E.L. James - wikipedia E.L. James Jump to : navigation , search E.L. James James in May 2012 Pen name E.L. James Snowqueen 's Icedragon Occupation Novelist , film producer Citizenship British Education Wycombe High School Alma mater University of Kent Genre Romance , erotica , fan fiction Years active 2011 -- present Spouse Niall Leonard ( m . 1987 ) Children Website eljamesauthor.com Erika Mitchell Leonard ( born 7 March 1963 ) , known by her pen name E.L. James , is an English author . She wrote the bestselling erotic romance trilogy Fifty Shades of Grey , Fifty Shades Darker , and Fifty Shades Freed , along with the companion novels Grey : Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian and Darker : Fifty Shades Darker as Told by Christian ; and under the name Snowqueen 's Icedragon the Twilight fan fiction `` Master of the Universe '' that was the basis for the Fifty Shades trilogy . The combined novels have sold over 125 million copies worldwide , over 35 million copies in the United States and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback of all time . In 2012 , Time magazine named her one of `` The World 's 100 Most Influential People . '' The novels were subsequently adapted into the films Fifty Shades of Grey , Fifty Shades Darker , and Fifty Shades Freed . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Fifty Shades trilogy 3 Charity work 4 Awards and honours 5 Bibliography 6 Filmography 7 References 8 External links Early life ( edit ) Erika Mitchell was born on 7 March 1963 in Willesden , Middlesex to a Chilean mother and a Scottish father who was a BBC cameraman . She was brought up in Buckinghamshire . James was educated at the independent Pipers Corner School and at Wycombe High School , a state grammar school for girls in the town of High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire , followed by the University of Kent in South East England where she studied History . Career ( edit ) After leaving university , James became a studio manager 's assistant at the National Film and Television School in Beaconsfield . She married Niall Leonard , a screenwriter , in 1987 , and they have two teenage sons . As of 2012 they reside in Brentford , west London . Fifty Shades trilogy ( edit ) Main article : Fifty Shades trilogy James says the idea for the Fifty Shades trilogy began as a response to the vampire novel series Twilight . In late 2008 James saw the movie Twilight , and then became intensely absorbed with the novels that the movie was based on . She read the novels several times over in a period of a few days , and then , for the first time in her life , sat down to write a book : basically a sequel to the Twilight novels . Between January and August 2009 she wrote two such books in quick succession . She says she then discovered the phenomenon of fan fiction , and this inspired her to publish her novels as Kindle books under the pen name `` Snowqueens Icedragon '' . Beginning in August 2009 she then began to write the Fifty Shades books . James has spoken of her shock at the success of the books . `` The explosion of interest has taken me completely by surprise '' she said . James has described the Fifty Shades trilogy as `` my midlife crisis , writ large . All my fantasies in there , and that 's it . '' She did not start to write until January 2009 , as she revealed while still active on FanFiction.Net : `` I started writing in January 2009 after I finished the Twilight saga , and I have n't stopped since . I discovered Fan Fiction in August 2009 . Since then I have written my two fics and plan on doing at least one more . After that ... who knows ? '' In August 2013 , sales of the trilogy saw James top the Forbes ' list of the highest - earning authors with earnings of $95 m which included $5 m for the film rights to Fifty Shades of Grey . On 1 June 2015 James announced the upcoming release of Grey : Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian , which was released into stores on 18 June 2015 . Darker : Fifty Shades Darker as Told by Christian was released November 28 , 2017 . Charity work ( edit ) James was one of the British celebrities , including Tom Hiddleston , Benedict Cumberbatch and Rachel Riley , to design and sign her own card for the UK children 's charity Thomas Coram Foundation for Children . The campaign was launched by crafting company Stampin ' Up ! UK and the cards were auctioned on eBay during May 2014 . Awards and honours ( edit ) 2012 Time 100 by Time magazine , `` The 100 Most Influential People in the World '' 2012 Publishers Weekly `` Publishing Person of the Year '' . 2012 National Book Award ( UK ) , `` Popular Fiction Book of the Year '' , Fifty Shades of Grey 2012 National Book Award ( UK ) , `` Book of the Year '' , Fifty Shades of Grey Bibliography ( edit ) Fifty Shades of Grey ( 2011 ) Fifty Shades Darker ( 2012 ) Fifty Shades Freed ( 2012 ) Grey : Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian ( 2015 ) Darker : Fifty Shades Darker as Told by Christian ( 2017 ) Filmography ( edit ) Year Title Note ( s ) 2015 Fifty Shades of Grey Producer 2017 Fifty Shades Darker Producer 2018 Fifty Shades Freed Producer References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` E.L. James '' . Waterstones.com . Waterstones . Retrieved 1 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Julie Bosman ( 21 May 2012 ) . `` Libraries Debate Stocking ' Fifty Shades of Grey ' Trilogy '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` The Shy British Mum Behind 50 Shades of Grey '' . Time Magazine . 29 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Fifty Shades of Grey author EL James now worth £ 37m '' . The Guardian . 2 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Who Should be Time 's Person of the Year 2012 ? E.L. James . Jump up ^ `` '' Fifty Shades of Grey '' coming in hardcover `` . Salon.com. 10 January 2013 . Retrieved 6 July 2013 . Jump up ^ The World 's 100 Most Influential People . Jump up ^ Belloni , Matthew ( 20 February 2013 ) . `` Universal Chairman Wants ' Fifty Shades ' for Summer 2014 , More ' Bourne ' and ' Van Helsing ' Reboot ( Q&A ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 18 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Index entry '' . FreeBMD . ONS . Retrieved 14 February 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Brennan , Zoe ( 6 February 2015 ) . `` EL James : The shy housewife behind Fifty Shades of Grey '' . The Daily Telegraph ( 7 July 2012 ) . Jump up ^ `` M&S meets S&M Mum who erotic bestseller Fifty Shades Of Grey '' . The Sun . Retrieved 31 May 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Who is EL James ? Chicago Tribune Retrieved 31 May 2012 Jump up ^ Triple - X trilogy of novels has women talking ( quietly ) . msnbc . Retrieved 31 May 2012 Jump up ^ `` Fifty Shades of Grey author EL James -- Exclusive interview '' ( 16 July 2012 ) Shropshire Star . Retrieved 16 July 2012 Jump up ^ ' Fifty Shades ' author ' stunned ' at success of erotic trilogy TODAY MSNBC Jump up ^ `` The Lost History of Fifty Shades of Grey '' . mediabistro.com . Retrieved 30 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` E.L. James Seals A Spot On List of Britain 's Richest Authors '' . Lia . Retrieved 23 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Fifty Shades makes EL James top - earning author '' . BBC News . 13 August 2013 . Retrieved 15 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` E.L. James teases Fifty Shades Darker from Christian 's point of view '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 9 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Celebrity card auction raises over £ 8,500 for Coram '' . Coram.org . Retrieved 16 February 2015 Jump up ^ The 100 Most Influential People in the World Time Magazine . Retrieved 31 May 2012 Jump up ^ Alison Flood ( 3 December 2012 ) . `` EL James wins ' publishing person of the year ' for making erotic fiction ' hot ' '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 3 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Molly Driscoll ( 3 December 2012 ) . `` EL James as ' Publishing Person of the Year ' draws outcry from literary world '' . Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 5 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Alison Flood ( 5 December 2012 ) . `` EL James comes out on top at National Book awards '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 5 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` EL James wins at National Book Awards '' . BBC News . 4 December 2012 . Retrieved 14 January 2013 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : E.L. James Wikimedia Commons has media related to E.L. James . Official website E.L. James on IMDb ( hide ) Fifty Shades by E.L. James Novels Original trilogy Fifty Shades of Grey Fifty Shades Darker Fifty Shades Freed Retold Grey : Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian Darker : Fifty Shades Darker as Told by Christian Film series Films Fifty Shades of Grey Fifty Shades Darker Fifty Shades Freed Music Fifty Shades of Grey `` Earned It '' `` Love Me like You Do '' `` I Know You '' Fifty Shades Darker `` I Do n't Wanna Live Forever '' `` Not Afraid Anymore '' Fifty Shades Freed `` For You '' `` Capital Letters '' `` Heaven '' Parodies Fifty Shades of Oy Vey : A Parody Spank ! The Fifty Shades Parody Fifty Shades of Black VIAF : 255680406 LCCN : no2012049338 ISNI : 0000 0003 7830 6424 GND : 1023973413 SELIBR : 355990 SUDOC : 163755892 BNF : cb16630599x ( data ) BIBSYS : 12049723 NLA : 53259882 NDL : 001122364 NKC : kv2012723230 BNE : XX5239399 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E._L._James&oldid=837777645 '' Categories : Living people English erotica writers English people of Chilean descent English people of Scottish descent Fan fiction writers 1963 births People educated at Wycombe High School Pseudonymous writers Alumni of the University of Kent English romantic fiction writers 21st - century women writers 21st - century English novelists People from Buckinghamshire English women writers Self - published authors Women erotica writers Women romantic fiction writers BDSM writers Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from February 2015 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית മലയാളം မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 00 : 11 . 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Question: who is the writer of 50 shades of grey

Erika Mitchell Leonard (born 7 March 1963),[1] known by her pen name E. L. James


Synapsis - Wikipedia Synapsis Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with synapse , synapsid , or synopsis . For the plant genus , see Synapsis ( plant ) . For the beetle genus , see Coprini . Synapsis ( also called syndesis ) is the pairing of two homologous chromosomes that occurs during meiosis . It allows matching - up of homologous pairs prior to their segregation , and possible chromosomal crossover between them . Synapsis takes place during prophase I of meiosis . When homologous chromosomes synapse , their ends are first attached to the nuclear envelope . These end - membrane complexes then migrate , assisted by the extranuclear cytoskeleton , until matching ends have been paired . Then the intervening regions of the chromosome are brought together , and may be connected by a protein - RNA complex called the synaptonemal complex . Autosomes undergo synapsis during meiosis , and are held together by a protein complex along the whole length of the chromosomes called the synaptonemal complex . Sex chromosomes also undergo synapsis ; however , the synaptonemal protein complex that holds the homologous chromosomes together is only present at one end of each sex chromosome . This is not to be confused with mitosis . Mitosis also has prophase , but does not ordinarily do pairing of two homologous chromosomes . When the non-sister chromatids intertwine , segments of chromatids with similar sequence may break apart and be exchanged in a process known as genetic recombination or `` crossing - over '' . This exchange produces a chiasma , a region that is shaped like an X , where the two chromosomes are physically joined . At least one chiasma per chromosome often appears to be necessary to stabilise bivalents along the metaphase plate during separation . The crossover of genetic material also provides a possible defence against ' chromosome killer ' mechanisms , by removing the distinction between ' self ' and ' non-self ' through which such a mechanism could operate . A further consequence of recombinant synapsis is to increase genetic variability within the offspring . Repeated recombination also has the general effect of allowing genes to move independently of each other through the generations , allowing for the independent concentration of beneficial genes and the purging of the detrimental . Following synapsis , a type of recombination referred to as synthesis dependent strand annealing ( SDSA ) occurs frequently . SDSA recombination involves information exchange between paired non-sister homologous chromatids , but not physical exchange . SDSA recombination does not cause crossing - over . Both the non-crossover and crossover types of recombination function as processes for repairing DNA damage , particularly double - strand breaks ( see Genetic recombination ) . The central function of synapsis is therefore the identification of homologues by pairing , an essential step for a successful meiosis . The processes of DNA repair and chiasma formation that take place following synapsis have consequences at many levels , from cellular survival through to impacts upon evolution itself . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Revenkova E , Jessberger R ( 2006 ) . `` Shaping meiotic prophase chromosomes : cohesins and synaptonemal complex proteins '' ( PDF ) . Chromosoma. 115 ( 3 ) : 235 -- 40 . PMID 16518630 . doi : 10.1007 / s00412 - 006 - 0060 - x . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Page J , de la Fuente R , Gómez R , Calvente A , Viera A , Parra M , Santos J , Berríos S , Fernández - Donoso R , Suja J , Rufas J ( 2006 ) . `` Sex chromosomes , synapsis , and cohesins : a complex affair '' ( PDF ) . Chromosoma. 115 ( 3 ) : 250 -- 9 . PMID 16544151 . doi : 10.1007 / s00412 - 006 - 0059 - 3 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ McKee B ( 2004 ) . `` Homologous pairing and chromosome dynamics in meiosis and mitosis '' . Biochim Biophys Acta. 1677 ( 1 - 3 ) : 165 -- 80 . PMID 15020057 . doi : 10.1016 / j. bbaexp. 2003.11. 017 . External links ( edit ) Look up synapsis in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . UC Berkeley video of chromosome end migration and match assessment during prophase This cell biology article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synapsis&oldid=807090876 '' Categories : Cell biology Cytogenetics Cell biology stubs Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Español Français Hrvatski Português Русский தமிழ் 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 October 2017 , at 21 : 01 . About Wikipedia

Question: when does synapsis of homologous chromosomes occur in mitosis


Emmett Brown - wikipedia Emmett Brown Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Emmett `` Doc '' Brown Back to the Future character Christopher Lloyd as Dr Emmett Brown Portrayed by Christopher Lloyd Voiced by Dan Castellaneta Christopher Lloyd ( Emmett Brown , Back to the Future : The Game ; Lego Dimensions ) James Arnold Taylor ( Young Emmett Brown , Back to the Future : The Game ) Appearances Back to the Future Back to the Future Part II Back to the Future Part III Back to the Future : the Animated Series Back to the Future : The Ride The Simpsons Ride Back to the Future : The Game A Million Ways to Die in the West Lego Dimensions Doc Brown Saves the World Information Occupation Scientist Physicist Blacksmith Relatives Judge Braun Brown ( father ) Clara Clayton Brown ( wife ) Jules Eratosthenes Brown ( son ) Verne Newton Brown ( son ) Time travel Original time 1985 Known years visited 1885 , 1955 , 1985 , 1985A , 2015 Emmett Lathrop `` Doc '' Brown , Ph. D. , is a fictional character in the Back to the Future trilogy in which he is the inventor of the first time machine , built out of a DeLorean sports car . The character is portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in all three films , as well as in the live action sequences of the animated series . He is voiced by Dan Castellaneta in the animated series . The character 's appearance and mannerisms are loosely inspired by Leopold Stokowski and Albert Einstein . In 2008 , Dr. Emmett Brown was selected by Empire magazine as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , ranking at # 20 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biography 2 Other appearances 3 References 4 External links Biography ( edit ) Emmett refers to himself as `` a student of all sciences '' and is depicted as a talented inventor . His homes in 1985 , 1955 , and 1885 are shown to contain various labor - saving gadgets . He appears to be heavily influenced by scientists of previous eras , naming successive pet dogs Copernicus and Einstein , and having portraits of Isaac Newton , Benjamin Franklin , Thomas Edison and Albert Einstein in his laboratory . His favorite author is Jules Verne and his family name was originally `` von Braun '' before World War I . Emmett 's family moved to Hill Valley from Germany in 1908 . Although initially wealthy because of his inheritance , he spent his entire family fortune on his time travel project . When the Brown mansion was destroyed by fire in 1962 and the property sold to developers , Doc subsequently resided in the mansion 's garage . Once broke , he established a privately owned business to offer 24 - hour scientific services , building ingenious devices for his customers . Emmett 's work appears to be highly regarded , enough for him to win an award for his work . However , he is shown as absent - minded at times , and various statements by other characters inhabiting Hill Valley indicate that he is generally regarded as strange , eccentric , or insane . Being very loud and sprightly , he often speaks with wide - eyed expressions and broad gestures ( `` Great Scott ! '' being one of his well - known catchphrases ) and tends to be overly verbose in his delivery , referring in one case to a school dance as a `` rhythmic ceremonial ritual '' . Doc and Marty met several years prior to the events of the first time travel experiment when Marty , out of curiosity , sneaked into Doc 's lab after being warned by his parents to stay away from him . Happy to be revered as ' cool ' , Doc hired Marty as his part - time lab assistant . In the original timeline , in contrast with Marty 's shy and unassertive father , George McFly , Doc is a supportive and open - minded mentor for Marty . Doc 's positive influence in turn allows Marty to mentor George in 1955 , which appears to encourage George 's later success as a novelist , and help him become a better husband and father . One line in particular , `` If you put your mind to it , you can accomplish anything , '' originates from Doc . Marty repeats it to George in 1955 , who repeats it back to Marty in the post time travel 1985 . Doc has been involved with illegal and criminal enterprises ( albeit as a means to obtain items for his inventions he could not purchase legally ) but he is naive and care - free about the consequences of his actions . He excitedly tells Marty how he cheated Libyan terrorists out of stolen plutonium : `` They wanted me to build them a bomb , so I took their plutonium and , in turn , gave them a shoddy bomb casing full of used pinball machine parts ! '' Despite being intelligent and logical for the most part , Doc is somewhat naive at times about the unknown possible uses of his time machine , initially actively explores the course of the world 's future and tries to alter the past or future of the principal characters to improve their lives . However , events lead him to conclude that time travel is too dangerous for humankind . His conviction initially strengthened when he realizes that he has unwittingly altered history by preventing the death of Clara Clayton in 1885 ; he concludes that the time machine has `` caused nothing but disaster '' and asks Marty to destroy it once he returns to his own time . Nonetheless , Doc pursues a romantic relationship with Clara despite the risks of further disrupting the timeline . However , after having been left behind in 1885 when Marty departs in the DeLorean for 1985 , Doc starts a family with Clara ; the couple have two sons , Jules and Verne . He eventually builds another time machine out of a steam locomotive , and the Browns return to 1985 in order to pick up Einstein before setting out for another adventure . Other appearances ( edit ) Dan Castellaneta played the character in the short - lived animated series , Back to the Future : The Animated Series . The show was a continuation of the previous movies ' storyline though officially rendered non-canon by co-creator Bob Gale . It instead takes place in an alternate timeline . Christopher Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown in the show 's live - action segments . Christopher Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown for Back to the Future : The Ride . The ride acts as a mini sequel to the film franchise , following Doc Brown and his founding of the ' Institute of Future Technology ' . Here , he invites tourists to embark on a time - travelling adventure in his newly made eight passenger DeLorean . The ride was included on the 2009 Blu - Ray re-release of the trilogy . Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown for the 1990 Warner Bros. program The Earth Day Special . Lloyd also returned to voice Doc Brown in his appearance in Back to the Future : The Video Game . As a reference to the Back to the Future 's ride closure , Doc Brown has a cameo in The Simpsons Ride . Doc Brown appeared in the Universal Studios show , Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure giving Bill and Ted a ride back to the future due to Ted misplacing their own time machine . Christopher Lloyd also reprises the role in the video game Lego Dimensions . Due to the character 's success , Brown has also been parodied on shows such as Family Guy and Robot Chicken whilst also being the main inspiration for the character of Rick Sanchez in Rick and Morty . Christopher Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown in the 2015 direct - to - video short film Doc Brown Saves the World , which reveals that he erased the future witnessed in Back to the Future II as the various inventions of that time led to mass obesity and Griff Tannen triggering a nuclear holocaust . Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown for a cameo role in the 2014 film A Million Ways to Die in the West , apparently set during Brown 's time trapped in the past , where he hides the DeLorean while talking with the film 's protagonist . The final scene of the non-canonical nonsense iCarly episode `` iApril Fools '' and in the theme sequence of its Victorious equivalent `` April Fools Blank '' there is a clear reference of Doc 's dialogue with Marty and Jennifer in the final sequence of Back to the Future and in the initial sequence of Back to the Future Part II . Lloyd plays a very Doc Brown-esque role in the 2016 Funny or Die satire film Donald Trump 's The Art of the Deal : The Movie . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale Q&A , Back to the Future ( 2002 DVD ) , recorded at the University of Southern California Jump up ^ `` Empire 's The 100 Greatest Movie Characters '' . Empire Magazine . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Archived December 25 , 2010 at the Wayback Machine Jump up ^ http://www.backtothefuture.com/ External links ( edit ) Film in the United States portal Science fiction portal Fictional characters portal Wikiquote has quotations related to : Emmett Brown Emmett Brown on IMDb ( hide ) Back to the Future Films Back to the Future Back to the Future Part II Back to the Future Part III Characters Marty McFly Emmett Brown Biff Tannen Music Back to the Future `` The Power of Love '' `` Back in Time '' Back to the Future Part III `` Doubleback '' The Back to the Future Trilogy ( soundtrack ) Video games Back to the Future ( 1985 video game ) Back to the Future ( 1989 video game ) Back to the Future Part III Back to the Future Part II & III Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure Back to the Future : The Game Other media Back to the Future : The Ride Back to the Future : The Animated Series Back to the Future ( musical ) Back to the Future : The Pinball Back in Time Universe DeLorean time machine Hill Valley Hoverboard Nike Mag Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emmett_Brown&oldid=822345242 '' Categories : Fictional characters introduced in 1985 Back to the Future Fictional physicists Fictional inventors Fictional mad scientists Fictional characters from California Fictional American people of German descent Fictional smiths Time travelers Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from July 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from July 2017 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Italiano עברית Malagasy Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2018 , at 21 : 02 . 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Question: what was the professors name in back to the future


New media - wikipedia New media Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with News media . hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( March 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article 's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia . See Wikipedia 's guide to writing better articles for suggestions . ( August 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) New media are forms of media that are native to computers , computational and relying on computers for distribution . Some examples of new media are websites , mobile apps , virtual worlds , multimedia , computer games , human - computer interface , computer animation and interactive computer installations . New media are often contrasted to `` old media '' , such as television , radio , and print media , although scholars in communication and media studies have criticised rigid distinctions based on oldness and novelty . New media does not include television programs ( only analog broadcast ) , feature films , magazines , books , -- unless they contain technologies that enable digital generative or interactive processes . Wikipedia , an online encyclopedia , is a good example of New Media , combining Internet accessible digital text , images and video with web - links , creative participation of contributors , interactive feedback of users and formation of a participant community of editors and donors for the benefit of non-community readers . Facebook is another type of New Media , belonging to the category of social media model , in which most users are also participants . Another type of New Media is Twitter which also belongs to the social media category , through which users interact with one another and make announcements to which the public receive . Both Facebook and Twitter have risen in usage in recent years and have become an online resource for acquiring information . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Definition 3 Globalization 4 As tool for social change 5 National security 6 Interactivity 7 Industry 8 Youth 9 Political campaigns in the United States 10 Ethical Issues in New Media Research 10.1 Observational Research 10.2 Interactive Research 10.3 Survey / Interview Research 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading History ( edit ) In the 1950s , connections between computing and radical art began to grow stronger . It was not until the 1980s that Alan Kay and his co-workers at Xerox PARC began to give the computability of a personal computer to the individual , rather than have a big organization be in charge of this . `` In the late 1980s and early 1990s , however , we seem to witness a different kind of parallel relationship between social changes and computer design . Although causally unrelated , conceptually it makes sense that the Cold War and the design of the Web took place at exactly the same time . '' Writers and philosophers such as Marshall McLuhan were instrumental in the development of media theory during this period . His now famous declaration in Understanding Media : The Extensions of Man ( 1964 ) that `` the medium is the message '' drew attention to the too often ignored influence media and technology themselves , rather than their `` content , '' have on humans ' experience of the world and on society broadly . Until the 1980s media relied primarily upon print and analog broadcast models , such as those of television and radio . The last twenty - five years have seen the rapid transformation into media which are predicated upon the use of digital technologies , such as the Internet and video games . However , these examples are only a small representation of new media . The use of digital computers has transformed the remaining ' old ' media , as suggested by the advent of digital television and online publications . Even traditional media forms such as the printing press have been transformed through the application of technologies such as image manipulation software like Adobe Photoshop and desktop publishing tools . Andrew L. Shapiro ( 1999 ) argues that the `` emergence of new , digital technologies signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information , experience and resources '' ( Shapiro cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003 : 322 ) . W. Russell Neuman ( 1991 ) suggests that whilst the `` new media '' have technical capabilities to pull in one direction , economic and social forces pull back in the opposite direction . According to Neuman , `` We are witnessing the evolution of a universal interconnected network of audio , video , and electronic text communications that will blur the distinction between interpersonal and mass communication and between public and private communication '' ( Neuman cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003 : 322 ) . Neuman argues that new media will : Alter the meaning of geographic distance . Allow for a huge increase in the volume of communication . Provide the possibility of increasing the speed of communication . Provide opportunities for interactive communication . Allow forms of communication that were previously separate to overlap and interconnect . Consequently , it has been the contention of scholars such as Douglas Kellner and James Bohman that new media , and particularly the Internet , provide the potential for a democratic postmodern public sphere , in which citizens can participate in well informed , non-hierarchical debate pertaining to their social structures . Contradicting these positive appraisals of the potential social impacts of new media are scholars such as Ed Herman and Robert McChesney who have suggested that the transition to new media has seen a handful of powerful transnational telecommunications corporations who achieve a level of global influence which was hitherto unimaginable . Scholars , such as Lister et al. ( 2003 ) , have highlighted both the positive and negative potential and actual implications of new media technologies , suggesting that some of the early work into new media studies was guilty of technological determinism -- whereby the effects of media were determined by the technology themselves , rather than through tracing the complex social networks which governed the development , funding , implementation and future development of any technology . Based on the argument that people have a limited amount of time to spend on the consumption of different media , Displacement theory argue that the viewership or readership of one particular outlet leads to the reduction in the amount of time spent by the individual on another . The introduction of New Media , such as the internet , therefore reduces the amount of time individuals would spend on existing `` Old '' Media , which could ultimately lead to the end of such traditional media . Definition ( edit ) Although there are several ways that New Media may be described , Lev Manovich , in an introduction to The New Media Reader , defines New Media by using eight propositions : New Media versus Cyberculture -- Cyberculture is the various social phenomena that are associated with the Internet and network communications ( blogs , online multi-player gaming ) , whereas New Media is concerned more with cultural objects and paradigms ( digital to analog television , iPhones ) . New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform -- New Media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition . e.g. ( at least for now ) Internet , Web sites , computer multimedia , Blu - ray disks etc . The problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years . The term `` new media '' will not be `` new '' anymore , as most forms of culture will be distributed through computers . New Media as Digital Data Controlled by Software -- The language of New Media is based on the assumption that , in fact , all cultural objects that rely on digital representation and computer - based delivery do share a number of common qualities . New media is reduced to digital data that can be manipulated by software as any other data . Now media operations can create several versions of the same object . An example is an image stored as matrix data which can be manipulated and altered according to the additional algorithms implemented , such as color inversion , gray - scaling , sharpening , rasterizing , etc . New Media as the Mix Between Existing Cultural Conventions and the Conventions of Software -- New Media today can be understood as the mix between older cultural conventions for data representation , access , and manipulation and newer conventions of data representation , access , and manipulation . The `` old '' data are representations of visual reality and human experience , and the `` new '' data is numerical data . The computer is kept out of the key `` creative '' decisions , and is delegated to the position of a technician . e.g. In film , software is used in some areas of production , in others are created using computer animation . New Media as the Aesthetics that Accompanies the Early Stage of Every New Modern Media and Communication Technology -- While ideological tropes indeed seem to be reappearing rather regularly , many aesthetic strategies may reappear two or three times ... In order for this approach to be truly useful it would be insufficient to simply name the strategies and tropes and to record the moments of their appearance ; instead , we would have to develop a much more comprehensive analysis which would correlate the history of technology with social , political , and economical histories or the modern period . New Media as Faster Execution of Algorithms Previously Executed Manually or through Other Technologies -- Computers are a huge speed - up of what were previously manual techniques . e.g. calculators . Dramatically speeding up the execution makes possible previously non-existent representational technique . This also makes possible of many new forms of media art such as interactive multimedia and video games . On one level , a modern digital computer is just a faster calculator , we should not ignore its other identity : that of a cybernetic control device . New Media as the Encoding of Modernist Avant - Garde ; New Media as Metamedia -- Manovich declares that the 1920s are more relevant to New Media than any other time period . Metamedia coincides with postmodernism in that they both rework old work rather than create new work . New media avant - garde is about new ways of accessing and manipulating information ( e.g. hypermedia , databases , search engines , etc . ) . Meta - media is an example of how quantity can change into quality as in new media technology and manipulation techniques can recode modernist aesthetics into a very different postmodern aesthetics . New Media as Parallel Articulation of Similar Ideas in Post-WWII Art and Modern Computing -- Post WWII Art or `` combinatorics '' involves creating images by systematically changing a single parameter . This leads to the creation of remarkably similar images and spatial structures . This illustrates that algorithms , this essential part of new media , do not depend on technology , but can be executed by humans . Globalization ( edit ) The rise of new media has increased communication between people all over the world and the Internet . It has allowed people to express themselves through blogs , websites , videos , pictures , and other user - generated media . Flew ( 2002 ) stated that , `` as a result of the evolution of new media technologies , globalization occurs . '' Globalization is generally stated as `` more than expansion of activities beyond the boundaries of particular nation states '' . Globalization shortens the distance between people all over the world by the electronic communication ( Carely 1992 in Flew 2002 ) and Cairncross ( 1998 ) expresses this great development as the `` death of distance '' . New media `` radically break the connection between physical place and social place , making physical location much less significant for our social relationships '' ( Croteau and Hoynes 2003 : 311 ) . However , the changes in the new media environment create a series of tensions in the concept of `` public sphere '' . According to Ingrid Volkmer , `` public sphere '' is defined as a process through which public communication becomes restructured and partly disembedded from national political and cultural institutions . This trend of the globalized public sphere is not only as a geographical expansion form a nation to worldwide , but also changes the relationship between the public , the media and state ( Volkmer , 1999 : 123 ) . `` Virtual communities '' are being established online and transcend geographical boundaries , eliminating social restrictions . Howard Rheingold ( 2000 ) describes these globalised societies as self - defined networks , which resemble what we do in real life . `` People in virtual communities use words on screens to exchange pleasantries and argue , engage in intellectual discourse , conduct commerce , make plans , brainstorm , gossip , feud , fall in love , create a little high art and a lot of idle talk '' ( Rheingold cited in Slevin 2000 : 91 ) . For Sherry Turkle `` making the computer into a second self , finding a soul in the machine , can substitute for human relationships '' ( Holmes 2005 : 184 ) . New media has the ability to connect like - minded others worldwide . While this perspective suggests that the technology drives -- and therefore is a determining factor -- in the process of globalization , arguments involving technological determinism are generally frowned upon by mainstream media studies . Instead academics focus on the multiplicity of processes by which technology is funded , researched and produced , forming a feedback loop when the technologies are used and often transformed by their users , which then feeds into the process of guiding their future development . While commentators such as Castells espouse a `` soft determinism '' whereby they contend that `` Technology does not determine society . Nor does society script the course of technological change , since many factors , including individual inventiveness and entrpreneurialism , intervene in the process of scientific discovery , technical innovation and social applications , so the final outcome depends on a complex pattern of interaction . Indeed the dilemma of technological determinism is probably a false problem , since technology is society and society can not be understood without its technological tools . '' ( Castells 1996 : 5 ) This , however , is still distinct from stating that societal changes are instigated by technological development , which recalls the theses of Marshall McLuhan . Manovich and Castells have argued that whereas mass media `` corresponded to the logic of industrial mass society , which values conformity over individuality , '' ( Manovich 2001 : 41 ) new media follows the logic of the postindustrial or globalized society whereby `` every citizen can construct her own custom lifestyle and select her ideology from a large number of choices . Rather than pushing the same objects to a mass audience , marketing now tries to target each individual separately . '' ( Manovich 2001 : 42 ) . As tool for social change ( edit ) Social movement media has a rich and storied history ( see Agitprop ) that has changed at a rapid rate since New Media became widely used . The Zapatista Army of National Liberation of Chiapas , Mexico were the first major movement to make widely recognized and effective use of New Media for communiques and organizing in 1994 . Since then , New Media has been used extensively by social movements to educate , organize , share cultural products of movements , communicate , coalition build , and more . The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity was another landmark in the use of New Media as a tool for social change . The WTO protests used media to organize the original action , communicate with and educate participants , and was used as an alternative media source . The Indymedia movement also developed out of this action , and has been a great tool in the democratization of information , which is another widely discussed aspect of new media movement . Some scholars even view this democratization as an indication of the creation of a `` radical , socio - technical paradigm to challenge the dominant , neoliberal and technologically determinist model of information and communication technologies . '' A less radical view along these same lines is that people are taking advantage of the Internet to produce a grassroots globalization , one that is anti-neoliberal and centered on people rather than the flow of capital . Chanelle Adams , a feminist blogger for the Bi-Weekly webpaper The Media says that in her `` commitment to anti-oppressive feminist work , it seems obligatory for her to stay in the know just to remain relevant to the struggle . '' In order for Adams and other feminists who work towards spreading their messages to the public , new media becomes crucial towards completing this task , allowing people to access a movement 's information instantaneously . Of course , some are also skeptical of the role of New Media in Social Movements . Many scholars point out unequal access to new media as a hindrance to broad - based movements , sometimes even oppressing some within a movement . Others are skeptical about how democratic or useful it really is for social movements , even for those with access . New Media has also found a use with less radical social movements such as the Free Hugs Campaign . Using websites , blogs , and online videos to demonstrate the effectiveness of the movement itself . Along with this example the use of high volume blogs has allowed numerous views and practices to be more widespread and gain more public attention . Another example is the ongoing Free Tibet Campaign , which has been seen on numerous websites as well as having a slight tie - in with the band Gorillaz in their Gorillaz Bitez clip featuring the lead singer 2D sitting with protesters at a Free Tibet protest . Another social change seen coming from New Media is trends in fashion and the emergence of subcultures such as Text Speak , Cyberpunk , and various others . Following trends in fashion and Text Speak , New Media also makes way for `` trendy '' social change . The Ice Bucket Challenge is a recent example of this . All in the name of raising money for ALS ( the lethal neurodegenerative disorder also known as Lou Gehrig 's disease ) , participants are nominated by friends via Facebook , Twitter and ownmirror to dump a bucket of ice water on themselves , or donate to the ALS Foundation . This became a huge trend through Facebook 's tagging tool , allowing nominees to be tagged in the post . The videos appeared on more people 's feeds , and the trend spread fast . This trend raised over 100 million dollars for the cause and increased donations by 3,500 percent . National security ( edit ) See also : Terrorism and social media New Media has also recently become of interest to the global espionage community as it is easily accessible electronically in database format and can therefore be quickly retrieved and reverse engineered by national governments . Particularly of interest to the espionage community are Facebook and Twitter , two sites where individuals freely divulge personal information that can then be sifted through and archived for the automatic creation of dossiers on both people of interest and the average citizen . New media also serves as an important tool for both institutions and nations to promote their interest and values ( The contents of such promotion may vary according to different purposes ) . Some communities consider it an approach of `` peaceful evolution '' that may erode their own nation 's system of values and eventually compromise national security . Interactivity ( edit ) Interactivity has become a term for a number of new media use options evolving from the rapid dissemination of Internet access points , the digitalization of media , and media convergence . In 1984 , Rice defined new media as communication technologies that enable or facilitate user - to - user interactivity and interactivity between user and information . Such a definition replaces the `` one - to - many '' model of traditional mass communication with the possibility of a `` many - to - many '' web of communication . Any individual with the appropriate technology can now produce his or her online media and include images , text , and sound about whatever he or she chooses . Thus the convergence of new methods of communication with new technologies shifts the model of mass communication , and radically reshapes the ways we interact and communicate with one another . In `` What is new media ? '' Vin Crosbie ( 2002 ) described three different kinds of communication media . He saw Interpersonal media as `` one to one '' , Mass media as `` one to many '' , and finally New Media as Individuation Media or `` many to many '' . When we think of interactivity and its meaning , we assume that it is only prominent in the conversational dynamics of individuals who are face - to - face . This restriction of opinion does not allow us to see its existence in mediated communication forums . Interactivity is present in some programming work , such as video games . It 's also viable in the operation of traditional media . In the mid 1990s , filmmakers started using inexpensive digital cameras to create films . It was also the time when moving image technology had developed , which was able to be viewed on computer desktops in full motion . This development of new media technology was a new method for artists to share their work and interact with the big world . Other settings of interactivity include radio and television talk shows , letters to the editor , listener participation in such programs , and computer and technological programming . Interactive new media has become a true benefit to every one because people can express their artwork in more than one way with the technology that we have today and there is no longer a limit to what we can do with our creativity . Interactivity can be considered a central concept in understanding new media , but different media forms possess , or enable different degrees of interactivity , and some forms of digitized and converged media are not in fact interactive at all . Tony Feldman considers digital satellite television as an example of a new media technology that uses digital compression to dramatically increase the number of television channels that can be delivered , and which changes the nature of what can be offered through the service , but does not transform the experience of television from the user 's point of view , and thus lacks a more fully interactive dimension . It remains the case that interactivity is not an inherent characteristic of all new media technologies , unlike digitization and convergence . Terry Flew ( 2005 ) argues that `` the global interactive games industry is large and growing , and is at the forefront of many of the most significant innovations in new media '' ( Flew 2005 : 101 ) . Interactivity is prominent in these online video games such as World of Warcraft , The Sims Online and Second Life . These games , which are developments of `` new media , '' allow for users to establish relationships and experience a sense of belonging that transcends traditional temporal and spatial boundaries ( such as when gamers logging in from different parts of the world interact ) . These games can be used as an escape or to act out a desired life . Will Wright , creator of The Sims , `` is fascinated by the way gamers have become so attached to his invention - with some even living their lives through it '' . New media have created virtual realities that are becoming virtual extensions of the world we live in . With the creation of Second Life and Active Worlds before it , people have even more control over this virtual world , a world where anything that a participant can think of can become a reality . New Media changes continuously because it is constantly modified and redefined by the interaction between users , emerging technologies , cultural changes , etc . New forms of New Media are emerging like Web 2.0 tools Facebook and YouTube , along with video games and the consoles they are played on . It is helping to make video games and video game consoles branch out into New Media as well . Gamers on YouTube post videos of them playing video games they like and that people want to watch . Cultural changes are happening because people can upload their gaming experiences to a Web 2.0 tool like Facebook and YouTube for the world to see . Consoles like the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 have WiFi connectivity and chat rooms on most of their video games that allow gamer - to - gamer conversations around the world . They also allow people to connect to YouTube , so if they stream / record a gamer , it allows for easy uploading to YouTube for the world to see . Even the older video game consoles are becoming new media because YouTube can display the walkthroughs and let 's plays of the game . YouTube gaming is evolving because some YouTubers are getting wealthy and earning money from their videos . The more people that become YouTube members , the popular YouTube becomes and the more it starts emerging as a new source of media , along with video games and consoles . The chat room / online gaming / WiFi consoles are getting the highest increase in popularity because they are not only the most advanced , but because of the newest video games being created that the majority of the gaming community wants to buy , play and watch . The older video games and consoles also get popularity , but from YouTube 's capabilities of uploading them to the gamer 's channels for everyone to see . The older games get popularity from the communities nostalgia of the game ( s ) , and the old school graphics and gameplay that made people see how old - school technology was the best at some point in time . Facebook helps those video games and consoles get popularity as well . People can upload the videos they create to Facebook as well . Facebook is a much larger website with a lot more users , so people use Facebook to spread their gaming content as well . Industry ( edit ) The new media industry shares an open association with many market segments in areas such as software / video game design , television , radio , mobile and particularly movies , advertising and marketing , through which industry seeks to gain from the advantages of two - way dialogue with consumers primarily through the Internet . As a device to source the ideas , concepts , and intellectual properties of the general public , the television industry has used new media and the Internet to expand their resources for new programming and content . The advertising industry has also capitalized on the proliferation of new media with large agencies running multimillion - dollar interactive advertising subsidiaries . Interactive websites and kiosks have become popular . In a number of cases advertising agencies have also set up new divisions to study new media . Public relations firms are also taking advantage of the opportunities in new media through interactive PR practices . Interactive PR practices include the use of social media to reach a mass audience of online social network users . With the rise of the Internet , many new career paths were created . Before the rise , many technical jobs were seen as nerdy . The Internet led to creative work that was seen as laid - back and diverse amongst sex , race , and sexual orientation . Web design , gaming design , webcasting , blogging , and animation are all creative career paths that came with this rise . At first glance , the field of new media may seem hip , cool , creative and relaxed . What many do n't realize is that working in this field is tiresome . Many of the people that work in this field do n't have steady jobs . Work in this field has become project - based . Individuals work project to project for different companies . Most people are not working on one project or contract , but multiple ones at the same time . Despite working on numerous projects , people in this industry receive low payments , which is highly contrasted with the techy millionaire stereotype . It may seem as a carefree life from the outside , but it is not . New media workers work long hours for little pay and spend up to 20 hours a week looking for new projects to work on . The ideology of new media careers as an egalitarian and stress - free environment is a myth . It is a game of networking and thriving at what you are capable of . Many workers face job instability . Inequality within this field exists due to the informality and flexibility of this career path . Within the Industry , many Companies have emerged or transformed to adapt to the fast moving exciting opportunities that new media offers . The following companies are great examples of the changing landscape of companies / agencies whom have redeveloped , added or changed services to offer new media services . Brand New Media Adcore Creative Seven West Media Youth ( edit ) Based on nationally representative data , a study conducted by Kaiser Family Foundation in five - year intervals in 1998 -- 99 , 2003 -- 04 , and 2008 -- 09 found that with technology allowing nearly 24 - hour media access , the amount of time young people spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically , especially among Black and Hispanic youth . Today , 8 - to 18 - year - olds devote an average of 7 hours and 38 minutes ( 7 : 38 ) to using entertainment media in a typical day ( more than 53 hours a week ) -- about the same amount most adults spend at work per day . Since much of that time is spent ' media multitasking ' ( using more than one medium at a time ) , they actually manage to spend a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes worth of media content in those 71⁄2 hours per day . According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project , 96 % of 18 - to 29 - year - olds and three - quarters ( 75 % ) of teens now own a cell phone , 88 % of whom text , with 73 % of wired American teens using social networking websites , a significant increase from previous years . A survey of over 25000 9 - to 16 - year - olds from 25 European countries found that many underage children use social media sites despite the site 's stated age requirements , and many youth lack the digital skills to use social networking sites safely . The development of the new digital media demands a new educational model by parents and educators . The parental mediation become a way to manage the children 's experiences with Internet , chat , videogames and social network . A recent trend in internet is Youtubers Generation . Youtubers are young people who offer free video in their personal channel on YouTube . There are videos on games , fashion , food , cinema and music , where they offers tutorial or comments . The role of cellular phones , such as the iPhone , has created the inability to be in social isolation , and the potential of ruining relationships . The iPhone activates the insular cortex of the brain , which is associated with feelings of love . People show similar feelings to their phones as they would to their friends , family and loved ones . Countless people spend more time on their phones , while in the presence of other people than spending time with the people in the same room or class . Political campaigns in the united states ( edit ) In trying to determine the impact of new media on political campaigning and electioneering , the existing research has tried to examine whether new media supplants conventional media . Television is still the dominant news source , but new media 's reach is growing . What is known is that new media has had a significant impact on elections and what began in the 2008 presidential campaign established new standards for how campaigns would be run . Since then , campaigns also have their outreach methods by developing targeted messages for specific audiences that can be reached via different social media platforms . Both parties have specific digital media strategies designed for voter outreach . Additionally , their websites are socially connected , engaging voters before , during , and after elections . Email and text messages are also regularly sent to supporters encouraging them to donate and get involved . Some existing research focuses on the ways that political campaigns , parties , and candidates have incorporated new media into their political strategizing . This is often a multi-faceted approach that combines new and old media forms to create highly specialized strategies . This allows them to reach wider audiences , but also to target very specific subsets of the electorate . They are able to tap into polling data and in some cases harness the analytics of the traffic and profiles on various social media outlets to get real - time data about the kinds of engagement that is needed and the kinds of messages that are successful or unsuccessful . One body of existing research into the impact of new media on elections investigates the relationship between voters ' use of new media and their level of political activity . They focus on areas such as `` attentiveness , knowledge , attitudes , orientations , and engagement '' ( Owen , 2011 ) . In references a vast body of research , Owen ( 2011 ) points out that older studies were mixed , while `` newer research reveals more consistent evidence of information gain '' . Some of that research has shown that there is a connection between the amount and degree of voter engagement and turnout ( Owen , 2011 ) . However , new media may not have overwhelming effects on either of those . Other research is tending toward the idea that new media has reinforcing effect , that rather than completely altering , by increasing involvement , it `` imitates the established pattern of political participation '' ( Nam , 2012 ) . After analyzing the Citizenship Involvement Democracy survey , Nam ( 2012 ) found that `` the internet plays a dual role in mobilizing political participation by people not normally politically involved , as well as reinforcing existing offline participation . '' These findings chart a middle ground between some research that optimistically holds new media up to be an extremely effective or extremely ineffective at fostering political participation . Towner ( 2013 ) found , in his survey of college students , that attention to new media increases offline and online political participation particularly for young people . His research shows that the prevalence of online media boosts participation and engagement . His work suggests that `` it seems that online sources that facilitate political involvement , communication , and mobilization , particularly campaign websites , social media , and blogs , are the most important for offline political participation among young people '' . Deliberation When gauging effects and implications of new media on the political process , one means of doing so is to look at the deliberations that take place in these digital spaces ( Halpern & Gibbs , 2013 ) . In citing the work of several researchers , Halpern and Gibbs ( 2003 ) define deliberation to be `` the performance of a set of communicative behaviors that promote thorough discussion . and the notion that in this process of communication the individuals involved weigh carefully the reasons for and against some of the propositions presented by others '' . The work of Halpern and Gibbs ( 2013 ) `` suggest that although social media may not provide a forum for intensive or in - depth policy debate , it nevertheless provides a deliberative space to discuss and encourage political participation , both directly and indirectly '' . Their work goes a step beyond that as well though because it shows that some social media sites foster a more robust political debate than do others such as Facebook which includes highly personal and identifiable access to information about users alongside any comments they may post on political topics . This is in contrast to sites like YouTube whose comments are often posted anonymously . Ethical issues in new media research ( edit ) Due to the popularity of new media , social media websites ( SMWs ) like Facebook and Twitter are becoming increasingly popular among researchers ( Moreno , Goniu , Moreno , Diekema , 2013 ) . Although SMWs present new opportunities , they also represent challenges for researchers interested in studying social phenomena online , since it can be difficult to determine what are acceptable risks to privacy unique to social media . Some scholars ( e.g. Moreno , Frost & Christakis , 2008 ) argue that standard Institutional Review Board ( IRB ) procedures provide little guidance on research protocols relating to social media in particular . As a consequence , Moreno et al ( 2013 ) identified three major approaches to research on social media and relevant concerns scholars should consider before engaging in social media research . Observational research ( edit ) One of the major issues for observational research is whether a particular project is considered to involve human subjects . A human subject is one that `` is defined by federal regulations as a living individual about whom an investigator obtains data through interaction with the individual or identifiable private information '' . Moreno et al ( 2013 ) note that if access to a social media site is public , information is considered identifiable but not private , and information gathering procedures do not require researchers to interact with the original poster of the information , then this does not meet the requirements for human subjects research . Research may also be exempt if the disclosure of participant responses outside the realm of the published research does not subject the participant to civic or criminal liability , damage the participant 's reputation , employability or financial standing . Given these criteria , however , researchers still have considerable leeway when conducting observational research on social media . Many profiles on Facebook , Twitter , LinkedIn , and Twitter are public and researchers are free to use that data for observational research . It should be noted , however , that users have the ability to change their privacy settings on most social media websites . Facebook , for example , provides users with the ability to restrict who sees their posts through specific privacy settings . There is also debate about whether requiring users to create a username and password is sufficient to establish whether the data is considered public or private . Historically , Institutional Review Boards considered such websites to be private , although newer websites like YouTube call this practice into question . For example , YouTube only requires the creation of a username and password to post videos and / or view adult content , but anyone is free to view general YouTube videos and these general videos would not be subject to consent requirements for researchers looking to conduct observational studies . Interactive research ( edit ) According to Romano et al ( 2013 ) , interactive research occurs when `` a researcher wishes to access the ( social media website ) content that is not publicly available '' ( pg. 710 ) . Because researchers have limited ways of accessing this data , this could mean that a researcher sends a Facebook user a friend request , or follows a user on Twitter in order to gain access to potentially protected tweets ( pg. 711 ) . While it could be argued that such actions would violate a social media user 's expectation of privacy , Ellison , Steinfield and Lampe ( 2007 ) argued that actions like `` friending '' or `` following '' an individual on social media constitutes a `` loose tie '' relationship and therefore not sufficient to establish a reasonable expectation of privacy since individuals often have friends or followers they have never even met . Survey / Interview Research ( edit ) Because research on social media occurs online , it is difficult for researchers to observe participant reactions to the informed consent process . For example , when collecting information about activities that are potentially illegal , or recruiting participants from stigmatized populations , this lack of physical proximity could potentially negatively impact the informed consent process . Another important consideration regards the confidentiality of information provided by participants . While information provided over the internet might be perceived as lower risk , studies that publish direct quotes from study participants might expose them to the risk of being identified via a Google search See also ( edit ) 2000s in the music industry Augmented reality Collective intelligence Cybertext Digital media Digital art Distance education Digital rhetoric Electronic media Global Editors Network ( GEN ) Information Age Interactive media Live media Mass media Mass collaboration Media intelligence Multimedia New media art New media artist New Media Film Festival New media studies Non-linear media Old media Residual media Social media Social media marketing User - generated content Web 2.0 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Manovich , Lev . `` New Media From Borges to HTML . '' The New Media Reader . Ed . Noah Wardrip - Fruin & Nick Montfort . Cambridge , Massachusetts , 2003 . 13 - 25 . ISBN 0 - 262 - 23227 - 8 Jump up ^ Leinonen , Teemu ( 2010 ) . Designing Learning Tools . 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Generation M2 : Media in the lives o 8 - to 18 - year olds . January 2010 , http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf . Jump up ^ Lenhart , Amanda ; Kristen Purcell ; Aaron Smith ; Kathryn Zickuhr ( February 3 , 2010 ) . `` Social Media and Young Adults '' . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center . Retrieved 18 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Livingstone , Sonia ; Ólafsson , Kjartan ; Staksrud , Elisabeth ( 2013 ) . `` Risky Social Networking Practices Among `` Underage '' Users : Lessons for Evidence - Based Policy `` . Journal of Computer - Mediated Communication . 18 ( 3 ) : 303 . doi : 10.1111 / jcc4. 12012 . Jump up ^ `` Educating in the knowledge of New Media '' . Family And Media . 2017 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` YouTubers : Who are they , and why do kids like them so much ? '' . Family And Media . 2017 - 02 - 20 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ Lindstrom , Martin . `` You Love Your iPhone . Literally '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Owen , D. ( 2011 ) . New Media and Political Campaigns . In K.K. Jamieson ( Ed . ) , The Oxford Handbook of Political Communication Theory and Research . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Nam , T. ( 2012 ) . Dual effects on the internet on political activism : Reinforcing and mobilizing. Government Information Quarterly , S90 -- S97 . Jump up ^ Towner , T.L. ( 2013 ) . All Political Participation is Socially Networked ? New Media and the 2012 Election . Social Science Computer Review , 00 ( 0 ) , 1 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Halpern , D. , & Gibbs , J. ( 2013 ) . Social media as a catalyst for online deliberation ? Exploring the affordances of Facebook and YouTube for political expression . Computers in Human Behavior , 1159 - 1168 . ^ Jump up to : Moreno , M.A. ; Goniu , N. ; Moreno , P.S ; Diekema , D. ( 2013 ) . `` Ethics of Social Media Research : Common Concerns and Practical Considerations '' . Cyberpsychology , Behavior , and Social Networking. 16 : 708 -- 713 . doi : 10.1089 / cyber. 2012.0334 . line feed character in title = at position 49 ( help ) Jump up ^ Moreno , M.A. ; Frost , N.C. ; Christakis , D.A ( 2008 ) . `` Research ethics in the MySpace era '' . Pediatrics. 121 : 157 -- 161 . Jump up ^ Boyd , M.A ( 2011 ) . `` Social privacy in networked publics : teens ' attitudes , practices and strategies . A decade in internet time '' . Symposium on the Dynamics of the Internet and Society . Jump up ^ Ellison , Nicole B. ; Steinfield , Charles ; Lampe , Cliff ( July 2007 ) . `` The Benefits of Facebook `` Friends : '' Social Capital and College Students ' Use of Online Social Network Sites `` . Journal of Computer - Mediated Communication . 12 ( 4 ) : 1143 -- 1168 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1083 - 6101.2007. 00367. x . ISSN 1083 - 6101 . Further reading ( edit ) Poynter Institute : New Media Timeline ( 1969 - 2010 ) created by David B. Shedden , Library Director at Poynter Institute Wardrip - Fruin , Noah and Nick Montfort , ed. ( 2003 ) . The New Media Reader . The MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 23227 - 8 . Leah A. Lievrouw , Sonia Livingstone ( ed . ) , The Handbook of New Media , SAGE , 2002 Logan , Robert K. ( 2010 ) Understanding New Media : Extending Marshall McLuhan , New York : Peter Lang Publishing . Croteau and Hoynes ( 2003 ) Media Society : Industries , Images and Audiences ( third edition ) Pine Forge Press : Thousand Oakes . Timothy Murray , Derrick de Kerckhove , Oliver Grau , Kristine Stiles , Jean - Baptiste Barrière , Dominique Moulon , Jean - Pierre Balpe , Maurice Benayoun Open Art , Nouvelles éditions Scala , 2011 , French version , ISBN 978 - 2 - 35988 - 046 - 5 Flew and Humphreys ( 2005 ) `` Games : Technology , Industry , Culture '' in Terry Flew , New Media : an Introduction ( second edition ) , Oxford University Press : South Melbourne . Holmes ( 2005 ) `` Telecommunity '' in Communication Theory : Media , Technology and Society , Cambridge : Polity . Scharl , A. and Tochtermann , K. , Eds. ( 2007 ) . The Geospatial Web -- How Geobrowsers , Social Software and the Web 2.0 are Shaping the Network Society . London : Springer . Turkle , Sherry ( 1996 ) `` Who am We ? '' Wired magazine , 4.01 , published January 1996 , ( 2 ) Andrade , Kara , Online media can foster community , Online News Association Convention , October 29 , 2005 . Mark Tribe and Reena Jana , New Media Art , Taschen , 2006 . ISBN 3 - 8228 - 3041 - 0 . Robert C. Morgan , Commentaries on the New Media Arts Pasadena , CA : Umbrella Associates , 1992 Foreword . Lev Manovich . The Language of New Media , Cambridge : MIT Press / Leonardo Books , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 262 - 63255 - 1 . Kennedy , Randy . `` Giving New Life to Protests of Yore '' , The New York Times , July 28 , 2007 . Immersive Ideals / Critical Distances : A Study of the Affinity Between Artistic Ideologies Based in Virtual Reality and Previous Immersive Idioms by Joseph Nechvatal 1999 Planetary Collegium Why New Media Is n't : A Personal Journey by David Shedden ( 2007 ) Norberto González Gaitano ( 2016 ) : Family and media . Family relationship , their rappresentation on the mass media and virtual relationship ( hide ) Communication studies Topics and terminology Biocommunication Broadcasting Communication Computer - mediated communication Conversation History of communication Information Intercultural / Interpersonal / Intrapersonal communication Journalism Mass media Meaning Media ecology Meta - communication Models of communication New media Nonverbal communication Propaganda Reading Speech Symbol Telecommunication Text and conversation theory Writing Subfields Communication design Communication theory Communicology Crisis communication Cross-cultural communication Development communication Discourse analysis Environmental communication Health communication International communication Mass communication Media studies Mediated cross-border communication Organizational communication Political communication Risk communication Science communication Technical communication Visual communication Related fields Conversation analysis Critical theory Cultural studies Digital rhetoric Film criticism Heritage interpretation Journalism photojournalism Linguistics Philosophy of language Political science Pragmatics Public relations Rhetoric Semiotics Sociolinguistics Sociology of culture Theatre Scholars Adorno Barthes Bateson Benjamin Burke Castells Chomsky Craig Fisher Flusser Gerbner Goffman Habermas Horkheimer Huxley Innis Jakobson Janis Johnson Kincaid Lippman Luhmann Marcuse McLuhan Mead Morgan Ong Packard Peirce Postman Quebral Richards Rogers Schramm Tankard Tannen Wertheimer History Journals Organizations Outline Scholars Templates Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_media&oldid=838089689 '' Categories : Digital media New media Contemporary art New media art American art Art genres Social media Science and technology studies Internet culture Promotion and marketing communications Hidden categories : CS1 errors : invisible characters Articles that may contain original research from March 2015 All articles that may contain original research Wikipedia articles needing style editing from August 2017 All articles needing style editing Articles with multiple maintenance issues All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from June 2014 Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Pages using Columns - list with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Frysk 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Português Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 25 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 21 : 19 . 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Question: when did the age of new media began