 1790 the State of New York ceded its land claim to Vermont for 30,000 dollars . Jump up ^ The Virginia General Assembly adopted legislation on December 18 , 1789 separating its `` District of Kentucky '' from the rest of the State and approving its statehood . Jump up ^ The exact date upon which Ohio became a state is unclear . On April 30 , 1802 the 7th Congress had passed an act `` authorizing the inhabitants of Ohio to form a Constitution and state government , and admission of Ohio into the Union '' ( Sess. 1 , ch. 40 , 2 Stat. 173 ) . On February 19 , 1803 the same Congress passed an act `` providing for the execution of the laws of the United States in the State of Ohio '' ( Sess. 2 , ch. 7 , 2 Stat. 201 ) . Neither act , however , set a formal date of statehood . An official statehood date for Ohio was not set until 1953 , when the 83rd Congress passed a Joint resolution `` for admitting the State of Ohio into the Union '' , ( Pub. L. 83 -- 204 , 67 Stat. 407 , enacted August 7 , 1953 ) which designated March 1 , 1803 , as that date . Jump up ^ The Massachusetts General Court passed enabling legislation on June 19 , 1819 separating the `` District of Maine '' from the rest of the State ( an action approved by the voters in Maine on July 19 , 1819 by 17,001 to 7,132 ) ; then , on February 25 , 1820 , passed a follow - up measure officially accepting the fact of Maine 's imminent statehood . Jump up ^ On May 13 , 1862 , the General Assembly of the Restored Government of Virginia passed an act granting permission for creation of West Virginia . Later , by its ruling in Virginia v. West Virginia ( 1871 ) , the Supreme Court implicitly affirmed that the breakaway Virginia counties did have the proper consents necessary to become a separate state . Jump up ^ When President Benjamin Harrison signed the statehood proclamations for North and South Dakota he shuffled the papers on his desk and covered up all but the signature line of the documents . No one knows which state he signed into existence first . North Dakota 's proclamation was published first in the Statutes at Large , as it is first in alphabetical order . ^ Jump up to : Brought into existence within moments of each other on the same day , North and South Dakota are the nation 's only twin - born states . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Erler , Edward . `` Essays on Amendment XIV : Citizenship '' . The Heritage Foundation . Jump up ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions About the Minnesota Legislature '' . Minnesota State Legislature . Jump up ^ Kristin D. Burnett . `` Congressional Apportionment ( 2010 Census Briefs C2010BR - 08 ) '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of Commerce , Economics and Statistics Administration . Jump up ^ Elhauge , Einer R. `` Essays on Article II : Presidential Electors '' . The Heritage Foundation . Jump up ^ `` Doctrine of the Equality of States '' . Justia.com . Jump up ^ Jensen , Merrill ( 1959 ) . The Articles of Confederation : An Interpretation of the Social - Constitutional History of the American Revolution , 1774 -- 1781 . University of Wisconsin Press . pp. xi , 184 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 299 - 00204 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Texas v. White 74 U.S. 700 ( 1868 ) '' . Justia.com . ^ Jump up to : Vile , John R. ( 2005 ) . The Constitutional Convention of 1787 : A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America 's Founding ( Volume 1 : A-M ) . ABC - CLIO . p. 658 . ISBN 1 - 85109 - 669 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Delaware Government '' . Delaware.gov . Government Information Center , Delaware Department of State . Jump up ^ `` Overview of Pennsylvania History - 1776 - 1861 : Independence to the Civil War '' . PA.gov . Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission . Jump up ^ `` 1787 Convention Minutes '' . NJ.gov . New Jersey Department of State . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : January 9 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : July 26 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : November 21 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` The 14th State '' . Vermont History Explorer . Vermont Historical Society . Jump up ^ `` Constitution Square Historic Site '' . Danville / Boyle County Convention and Visitors Bureau . ^ Jump up to : `` Official Name and Status History of the several States and U.S. Territories '' . TheGreenPapers.com . Jump up ^ `` State History Timeline '' . TN.gov . Tennessee Department of State . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Blue , Frederick J. ( Autumn 2002 ) . `` The Date of Ohio Statehood '' . Ohio Academy of History Newsletter . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Clearing up the Confusion surrounding Ohio 's Admission to Statehood Jump up ^ `` About Louisiana : quick facts '' . louisiana.gov . Retrieved June 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome from the Mississippi Bicentennial Celebration Commission '' . Mississippi Bicentennial Celebration Commission . Retrieved February 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : December 3 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Alabama History Timeline : 1800 - 1860 '' . alabama.gov . Retrieved June 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : March 15 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : August 10 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : June 15 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : January 26 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : May 29 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` California Admission Day September 9 , 1850 '' . CA.gov . California Department of Parks and Recreation . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : May 11 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : January 29 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : June 20 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ `` A State of Convenience : The Creation of West Virginia , Chapter Twelve , Reorganized Government of Virginia Approves Separation '' . Wvculture.org . West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Jump up ^ `` Virginia v. West Virginia 78 U.S. 39 ( 1870 ) '' . Justia.com . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : August 1 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ MacPherson , James ; Burbach , Kevin ( November 2 , 2014 ) . `` At 125 years of Dakotas statehood , rivalry remains '' . Bismarck Tribune . ^ Jump up to : `` Today in History : November 2 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Wishart , David J. ( ed . ) . `` Montana '' . Encyclopedia of the Great Plains . University of Nebraska -- Lincoln . Retrieved February 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : November 11 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Thatcher , Linda Thatcher ( 2016 ) . `` Struggle For Statehood Chronology '' . historytogo.utah.gov . State of Utah . Jump up ^ `` Today in History : November 16 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Rodgers , Paul ( 2011 ) . United States Constitutional Law : An Introduction . McFarland . p. 109 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 6017 - 5 . External links ( edit ) Find more aboutstatehoodat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity `` U.S. States Videos '' . History.com . `` Dates of statehood '' . 50states.com . United States state - related lists List of states and territories of the United States Demographics Educational attainment Irreligion Largest cities by population Most popular given names Most populous counties Population Density Growth rate Birth and death rates Historical African American Amish Asian Hispanic and Latino Spanish - speaking Religiosity Economy Billionaires Budgets Companies Federal tax revenue Federal taxation and spending Gross domestic product Growth rate Per capita Income Household Per capita Inequality Minimum wages Poverty rates Sales taxes Sovereign wealth funds State income taxes Flat rate None Unemployment rates Union affiliation Vehicles per capita Environment Carbon dioxide emissions Botanical gardens Parks Renewable energy Superfund sites Wilderness areas Geography Area Coastline Elevation Extreme points Forest Geographic centers Regions Government Attorneys general Capitals Historical Capitol buildings Comparison Counties Alphabetical Current State Legislators Governors Lieutenant governors Legislatures Libraries and archives Official languages Poets laureate Political divisions State auditors State secretaries of state State superintendents of education State supreme courts State treasurers Health Human Development Index Fertility rates Hospitals Life expectancy Obesity rates History Date of statehood Name etymologies Historical societies and museums National Historic Landmarks National Register of Historic Places State partitions Historic regions Law Abortion Age of consent Alcohol Dry communities Alford plea Cell phone use while driving Constitutions Firearms Homicide Law enforcement agencies Legality of cannabis Peace Index Prisons Incarceration rate Same - sex unions Former constitutional bans Marriage law Seat belt laws Self - representation Smoking bans Speed limits ( by jurisdiction ) Statutory codes Miscellaneous Abbreviations Demonyms Fictional states Flags Insignia License plates Numbered highways Quarters 50 states DC & Territories ATB Symbols Tallest buildings Time zones Commons Portals Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union&oldid=821006803 '' Categories : Lists of states of the United States United States geography - related lists United States history - related lists United States history timelines Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use mdy dates from August 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Čeština Ελληνικά Español Français Ilokano Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2018 , at 21 : 56 . 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Question: when did the last state became a state


Inner core - wikipedia Inner core Jump to : navigation , search For the cores of other planetary bodies , see Planetary core . For a broader coverage related to this topic , see Earth core . The internal structure of Earth The Earth 's inner core is the Earth 's innermost part . It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 kilometres ( 760 miles ) , which is about 70 % of the Moon 's radius . It is composed of an iron -- nickel alloy and some other elements . The temperature at the inner core 's surface is approximately 5,700 K ( 5,430 ° C ) , which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discovery 2 Composition 3 Temperature and pressure 4 Dynamics 5 History 6 See also 7 References Discovery ( edit ) The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936 , by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann , who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand . She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth 's surface . This boundary is known as the Bullen discontinuity , or sometimes as the Lehmann discontinuity . A few years later , in 1940 , it was hypothesized that this inner core was made of solid iron ; its rigidity was confirmed in 1971 . The outer core was determined to be molten from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it , but elastic shear waves do not -- or do so only very weakly . The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic shear waves that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth 's surface to detect , since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core . Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core . It has recently been claimed that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core ; these claims were initially controversial , but are now gaining acceptance . Composition ( edit ) Based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System , the theory of planetary formation , and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth 's volume , the inner core is believed to consist primarily of a nickel - iron alloy . Pure iron was found to be denser than the core by approximately 3 % , implying the presence of light elements in the core ( e.g. silicon , oxygen , sulfur ) in addition to the probable presence of nickel . Further , if the primordial and mostly fluid ( still forming ) earth contained any significant mass ( es ) of elements denser than iron and nickel , namely the white ( appearance ) precious metals ( and a few others ) except silver , specifically the siderophile elements then these would necessarily have differentiated to the very center of the core into concentric nested spheres by Planetary differentiation . The most dense ( and stable , i.e. platinum , iridium , and osmium , ( etc . ) in order of density ) of these forming the innermost spheroid ( s ) . While unstable elements of such trans - iron / nickel density would have mostly decayed to iron / nickel / lead by the time the earth formed a discrete core . See also : Densities of the elements ( data page ) It then necessarily follows that all , or almost all , of these denser elements we have mined ( or are even able to ) at the surface ( or near surface , or even at all `` above '' the core ) have been delivered later as part of impact objects / masses . Temperature and pressure ( edit ) The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core ( about 330 GPa ) . These considerations suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K ( 5,400 ° C ; 9,800 ° F ) . The pressure in the Earth 's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores : it ranges from about 330 to 360 gigapascals ( 3,300,000 to 3,600,000 atm ) . Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude ( see the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation ) . A report published in the journal Science concludes that the melting temperature of iron at the inner core boundary is 6230 ± 500 K . Dynamics ( edit ) The Earth 's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth 's interior ( about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years ) . Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous , because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material , and continues to grow as a result of that same process . Even though it is growing into liquid , it is solid , due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high . It was even suggested that Earth 's inner core might be a single crystal of iron . However , this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core . Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform , but instead contains large - scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others . In addition , the properties of the inner core 's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km . This variation is surprising , since lateral temperature variations along the inner - core boundary are known to be extremely small ( this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations ) . Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers , separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick . If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface , then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior . Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earth 's solid mantle , the possibility that it rotates slightly faster or slower than the rest of Earth has long been entertained . In the 1990s , seismologists made various claims about detecting this kind of super-rotation by observing changes in the characteristics of seismic waves passing through the inner core over several decades , using the aforementioned property that it transmits waves faster in some directions . Estimates of this super-rotation are around one degree of extra rotation per year . Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earth 's magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core . This occurs mostly because it can not dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid . This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core . The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid ( which is expected to be turbulent ) . Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns . This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others . Because thermal convection alone appears to be improbable , any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior . S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes , and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time . There is an East -- West asymmetry in the inner core seismological data . There is a model which explains this by differences at the surface of the inner core -- melting in one hemisphere and crystallization in the other . The western hemisphere of the inner core may be crystallizing , whereas the eastern hemisphere may be melting . This may lead to enhanced magnetic field generation in the crystallizing hemisphere , creating the asymmetry in the Earth 's magnetic field . History ( edit ) Main article : History of the Earth Based on rates of cooling of the core , it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago out of a fully molten core ( which formed just after planetary formation ) . If true , this would mean that the Earth 's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet 's formation , but a feature younger than the Earth ( the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old ) . See also ( edit ) The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of : Structure of the Earth Geodynamics Iron meteorite Structure of the Earth Travel to the Earth 's center References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Monnereau , Marc ; Calvet , Marie ; Margerin , Ludovic ; Souriau , Annie ( May 21 , 2010 ) . `` Lopsided Growth of Earth 's Inner Core '' . Science . 328 ( 5981 ) : 1014 -- 1017 . Bibcode : 2010Sci ... 328.1014 M . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1186212 . PMID 20395477 Jump up ^ E.R. Engdahl ; E.A. Flynn & R.P. Massé ( 1974 ) . `` Differential PkiKP travel times and the radius of the core '' . Geophys . J.R. Astron . Soc. 40 ( 3 ) : 457 -- 463 . Bibcode : 1974GeoJI ... 39 ... 457E . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 246X. 1974. tb05467. x . ^ Jump up to : D. Alfè ; M. Gillan & G.D. Price ( January 30 , 2002 ) . `` Composition and temperature of the Earth 's core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data '' ( PDF ) . Earth and Planetary Science Letters . Elsevier . 195 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 91 -- 98 . Bibcode : 2002E&PSL. 195 ... 91A . doi : 10.1016 / S0012 - 821X ( 01 ) 00568 - 4 . Jump up ^ Edmond A. Mathez , ed. ( 2000 ) . EARTH : INSIDE AND OUT . American Museum of Natural History . Archived from the original on 2008 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ John C. Butler ( 1995 ) . `` Class Notes -- The Earth 's Interior '' . Physical Geology Grade Book . University of Houston . Retrieved 30 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Although another discontinuity is named after Lehmann , this usage still can be found : see for example : Robert E Krebs ( 2003 ) . The basics of earth science . Greenwood Publishing Company . ISBN 0 - 313 - 31930 - 8 . , and From here to `` hevean , '' or the D layer , About.com Jump up ^ Lee , William H.K. ; Kanamori , Hiroo ; Jennings , Paul C. ; Kisslinger , Carl , eds. ( 2002 ) . International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology ; part A. Academic Press . p. 926 . ISBN 0 - 12 - 440652 - 1 . Jump up ^ William J. Cromie ( 1996 - 08 - 15 ) . `` Putting a New Spin on Earth 's Core '' . Harvard Gazette . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ A.M. Dziewonski ; F. Gilbert ( 1971 - 12 - 24 ) . `` Solidity of the Inner Core of the Earth inferred from Normal Mode Observations '' . Nature . 234 ( 5330 ) : 465 -- 466 . Bibcode : 1971Natur. 234 ... 465D . doi : 10.1038 / 234465a0 . Jump up ^ Robert Roy Britt ( 2005 - 04 - 14 ) . `` Finally , a Solid Look at Earth 's Core '' . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ Stixrude , Lars ; Wasserman , Evgeny ; Cohen , Ronald E. ( 1997 - 11 - 10 ) . `` Composition and temperature of Earth 's inner core '' . Journal of Geophysical Research : Solid Earth . 102 ( B11 ) : 24729 -- 24739 . Bibcode : 1997JGR ... 10224729S . doi : 10.1029 / 97JB02125 . ISSN 2156 - 2202 . Jump up ^ `` core -- National Geographic Society '' . Jump up ^ `` Earth 's Precious Metals Could Be From Meteorites and Asteroids '' . Jump up ^ David . R. Lide , ed. ( 2006 -- 2007 ) . CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics ( 87th ed . ) . pp. j14 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Anneli Aitta ( 2006 - 12 - 01 ) . `` Iron melting curve with a tricritical point '' . Journal of Statistical Mechanics : Theory and Experiment . iop. 2006 ( 12 ) : 12015 -- 12030 . arXiv : cond - mat / 0701283 . Bibcode : 2006JSMTE ... 12 ... 015A . doi : 10.1088 / 1742 - 5468 / 2006 / 12 / P12015. or see preprints https://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0701283 , https://arxiv.org/pdf/0807.0187 . Jump up ^ S. Anzellini ; A. Dewaele ; M. Mezouar ; P. Loubeyre & G. Morard ( 2013 ) . `` Melting of Iron at Earth 's Inner Core Boundary Based on Fast X-ray Diffraction '' . Science . AAAS. 340 ( 6136 ) : 464 -- 466 . Bibcode : 2013Sci ... 340 ... 464A . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1233514 . Jump up ^ J.A. Jacobs ( 1953 ) . `` The Earth 's inner core '' . Nature . 172 ( 4372 ) : 297 -- 298 . Bibcode : 1953Natur. 172 ... 297J . doi : 10.1038 / 172297a0 . Jump up ^ Broad , William J. ( 1995 - 04 - 04 ) . `` The Core of the Earth May Be a Gigantic Crystal Made of Iron '' . NY Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Robert Sanders ( 1996 - 11 - 13 ) . `` Earth 's inner core not a monolithic iron crystal , say UC Berkeley seismologist '' . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ Andrew Jephcoat ; Keith Refson ( 2001 - 09 - 06 ) . `` Earth science : Core beliefs '' . Nature . 413 ( 6851 ) : 27 -- 30 . Bibcode : 2001Natur. 413 ... 27J . doi : 10.1038 / 35092650 . PMID 11544508 . Jump up ^ Kazuro Hirahara ; Toshiki Ohtaki & Yasuhiro Yoshida ( 1994 ) . `` Seismic structure near the inner core - outer core boundary '' . Geophys . Res . Lett . American Geophysical Union . 51 ( 16 ) : 157 -- 160 . Bibcode : 1994GeoRL ... 21 ... 157K . doi : 10.1029 / 93GL03289 . Jump up ^ Aaurno , J.M. ; Brito , D. ; Olson , P.L. ( 1996 ) . `` Mechanics of inner core super-rotation '' . Geophysical Research Letters. 23 ( 23 ) : 3401 -- 3404 . Bibcode : 1996GeoRL ... 23.3401 A . doi : 10.1029 / 96GL03258 Jump up ^ Xu , Xiaoxia ; Song , Xiaodong ( 2003 ) . `` Evidence for inner core super-rotation from time - dependent differential PKP traveltimes observed at Beijing Seismic Network '' . Geophysical Journal International . 152 ( 3 ) : 509 -- 514 . Bibcode : 2003GeoJI. 152 ... 509X . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 246X. 2003.01852. x Jump up ^ G Poupinet ; R Pillet ; A Souriau ( 1983 ) . `` Possible heterogeneity of the Earth 's core deduced from PKIKP travel times '' . Nature . 305 : 204 -- 206 . Bibcode : 1983Natur. 305 ... 204P . doi : 10.1038 / 305204a0 . Jump up ^ T. Yukutake ( 1998 ) . `` Implausibility of thermal convection in the Earth 's solid inner core '' . Phys . Earth Planet . Inter. 108 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 13 . Bibcode : 1998PEPI ... 108 ... 1Y . doi : 10.1016 / S0031 - 9201 ( 98 ) 00097 - 1 . Jump up ^ S.I. Yoshida ; I. Sumita & M. Kumazawa ( 1996 ) . `` Growth model of the inner core coupled with the outer core dynamics and the resulting elastic anisotropy '' . Journal of Geophysical Research : Solid Earth . 101 : 28085 -- 28103 . Bibcode : 1996JGR ... 10128085Y . doi : 10.1029 / 96JB02700 . Jump up ^ S.I. Karato ( 1999 ) . `` Seismic anisotropy of the Earth 's inner core resulting from flow induced by Maxwell stresses '' . 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( hide ) Structure of the Earth Shells Crust Lithosphere Mesosphere Mantle Asthenosphere Lithospheric mantle Subcontinental lithospheric mantle Oceanic lithospheric mantle Outer core Inner core Discontinuities Conrad ( continental crust ) Mohorovičić ( crust -- mantle ) Lehmann ( upper mantle ) Gutenberg ( mantle -- core ) Lehmann ( core ) Arguments Plate tectonics Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inner_core&oldid=838408961 '' Categories : 1936 in science Structure of the Earth Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2018 , at 20 : 32 . 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Question: what is the thickness of earth's inner core