Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses - wikipedia Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Jehovah 's Witnesses Overview Organizational structure Governing Body Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society Corporations History Bible Student movement Leadership dispute Splinter groups Doctrinal development Unfulfilled predictions Demographics By country Beliefs Practices Salvation Eschatology The 144,000 Faithful and discreet slave Hymns God 's name Blood Discipline Literature The Watchtower Awake ! New World Translation List of publications Bibliography Teaching programs Kingdom Hall Gilead School People Watch Tower presidents W.H. Conley C.T. Russell J.F. Rutherford N.H. Knorr F.W. Franz M.G. Henschel D.A. Adams Formative influences William Miller Henry Grew George Storrs N.H. Barbour John Nelson Darby Notable former members Raymond Franz Olin Moyle Opposition Criticism Persecution Supreme Court cases by country The Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses is the ruling council , publicly and commonly known as Jehovah 's Witnesses based in the group 's Warwick , New York headquarters . The body formulates doctrines , oversees the production of written material for publications and conventions , and administers the group 's worldwide operations . Official publications refer to members of the Governing Body as followers of Christ rather than religious leaders . Its size has varied , from seven ( 2014 -- 2018 ) to eighteen ( 1974 -- 1980 ) members . New members of the Governing Body are selected by existing members . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Reorganization 1.2 Headquarters purge 1.3 Helpers 1.4 2000 and beyond 2 Committees 3 Representatives 4 Relationship with `` faithful and discreet slave '' 5 Governing Body members 5.1 Current 5.2 Former 6 See also 7 References History ( edit ) Since its incorporation in 1884 , the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania has been directed by a president and board of directors . Until January 1976 , the president exercised complete control of doctrines , publications and activities of the Watch Tower Society and the religious denominations with which it was connected -- the Bible Students and Jehovah 's Witnesses . When the Society 's second president , J.F. Rutherford , encountered opposition from directors in 1917 , he dismissed them . In 1925 he overruled the Watch Tower Society 's editorial committee when it opposed publication of an article about disputed doctrines regarding the year 1914 . In 1931 , the editorial committee was dissolved . In 1943 The Watchtower described the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society as the `` legal governing body '' of anointed Jehovah 's Witnesses . A year later , in an article opposing the democratic election of congregation elders , the magazine said the appointment of such ones was the duty of `` a visible governing body under Jehovah God and his Christ . '' For several years , the role and specific identity of the governing body remained otherwise undefined . A 1955 organizational handbook stated that `` the visible governing body has been closely identified with the board of directors of this corporation . '' Referring to events related to their 1957 convention , a 1959 publication said `` the spiritual governing body of Jehovah 's witnesses watched the developments ( then ) the president of the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society ( acted ) . '' The 1970 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses noted that the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania was the organization used to plan the activity of Jehovah 's Witnesses and provide them with `` spiritual food '' , then declared : `` So really the governing body of Jehovah 's Witnesses is the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania . '' Frederick Franz at Watch Tower Society headquarters in Brooklyn . On October 1 , 1971 , Watch Tower Society vice-president Frederick Franz addressed the annual meeting of the Pennsylvania corporation in Buckingham , Pennsylvania , stating that the legal corporation of the Watch Tower Society was an `` agency '' or `` temporary instrument '' used by the Governing Body on behalf of the `` faithful and discreet slave '' . Three weeks later , on October 20 , four additional men joined the seven members of the Society 's board of directors on what became known as a separate , expanded Governing Body . The board of directors had until then met only sporadically , usually to discuss the purchase of property or new equipment , leaving decisions about Watch Tower Society literature to the president and vice-president , Nathan Knorr and Fred Franz . The Watchtower of December 15 , 1971 was the first to unambiguously capitalize the term `` Governing Body of Jehovah 's witnesses '' as the defined group leading the denomination , with a series of articles explaining its role and its relationship with the Watch Tower Society . The focus on the new concept of `` theocratic '' leadership was accompanied by statements that the structure was not actually new : The Watch Tower declared that `` a governing body made its appearance '' some time after the formation of Zion 's Watch Tower Society in 1884 , though it had not been referred to as such at the time . The article stated that Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell had been a member of the governing body . The 1972 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses stated that following Rutherford 's death in 1942 `` one of the first things that the governing body decided upon was the inauguration of the Theocratic Ministry School '' and added that the `` governing body '' had published millions of books and Bibles in the previous thirty years . Former member of the Governing Body , Raymond Franz , stated that the actions of presidents Russell , Rutherford and Knorr in overriding and failing to consult with directors proved the Bible Students and Jehovah 's Witnesses had been under a monarchical rule until 1976 , leaving no decisions to any `` governing body '' . In 1972 , a Question From Readers article in The Watchtower further reinforced the concept of the `` Governing Body '' ; the magazine said the term referred to an agency that administers policy and provides organizational direction , guidance and regulation and was therefore `` appropriate , fitting and Scriptural . '' Organizational changes at the highest levels of the Watch Tower Society in 1976 significantly increased the powers and authority of the Governing Body . The body has never had a legal corporate existence and operates through the Watch Tower Society and its board of directors . Reorganization ( edit ) After its formal establishment in 1971 , the Governing Body met regularly but , according to Raymond Franz , only briefly ; Franz claims meetings were sometimes as short as seven minutes , to make decisions about branch appointments and conduct that should be considered disfellowshipping offenses . Franz claims that in 1971 and again in 1975 , the Governing Body debated the extent of the authority it should be given . The Governing Body voted in December 1975 to establish six operating committees to oversee the various administrative requirements of the organization 's worldwide activities that formerly had been under the direction of the president ; furthermore , each branch overseer was to be replaced by a branch committee of at least three members . The change , which took effect on January 1 , 1976 , was described in the Watch Tower Society 's 1993 history book , Jehovah 's Witnesses -- Proclaimers of God 's Kingdom , as `` one of the most significant organizational readjustments in the modern - day history of Jehovah 's Witnesses . '' Headquarters purge ( edit ) In 1980 , dissent arose among members of the Governing Body regarding the significance of 1914 in Jehovah 's Witnesses ' doctrines . According to former Witnesses James Penton and Heather and Gary Botting , internal dissatisfaction with official doctrines continued to grow , leading to a series of secret investigations and judicial hearings . Consequently , dissenting members were expelled from the Brooklyn headquarters staff in the same year . Raymond Franz claimed he was forced to resign from the Governing Body , and he was later disfellowshipped from the group . The Watch Tower Society responded to the dissent with a more severe attitude regarding the treatment of expelled Witnesses . In his 1997 study of the denomination , Penton concluded that since Raymond Franz 's expulsion in 1980 , the Governing Body displayed an increased level of conservatism , sturdy resistance to changes of policy and doctrines , and an increased tendency to isolate dissidents within the organization by means of disfellowshipping . Helpers ( edit ) The April 15 , 1992 issue of The Watchtower carried an article entitled Jehovah 's Provision , the `` Given Ones '' which drew a parallel between ancient non-Israelites who had been assigned temple duties ( the `` Nethinim '' and `` sons of the servants of Solomon '' ) and Witness elders in positions of responsibility immediately under the oversight of the Governing Body who did not profess to be `` anointed '' . Both that issue of The Watchtower and the 1993 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses carried the same announcement : In view of the tremendous increase worldwide , it seems appropriate at this time to provide the Governing Body with some additional assistance . Therefore it has been decided to invite several helpers , mainly from among the great crowd , to share in the meetings of each of the Governing Body Committees , that is , the Personnel , Publishing , Service , Teaching , and Writing Committees . Thus , the number attending the meetings of each of these committees will be increased to seven or eight . Under the direction of the Governing Body committee members , these assistants will take part in discussions and will carry out various assignments given them by the committee . This new arrangement goes into effect May 1 , 1992 . For many years now , the number of the remnant of anointed Witnesses has been decreasing , while the number of the great crowd has increased beyond our grandest expectations . Each of the current Governing Body members served as a committee `` helper '' before being appointed to the Governing Body itself . The appointment of helpers to the Governing Body committees was described in 2006 as `` still another refinement . '' 2000 and beyond ( edit ) Until 2000 , the directors and officers of the Watch Tower Society were members of the Governing Body . Since then , members of the ecclesiastical Governing Body have not served as directors of any of the various corporations used by Jehovah 's Witnesses , and the Governing Body has delegated such administrative responsibilities to other members of the group . Committees ( edit ) The Governing Body functions by means of its six committees , which carry out various administrative functions . Each committee is assisted by `` helpers , '' who do not necessarily profess to be of the `` anointed '' . Governing Body meetings are held weekly in closed session . According to Raymond Franz , decisions of the body were required to be unanimous until 1975 , after which a two - thirds majority of the full body was required , regardless of the number present . The Personnel Committee arranges for volunteers to serve in the organization 's headquarters and worldwide branch offices , which are each referred to as Bethel . It oversees arrangements for the personal and spiritual assistance of Bethel staff , as well as the selection and invitation of new Bethel members . The Publishing Committee supervises the printing , publishing and shipping of literature , as well as legal matters involved in printing , such as obtaining property for printing facilities . It is responsible for overseeing factories , properties , and financial operations of corporations used by Jehovah 's Witnesses . The Service Committee supervises the evangelical activity of Jehovah 's Witnesses , which includes traveling overseers , pioneers , and the activities of congregation publishers . It oversees communication between the international headquarters , branch offices , and the congregations . It examines annual reports of preaching activity from the branches . It is responsible for inviting members to attend the Gilead school , the Bible School for Single Brothers , and the Traveling Overseers ' School , and for assigning graduates of these schools to their places of service . The Teaching Committee arranges congregation meetings , circuit assemblies , and regional and international conventions as well as various schools for elders , ministerial servants , pioneers and missionaries , such as Gilead school . It supervises preparation of material to be used in teaching , and oversees the development of new audio and video programs . The Writing Committee supervises the writing and translation of all material published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society , including scripts for dramas and talk outlines . It responds to questions about scriptural , doctrinal , and moral issues , specific problems in the congregations , and the standing of members in congregations . The Coordinator 's Committee deals with emergencies , disaster relief and other matters , such as investigations . It comprises the coordinators , or a representative , from each of the other Governing Body committees and a secretary who is also a member of the Governing Body . It is responsible for the efficient operation of the other committees . Representatives ( edit ) Initially , the Governing Body directly appointed all congregation elders . By 1975 , the appointment of elders and ministerial servants was said to be `` made directly by a governing body of spirit - anointed elders or by them through other elders representing this body . '' In 2001 , The Watchtower , stated that recommendations for such appointments were submitted to branch offices . As of September 2014 , circuit overseers appoint elders and ministerial servants after discussion with congregation elders , without consulting with the branch office . The Governing Body continues to directly appoint branch office committee members and traveling overseers , and only such direct appointees are described as `` representatives of the Governing Body . '' Relationship with `` faithful and discreet slave '' ( edit ) Main article : Faithful and discreet slave The Governing Body is said to provide `` spiritual food '' for Jehovah 's Witnesses worldwide . Until late 2012 , the Governing Body described itself as the representative and `` spokesman '' for God 's `` faithful and discreet slave class '' ( approximately 11,800 Witnesses who profess to be anointed ) who are collectively said to be God 's `` prophet '' and `` channel for new spiritual light '' . The Governing Body does not consult with the other anointed Witnesses whom it was said to represent when formulating policy and doctrines or approving material for publications and conventions ; the authority of the Governing Body was presumed to be analogous to that of the older men of Jerusalem in cases such as the first - century circumcision issue . The majority of Witnesses who profess to be anointed have no authority to contribute to the development or change of doctrines . Anointed Witnesses are instructed to remain modest and avoid `` wildly speculating about things that are still unclear , '' instead waiting for God to reveal his purposes in The Watchtower . In 2009 , The Watchtower indicated that the dissemination of `` new spiritual light '' is the responsibility of only `` a limited number '' of the `` slave class '' , asking : `` Are all these anointed ones throughout the earth part of a global network that is somehow involved in revealing new spiritual truths ? No . '' In 2010 the society said that `` deep truths '' were discerned by `` responsible representatives '' of the `` faithful and discreet slave class '' at the group 's headquarters , and then considered by the entire Governing Body before making doctrinal decisions . In August 2011 , the Governing Body cast doubt on other members ' claims of being anointed , stating that `` A number of factors -- including past religious beliefs or even mental or emotional imbalance -- might cause some to assume mistakenly that they have the heavenly calling . '' The Governing Body also stated that `` we have no way of knowing the exact number of anointed ones on earth ; nor do we need to know '' , and that it `` does not maintain a global network of anointed ones . '' At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society , the `` faithful and discreet slave '' was redefined as referring to the Governing Body only and the terms are now synonymous . Governing Body members ( edit ) Current ( edit ) The following people are members of the Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses ( year appointed in parentheses ) : Kenneth Cook ( 2018 ) Samuel F. Herd ( 1999 ) Geoffrey Jackson ( 2005 ) Mark Stephen Lett ( 1999 ) Gerrit Lösch ( 1994 ) Anthony Morris III ( 2005 ) Mark Sanderson ( 2012 ) David H. Splane ( 1999 ) Former ( edit ) Prior to 1971 , various Watch Tower Society directors were informally identified as members of the `` governing body '' . Jehovah 's Witnesses publications began capitalizing Governing Body as a proper noun in 1971 ; The Watchtower that year announced `` The present Governing Body comprises eleven anointed witnesses of Jehovah . '' These eleven members are indicated in italics in the list below . Years active are shown in parentheses . All members served until their deaths unless specified . Thomas J. Sullivan ( 1932 -- 1974 ) Grant Suiter ( 1938 -- 1983 ) Nathan Homer Knorr ( 1940 -- 1977 ) -- 4th President of Watch Tower Society Frederick William Franz ( 1944 -- 1992 ) -- 5th President of Watch Tower Society Lyman Alexander Swingle ( 1945 -- 2001 ) Milton George Henschel ( 1947 -- 2003 ) -- 6th President of Watch Tower Society John O. Groh ( 1965 -- 1975 ) Raymond Franz ( 1971 -- 1980 ) -- Resigned George D. Gangas ( 1971 -- 1994 ) Leo K. Greenlees ( 1971 -- 1984 ) -- Resigned William K. Jackson ( 1971 -- 1981 ) William Lloyd Barry ( 1974 -- 1999 ) John C. Booth ( 1974 -- 1996 ) Ewart C. Chitty ( 1974 -- 1979 ) -- Resigned Charles J. Fekel ( 1974 -- 1977 ) Theodore Jaracz ( 1974 -- 2010 ) Karl F. Klein ( 1974 -- 2001 ) Albert D. Schroeder ( 1974 -- 2006 ) Daniel Sydlik ( 1974 -- 2006 ) Carey W. Barber ( 1977 -- 2007 ) John E. Barr ( 1977 -- 2010 ) Martin Pötzinger ( 1977 -- 1988 ) Guy Hollis Pierce ( 1999 -- 2014 ) See also ( edit ) Organizational structure of Jehovah 's Witnesses References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 216 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : `` Questions From Readers '' . The Watchtower : 703 . November 15 , 1972 . Jump up ^ `` Our active leader today '' , The Watchtower , September 15 , 2010 , page 27 , `` They recognize , however , that Christ is using a small group of anointed Christian men as a Governing Body to lead and direct his disciples on earth . '' Jump up ^ `` Bearing Thorough Witness '' About God 's Kingdom . Watchtower Bible and Tract Society . 2009 . p. 110 . Jump up ^ As of September 2005 , twelve members listed ( See The Watchtower , March 15 , 2006 , page 26 ) Schroeder died March 8 , 2006 . ( See The Watchtower , September 15 , 2006 , page 31 ) Sydlik died April 18 , 2006 . ( See The Watchtower , January 1 , 2007 , page 8 ) Barber died April 8 , 2007 . ( See The Watchtower , October 15 , 2007 , page 31 ) Jaracz died June 9 , 2010 . ( See The Watchtower , November 15 , 2010 , page 23 ) Barr died December 4 , 2010 . ( See The Watchtower , May 15 , 2011 , page 6 ) Mark Sanderson appointed in September 2012 `` A New Member of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , July 15 , 2013 , page 26. ( 1 ) ^ Jump up to : `` Guy H. Pierce , Member of the Governing Body , Dies at 79 '' Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 217 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania ( 2007 ) . Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses . pp. 4 , 6 . Jump up ^ Botting , Heather & Gary ( 1984 ) . The Orwellian World of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 178 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 6545 - 7 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . In Search of Christian Freedom . Commentary Press . p. 123 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 17 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . p. 58 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . In Search of Christian Freedom . Commentary Press . pp. 186 , footnote . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 17 - 6 . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . pp. 162 -- 163 , 214 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 61 -- 62 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 59 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ The Watchtower : 216 , paragraph 24 . July 15 , 1943 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Theocratic Organization in Action '' . The Watchtower . November 1 , 1944 . p. 328 . Jump up ^ Qualified to be Ministers . Watch Tower Society . 1955 . p. 381 . cited by Raymond Franz , Crisis of Conscience , page 74 Jump up ^ `` Divine Will International Assembly of Jehovah 's Witnesses '' , The Watchtower , February 15 , 1959 , page 115 , `` So with intense interest the spiritual governing body of Jehovah 's witnesses watched the developments ... Without delay the president of the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society closed a contract with the owners to use the Polo Grounds simultaneously with Yankee Stadium . '' Jump up ^ Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses . Watch Tower Society . 1970 . p. 65 . ^ Jump up to : Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . p. 57 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond . Crisis of Conscience . p. 44 . The seven directors at October 20 were Nathan Knorr , Fred Franz , Grant Suiter , Thomas Sullivan , Milton Henschel , Lyman Swingle and John Groh . The additional four to form the Governing Body were William Jackson , Leo Greenlees , George Gangas and Raymond Franz . Jump up ^ Testimony by Fred Franz , Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh Transcript , Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh , 1954 , as cited by Raymond Franz , Crisis of Conscience , 2007 , page 75 - 76 . ^ Jump up to : `` Theocratic Organization with Which to Move Forward Now ; A Governing Body as Different from a Legal Corporation '' . The Watchtower . December 15 , 1971 . ^ Jump up to : `` A Governing Body as Different from a Legal Corporation '' . The Watchtower : 761 . December 15 , 1971 . Jump up ^ Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses. 1972 . pp. 254 -- 257 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . p. 78 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Questions From Readers '' . The Watchtower : 703 . November 15 , 1972 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 44 -- 110 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 228 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . p. 45 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . p. 46 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 215 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 81 -- 105 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 80 -- 107 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ Jehovah 's Witnesses -- Proclaimers of God 's Kingdom . Watch Tower Society . 1993 . pp. 108 -- 109 . ^ Jump up to : Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . pp. 117 -- 123 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Botting , Heather & Gary ( 1984 ) . The Orwellian World of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . pp. 158 -- 165 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 6545 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : `` Witness Under Prosecution '' , Richard H. Ostling , Anne Constable , Time Magazine , February 22 , 1982 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . `` 11 - 12 '' . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . pp. 219 , 297 -- 302 , 319 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Jehovah 's Provision , the `` Given Ones '' `` , The Watchtower , April 15 , 1992 , pages 16 - 17 Jump up ^ `` Announcement '' , The Watchtower , April 15 , 1992 , page 31 Jump up ^ `` Organizing for Further Expansion '' , 1993 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , © Watch Tower , pages 253 - 254 Jump up ^ `` Governing Body Addition '' , The Watchtower , November 1 , 1994 , page 29 , `` The new member is Gerrit Lösch ... Lösch has served in the Executive Offices and as an assistant to the Service Committee . '' Jump up ^ `` New Members of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , January 1 , 2000 , page 29 , `` The new members , all anointed Christians , are Samuel F. Herd ; M. Stephen Lett ; Guy H. Pierce ; and David H. Splane . Samuel Herd ... was also serving as a helper to the Service Committee . Stephen Lett ... was a helper to the Teaching Committee . Guy Pierce ... had been serving as a helper to the Personnel Committee . David Splane ... had been a helper to the Writing Committee . '' Jump up ^ `` New Members of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , March 15 , 2006 , page 26 , `` Geoffrey W. Jackson and Anthony Morris III -- would be added to the Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses ... In April 2003 , ( Jackson ) became part of the United States Bethel family and began to work in the Translation Services Department . Soon thereafter , Brother Jackson was made a helper to the Teaching Committee of the Governing Body ... 2002 ( Morris ) worked in the Service Department at Patterson and later as a helper to the Service Committee of the Governing Body . '' Jump up ^ `` Walking in the Path of Increasing Light '' , The Watchtower , February 15 , 2006 , page 28 Jump up ^ `` How the Governing Body Differs From a Legal Corporation '' . The Watchtower : 29 . 15 January 2001 . ^ Jump up to : The Watchtower , May 15 , 2008 , page 29 Jump up ^ `` How the Governing Body is Organized '' , The Watchtower , May 15 , 2008 , page 29 . Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 218 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 85 , 115 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` A History - Making Meeting '' , The Watchtower , Aug. 15 , 2011 , page 21 . Jump up ^ `` Schools That Teach Jehovah 's Ways '' , 2012 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , page 13 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Theocratic Schools - Evidence of Jehovah 's Love '' , The Watchtower , September 15 , 2012 , page 13 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` A `` Body of Elders '' with Rotating Chairmanship `` , The Watchtower , November 15 , 1971 , pages 699,700 , `` how will the `` body of elders '' in each congregation be selected ? The governing body through the Watch Tower Society will send out a letter asking the committee that now looks after each congregation 's activity to ... prayerfully consider who within your congregation really meets the qualifications of an elder or overseer ... Then recommendations will be made to the governing body ... After the governing body receives recommendations from the congregation , then proper appointments will be made . The governing body will do the appointing of elders in every congregation and this information will be sent out by the governing body through the various offices of the Society throughout the world . '' Jump up ^ Hope Based on the Unfolding Purpose of God `` , The Watchtower , February 1 , 1975 , page 86 Jump up ^ `` Overseers and Ministerial Servants Theocratically Appointed '' , The Watchtower , January 15 , 2001 , page 15 ^ Jump up to : `` Questions From Readers '' . The Watchtower : 28 -- 30 . 15 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Overseers and Ministerial Servants Theocratically Appointed '' , The Watchtower , January 15 , 2001 , page 15 , `` In addition to appointing Branch Committee members , the Governing Body appoints Bethel elders and traveling overseers . However , they do commission responsible brothers to act for them in making certain other appointments . '' Jump up ^ `` `` Keep Holding Men of That Sort Dear '' `` , The Watchtower , October 1 , 1988 , page 18 - 19 , `` ( The ) traveling overseers sent forth by the Governing Body to preach the good news and help the congregations should be received hospitably and with respect ... Elders , in particular , should show proper respect for these visiting representatives of the Governing Body . They are sent to the congregations because of their spiritual qualities and their experience , which is usually more extensive than that of many local elders . '' ( emph added ) Jump up ^ `` Cooperating With the Governing Body Today '' , The Watchtower , March 15 , 1990 , pages 19 - 20 , `` Since February 1 , 1976 , each of the branches of the Watch Tower Society has had a Branch Committee made up of capable men appointed by the Governing Body . As representatives of the Governing Body for the country or countries under the supervision of their branch , these brothers must be faithful , loyal men ... Branch Committees recommend mature , spiritual men to serve as circuit and district overseers . After being appointed directly by the Governing Body , they serve as traveling overseers . These brothers visit circuits and congregations in order to build them up spiritually and help them apply instructions received from the Governing Body . '' ( emph added ) Jump up ^ `` The Watchtower and Awake ! -- Timely Journals of Truth '' . The Watchtower : 21 . January 1 , 1994 . Jump up ^ `` Building for an Eternal Future '' . The Watchtower : 25 . January 1 , 1986 . Jump up ^ 2012 Annual Meeting Program ( Gov. Body is `` Faithful & Discreet Slave '' explained in 8 minute clip ) Jump up ^ `` Seek God 's guidance in all things '' , The Watchtower , April 15 , 2008 , page 11 . Jump up ^ `` ' They Shall Know that a Prophet Was Among Them ' '' . The Watchtower : 200 . April 1 , 1972 . the modern - day `` prophet , '' the spirit - begotten , anointed ones who are the nucleus of Jehovah 's witnesses today Jump up ^ `` The Things Revealed Belong to Us '' , The Watchtower , May 15 , 1986 , page 13 . Jump up ^ Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . In Search of Christian Freedom . Commentary Press . p. 153 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 17 - 6 . Jump up ^ The Faithful Steward and Its Governing Body , The Watchtower , June 15 , 2009 , page 24 ¶ 18 Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 211 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` The faithful slave and its governing body '' , The Watchtower , June 15 , 2009 , pages 23 - 24 , `` They do not believe that their being of the anointed gives them special insights beyond what even some experienced members of the `` great crowd '' may have . They do not believe that they necessarily have more holy spirit than their companions of the ' other sheep ' have . They do not expect special treatment ; nor do they claim that their partaking of the emblems places them above the appointed elders in the congregation . '' ^ Jump up to : `` A Secret Christians Dare Not Keep ! '' , The Watchtower , June 1 , 1997 , page 14 . Jump up ^ `` Insight That Jehovah Has Given '' , The Watchtower , March 15 , 1989 , page 22 , `` It is through the columns of The Watchtower that explanations of vital Scriptural truths have been provided for us by Jehovah 's ' faithful and discreet slave . ' The Watchtower is the principal instrument used by the ' slave ' class for dispensing spiritual food . '' Jump up ^ `` The faithful slave and its governing body '' , The Watchtower , June 15 , 2009 , pages 23 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` The Spirit Searches into the Deep Things of God '' , The Watchtower , July 15 , 2010 , page 23 , `` When the time comes to clarify a spiritual matter in our day , holy spirit helps responsible representatives of ' the faithful and discreet slave ' at world headquarters to discern deep truths that were not previously understood . The Governing Body as a whole considers adjusted explanations . What they learn , they publish for the benefit of all . '' Jump up ^ `` Question From Readers '' , `` The Watchtower '' , August 15 , 2011 , page 22 Jump up ^ `` Annual Meeting Report '' . Jump up ^ http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/governing-body/ Jump up ^ `` Kenneth Cook Appointed to the Governing Body '' . Retrieved February 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Members of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , January 1 , 2000 , page 29 ^ Jump up to : `` New Members of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , March 15 , 2006 , page 26 Jump up ^ `` Governing Body Addition '' , The Watchtower , November 1 , 1994 , page 29 Jump up ^ `` A New Member of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , July 15 , 2013 , page 26 Jump up ^ `` A Governing Body as Different from a Legal Corporation '' , The Watchtower , December 15 , 1971 , page 762 Jump up ^ `` The Governing Body '' , 1973 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , © Watch Tower , page 257 , `` The Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses consists of eleven brothers , all anointed of God . They are as follows : Frederick W. Franz , Raymond V. Franz , George D. Gangas , Leo K. Greenlees , John O. Groh , Milton G. Henschel , William K. Jackson , Nathan H. Knorr , Grant Suiter , Thomas J. Sullivan and Lyman A. Swingle . '' ^ Jump up to : Franz , Raymond ( 2007 ) . Crisis of Conscience . Commentary Press . pp. 273 -- 336 . ISBN 0 - 914675 - 23 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` He Ran for `` The Prize of the Upward Call '' and Won ! `` , The Watchtower , September 15 , 1974 , page 554 , `` On October 31 , 1932 , he ( Sullivan ) was made a member of the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania ; he was also one of the eleven - member governing body of Jehovah 's witnesses . '' Jump up ^ `` A Time of Testing ( 1914 - 1918 ) '' , Jehovah 's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God 's Kingdom , © 1993 Watch Tower , page 71 , `` Thomas ( Bud ) Sullivan , who later served as a member of the Governing Body , recalled : `` It was my privilege to visit Brooklyn Bethel in the late summer of 1918 during the brothers ' incarceration . '' Jump up ^ `` The corporation , the WATCH TOWER BIBLE & TRACT SOCIETY , pursuant to its charter and by - laws , and the laws of the State of Pennsylvania , held its annual meeting at Pittsburgh , North Side , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania , on the first day of October , A.D. 1938 , at which annual meeting a Board of Directors was elected as follows , to wit : J.F. Rutherford , C.A. Wise , W.E. Van Amburgh , H.H. Riemer , T.J. Sullivan , Wm . P. Heath , Jr. , and Grant Suiter , to hold office for a period of three years , or until their successors are duly elected . '' - 1939 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , `` Election '' , page 195 Jump up ^ `` A Loyal Fighter Passes On '' , The Watchtower , February 1 , 1984 , page 9 . Jump up ^ Jehovah 's Witnesses Proclaimers of God 's Kingdom , `` Background of N.H. Knorr '' , page 91 : `` On June 10 , 1940 , he became the vice-president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society ( Pennsylvania corporation ) . '' Jump up ^ The Watchtower , July 15 , 1977 , `` Firm to the End '' , page 441 . Jump up ^ `` Service Assembly and Annual Meeting -- Pittsburg '' , The Watchtower , November 1 , 1944 , page 334 . Jump up ^ `` How the Governing Body Differs From a Legal Corporation '' , The Watchtower , January 15 , 2001 , page 28 . Jump up ^ Jehovah 's Witnesses -- Proclaimers of God 's Kingdom . Watch Tower Society . 1993 . p. 91 . Jump up ^ `` Announcements '' , Our Kingdom Ministry , August 1980 , page 2 , `` Raymond Victor Franz is no longer a member of the Governing Body and of the Brooklyn Bethel family as of May 22 , 1980 . '' Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . p. 120 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ Beverley , James A. ( 1986 ) . Crisis of Allegiance . Burlington , Ontario : Welch Publishing Company . p. 71 . ISBN 0 - 920413 - 37 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` His Deeds Follow Him '' , The Watchtower , December 1 , 1994 , page 31 . Jump up ^ 1986 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , © Watch Tower , page 255 Jump up ^ Penton , M. James ( 1997 ) . Apocalypse Delayed : The Story of Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Toronto Press . pp. 322 , 393 . ISBN 0 - 8020 - 7973 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses Enlarged '' , The Watchtower , January 15 , 1975 , page 60 Jump up ^ `` We Were a Team '' , The Watchtower , April 1 , 2001 , page 24 . Jump up ^ `` He Humbly Served Jehovah '' , The Watchtower , June 15 , 1996 , page 32 . Jump up ^ `` Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses Enlarged '' , 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , © Watch Tower , page 60 Jump up ^ Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses. 1980 . pp. 257 -- 258 . Jump up ^ `` A Joyful Perseverer in Good Work '' , The Watchtower , July 1 , 1977 , page 399 . Jump up ^ `` Gilead Sends Missionaries `` to the Most Distant Part of the Earth '' `` , The Watchtower , December 15 , 1999 , page 28 , `` Theodore Jaracz , a member of the Governing Body , who himself graduated with Gilead 's seventh class in 1946 '' Jump up ^ `` Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses Enlarged '' , The Watchtower , January 15 , 1975 , page 60 Jump up ^ Theodore Jaracz Memorial Service Brochure ( 1.4 MB ) Jump up ^ `` Jehovah Has Dealt Rewardingly With Me '' , The Watchtower , October 1 , 1984 , page 21 . Jump up ^ `` His Delight Was in the Law of Jehovah '' , The Watchtower , September 15 , 2006 , page 31 . Jump up ^ `` How Priceless Your Friendship , O God ! '' , The Watchtower , June 1 , 1985 , page 27 . Jump up ^ `` Rejoicing Over `` Victory With the Lamb '' , The Watchtower , October 15 , 2007 , page 31 . Jump up ^ `` Britain '' , 2000 Yearbook of Jehovah 's Witnesses , © Watch Tower , page 130 Jump up ^ `` New Members of the Governing Body '' , The Watchtower , November 15 , 1977 , page 680 Jump up ^ `` A Staunch Fighter for the Truth '' , The Watchtower , September 15 , 1988 , page 31 . Jump up ^ `` He ' Knew the Way ' '' , The Watchtower , December 15 , 2014 , page 3 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses&oldid=835454672 '' Categories : Organizational structure of Jehovah 's Witnesses Governing assemblies of religious organizations Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Xitsonga 中文 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2018 , at 20 : 21 . About Wikipedia

Question: who are the leaders of the jehovah witnesses


Peripheral nervous system - wikipedia Peripheral nervous system Jump to : navigation , search Peripheral nervous system The human nervous system . Blue is PNS ; yellow is CNS . Identifiers Acronym ( s ) PNS MeSH D017933 TA A14. 2.00. 001 FMA 9903 Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy ( edit on Wikidata ) The peripheral nervous system ( PNS ) is one of the two components of the nervous system , the other part is the central nervous system ( CNS ) . The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord . The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs , essentially serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body . Unlike the CNS , the PNS is not protected by the vertebral column and skull , or by the blood -- brain barrier , which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries . The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system . In the somatic nervous system , the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of the optic nerve ( cranial nerve II ) , along with the retina . The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon . Cranial nerve ganglia originated in the CNS . However , the remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS . The autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle and glands . The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states : sympathetic and parasympathetic . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Somatic nervous system 1.1. 1 Cervical spinal nerves ( C1 -- C4 ) 1.1. 2 Brachial plexus ( C5 -- T1 ) 1.1. 3 Lumbosacral plexus ( L1 -- Co1 ) 1.2 Autonomic nervous system 1.2. 1 Sympathetic nervous system 1.2. 2 Parasympathetic nervous system 2 Disease 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Structure ( edit ) The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system , and the autonomic nervous system . The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control , and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscle s . The sensory nervous system is part of the somatic nervous system and transmits signals from senses such as taste and touch ( including fine touch and gross touch ) to the spinal cord and brain . The autonomic nervous system is a ' self - regulating ' system which influences the function of organs outside voluntary control , such as the heart rate , or the functions of the digestive system . Somatic nervous system ( edit ) See also : List of nerves of the human body The somatic system includes the sensory nervous system and the somatosensory system and consists of sensory nerves and somatic nerves , and many nerves which hold both functions . In the head and neck , cranial nerve s carry somatosensory data . There are twelve cranial nerves , ten of which originate from the brainstem , and mainly control the functions of the anatomic structures of the head with some exceptions . The nuclei of the olfactory nerve and the optic nerve s lie in the forebrain and thalamus , respectively , and are thus not considered to be true cranial nerves . One unique cranial nerve is the vagus nerve , which receives sensory information from organs in the thorax and abdomen . The accessory nerve is responsible for innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles , neither of which being exclusively in the head . For the rest of the body , spinal nerves are responsible for somatosensory information . These arise from the spinal cord . Usually these arise as a web ( `` plexus '' ) of interconnected nerves roots that arrange to form single nerves . These nerves control the functions of the rest of the body . In humans , there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves : 8 cervical , 12 thoracic , 5 lumbar , 5 sacral , and 1 coccygeal . These nerve roots are named according to the spinal vertebrata which they are adjacent to . In the cervical region , the spinal nerve roots come out above the corresponding vertebrae ( i.e. , nerve root between the skull and 1st cervical vertebrae is called spinal nerve C1 ) . From the thoracic region to the coccygeal region , the spinal nerve roots come out below the corresponding vertebrae . It is important to note that this method creates a problem when naming the spinal nerve root between C7 and T1 ( so it is called spinal nerve root C8 ) . In the lumbar and sacral region , the spinal nerve roots travel within the dural sac and they travel below the level of L2 as the cauda equina . Cervical spinal nerves ( C1 -- C4 ) ( edit ) Further information : Cervical plexus The first 4 cervical spinal nerves , C1 through C4 , split and recombine to produce a variety of nerves that serve the neck and back of head . Spinal nerve C1 is called the suboccipital nerve , which provides motor innervation to muscles at the base of the skull . C2 and C3 form many of the nerves of the neck , providing both sensory and motor control . These include the greater occipital nerve , which provides sensation to the back of the head , the lesser occipital nerve , which provides sensation to the area behind the ears , the greater auricular nerve and the lesser auricular nerve . The phrenic nerve is a nerve essential for our survival which arises from nerve roots C3 , C4 and C5 . It supplies the thoracic diaphragm , enabling breathing . If the spinal cord is transected above C3 , then spontaneous breathing is not possible . Brachial plexus ( C5 -- T1 ) ( edit ) Further information : Brachial plexus The last four cervical spinal nerves , C5 through C8 , and the first thoracic spinal nerve , T1 , combine to form the brachial plexus , or plexus brachialis , a tangled array of nerves , splitting , combining and recombining , to form the nerves that subserve the upper - limb and upper back . Although the brachial plexus may appear tangled , it is highly organized and predictable , with little variation between people . See brachial plexus injuries . Lumbosacral plexus ( l1 -- co1 ) ( edit ) The anterior divisions of the lumbar nerves , sacral nerves , and coccygeal nerve form the lumbosacral plexus , the first lumbar nerve being frequently joined by a branch from the twelfth thoracic . For descriptive purposes this plexus is usually divided into three parts : lumbar plexus sacral plexus pudendal plexus Autonomic nervous system ( edit ) The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions . The brain and spinal cord from the central nervous system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle , such as the heart , bladder , and other cardiac , exocrine , and endocrine related organs , by ganglionic neurons . The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation , and salivation of saliva . The autonomic nervous system is always activated , but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state . Depending on the situation , one state can overshadow the other , resulting in a release of different kinds of neurotransmitters . There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the enteric nervous system . Located only around the digestive tract , this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches , though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body . The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system . Sympathetic nervous system ( edit ) The sympathetic system is activated during a `` fight or flight '' situation in which great mental stress or physical danger is encountered . Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine , and epinephrine are released , which increases heart rate and blood flow in certain areas like muscle , while simultaneously decreasing activities of non-critical functions for survival , like digestion . The systems are independent to each other , which allows activation of certain parts of the body , while others remain rested . Parasympathetic nervous system ( edit ) Primarily using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine ( ACh ) as a mediator , the parasympathetic system allows the body to function in a `` rest and digest '' state . Consequently , when the parasympathetic system dominates the body , there are increases in salivation and activities in digestion , while heart rate and other sympathetic response decrease . Unlike the sympathetic system , humans have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system . The most prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation . Disease ( edit ) Main article : Peripheral neuropathy Diseases of the peripheral nervous system can be specific to one or more nerves , or affect the system as a whole . Any peripheral nerve or nerve root can be damaged , called a mononeuropathy . Such injuries can be because of injury or trauma , or compression . Compression of nerves can occur because of a tumour mass or injury . Alternatively , if a nerve is in an area with a fixed size it may be trapped if the other components increase in size , such as carpal tunnel syndrome and tarsal tunnel syndrome . Common symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome include pain and numbness in the thumb , index and middle finger . In peripheral neuropathy , the function one or more nerves are damaged through a variety of means . Toxic damage may occur because of diabetes ( diabetic neuropathy ) , alcohol , heavy metals or other toxins ; some infections ; autoimmune and inflammatory conditions such as amyloidosis and sarcoidosis . Peripheral neuropathy is associated with a sensory loss in a `` glove and stocking '' distribution that begins at the peripheral and slowly progresses upwards , and may also be associated with acute and chronic pain . Peripheral neuropathy is not just limited to the somatosensory nerves , but the autonomic nervous system too ( autonomic neuropathy ) . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peripheral nervous system . Classification of peripheral nerves Connective tissue in the peripheral nervous system Preferential motor reinnervation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Alberts , Daniel ( 2012 ) . Dorland 's illustrated medical dictionary ( 32nd ed. ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Saunders / Elsevier . p. 1862 . ISBN 9781416062578 . CS1 maint : Extra text ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Slide show : How your brain works - Mayo Clinic '' . mayoclinic.com . Retrieved 17 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Board Review Series : Neuroanatomy , 4th Ed. , Lippincott Williams & Wilkins , Maryland 2008 , p. 177 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7817 - 7245 - 7 . Jump up ^ James S. White ( 21 March 2008 ) . Neuroscience . McGraw - Hill Professional . pp. 1 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 149623 - 0 . Retrieved 17 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Laight , David ( September 2013 ) . `` Overview of peripheral nervous system pharmacology '' . Nurse Prescribing . ISSN 1479 - 9189 . ^ Jump up to : Matic , Agnella Izzo ( 2014 ) . `` Introduction to the Nervous System , Part 2 : The Autonomic Nervous System and the Central Nervous System '' . AMWA Journal : American Medical Writers Association Journal ( AMWA J ) . ISSN 1075 - 6361 . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) External links ( edit ) Peripheral nervous system photomicrographs Peripheral Neuropathy from the US NIH Neuropathy : Causes , Symptoms and Treatments from Medical News Today Peripheral Neuropathy at the Mayo Clinic ( hide ) Nervous system Central nervous system Meninges Spinal cord Brain Rhombencephalon Medulla Pons Cerebellum Midbrain Forebrain Diencephalon Retina Optic nerve Cerebrum Limbic system Peripheral nervous system Somatic Sensory nerve Motor nerve Cranial nerve Spinal nerve Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peripheral_nervous_system&oldid=838264773 '' Categories : Peripheral nervous system Neuroscience Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties CS1 maint : Extra text Articles needing additional references from November 2007 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans ܐܪܡܝܐ Asturianu Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kreyòl ayisyen Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 52 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 23 : 15 . 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Question: what parts make up the peripheral nervous system


Red - eared slider - wikipedia Red - eared slider Jump to : navigation , search Red - eared slider Trachemys scripta elegans ( Wied - Neuwied ) , an 1865 engraving by Karl Bodmer , who accompanied the authority on his expedition At the Cincinnati Zoo Scientific classification Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Reptilia Order : Testudines Suborder : Cryptodira Family : Emydidae Genus : Trachemys Species : T. scripta Subspecies : T. s . elegans Trinomial name Trachemys scripta elegans ( Wied - Neuwied , 1839 ) Synonyms Emys elegans Wied , 1839 Emys holbrookii Gray , 1844 Emys sanguinolenta Gray , 1856 Trachemys elegans Agassiz , 1857 Clemmys elegans Strauch , 1862 Trachemys holbrooki Gray , 1863 ( ex errore ) Trachemys holbrookii Gray , 1869 Trachemys lineata Gray , 1873 Pseudemys elegans Cope , 1875 Chrysemys elegans Boulenger , 1889 Chrysemys scripta var . elegans Boulenger , 1889 Chrysemys palustris elegans Lindholm , 1929 Pseudemys troostii elegans Stejneger & Barbour , 1939 Pseudemys scripta elegans Cagle , 1944 Trachemys scripta elegans Iverson , 1985 Trachemys scripta elagans Fong , Parham & Fu , 2002 ( ex errore ) Trachemys scripta elgans Fong , Parham & Fu , 2002 ( ex errore ) The red - eared slider ( Trachemys scripta elegans ) , also known as the red - eared terrapin , is a semiaquatic turtle belonging to the family Emydidae . It is a subspecies of the pond slider . It is the most popular pet turtle in the United States and is also popular as a pet in the rest of the world . It has , therefore , become the most commonly traded turtle in the world . It is native to the southern United States and northern Mexico , but has become established in other places because of pet releases , and has become an invasive species in many areas , where it outcompetes native species . The red - eared slider is included in the list of the world 's 100 most invasive species published by the IUCN . Contents ( hide ) 1 Name 2 Taxonomy 3 Description 3.1 Sexual dimorphism 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behavior 5.1 Hibernation 5.2 Reproduction 6 Red - eared sliders as pets 6.1 Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution 6.2 US state law 7 An invasive species in Australia 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name ( edit ) Red - eared sliders are popular pets around the world . Red - eared sliders get their name from the small red stripe around their ears ... The `` slider '' in their name comes from their ability to slide off rocks and logs and into the water quickly . This species was previously known as Troost 's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist ; Trachemys scripta troostii is now the scientific name for another subspecies , the Cumberland slider . Taxonomy ( edit ) The red - eared slider belongs to the order Testudines , which contains about 250 turtle species . It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta . They were previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans . The species Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies : T. s . elegans ( red - eared slider ) , T. s . scripta ( yellow - bellied slider ) , and T. s . troostii ( Cumberland slider ) . Description ( edit ) Red - eared slider basking on a floating platform under a sunlamp Plastron of a young red eared slider turtle The carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length , but the average length ranges from 15 to 20 cm ( 6 to 8 in ) . The females of the species are usually larger than the males . They typically live between 20 and 30 years , although some individuals have lived for more than 40 years . Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity . The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being . Female turtle 's foot : Note the short claws . These turtles are poikilotherms , meaning they are unable to regulate their body temperatures independently ; they are completely dependent on the temperature of their environment . For this reason , they need to sunbathe frequently to warm themselves and maintain their body temperatures . The shell is divided into two sections : the upper or dorsal carapace , and the lower , ventral carapace or plastron . The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes , which form the central , elevated portion ; pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes ; and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace . The rear marginal scutes are notched . The scutes are bony keratinous elements . The carapace is oval and flattened ( especially in the male ) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young . The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle . The carapace usually has a dark green background with light and dark , highly variable markings . In young or recently hatched turtles , it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older , until it is a very dark green , and then turns a shade between brown and olive green . The plastron is always a light yellow with dark , paired , irregular markings in the centre of most scutes . The plastron is highly variable in pattern . The head , legs , and tail are green with fine , irregular , yellow lines . The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual . The turtle can retract its head and extremities inside its shell if it feels threatened . Turtles also have a complete skeletal system , with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail . The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red - eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name , as the stripe is located behind the eyes where their ( external ) ears would be . These stripes may lose their color over time . Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads . The red - eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal ; instead , it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc . The main internal organs of these reptiles are the lungs , heart , stomach , liver , intestines , and the urinary bladder . A cloaca serves both excretory and reproductive functions . Sexual Dimorphism ( edit ) Male red - eared slider : Note the large claws on the front foot Some dimorphism exists between males and females . Red - eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex , making it difficult to determine their sex . However , there is another method to determine their sex , by inspecting the markings under their carapace . These markings will fade as the turtles age . It is much easier to distinguish the sex of adults , as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females . Male red - eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces ' diameters measure 10 cm ( 3.9 in ) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure 15 cm . Both male and females reach sexual maturity at five to six years . The male is normally smaller than the female , although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply as individuals being compared could be of different ages . Males have longer claws on their front feet than the females ; this helps them to hold on to a female during mating and is used during courtship displays . The male 's tail is thicker and longer , it has a dark coloured retractable sexual organ known as their penis , inside the tail . Typically , the cloacal opening of the female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace , while the male 's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace . The male 's plastron is slightly concave , while that of the female is completely flat . The male 's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female 's carapace during mating . Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish - olive green melanistic coloration , with very subdued markings . The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent . The female 's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life . Distribution and habitat ( edit ) The red - eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico , in warm climates in the southeastern United States . Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida . In nature , they inhabit areas with a source of still , warm water , such as ponds , lakes , swamps , creeks , streams , or slow - flowing rivers . They live in areas of calm water where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun . Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other . They also require abundant aquatic plants , as these are the adults ' main food , although they are omnivores . Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs . Owing to their popularity as pets , red - eared sliders have been released or escaped into the wild in many parts of the world . The turtle is considered one of the world 's worst invasive species . Feral populations are now found in Australia , Europe , South Africa , the Caribbean Islands , Israel , Bahrain , the Mariana Islands , Guam , and southeast and far - east Asia . In Australia , it is illegal for members of the public to import , keep , trade , or release red - eared sliders , as they are regarded as an invasive species - see below . Their import has been banned by the European Union as well as specific EU member countries . In 2015 Japan announced it was planning to ban the import of red - eared sliders , but it would probably not take effect until 2020 . Invasive red - eared sliders cause negative impacts in the ecosystems they occupy because they have certain advantages over the native populations , such as a lower age at maturity , higher fecundity rates , and larger body size , which gives them a competitive advantage at basking and nesting sites , as well as when exploiting food resources . They also transmit diseases and displace the other turtle species with which they compete for food and breeding space . Behavior ( edit ) Red - eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic , but as they are cold - blooded , they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature . Play media Flipping over procedure extending the neck Hibernation ( edit ) Red Eared Sliders do not hibernate , but actually brumate ; while they become less active , they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air . Brumation can occur to varying degrees . In the wild , red - eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes . They generally become inactive in October , when temperatures fall below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . During this time , the turtles enter a state of sopor , during which they do not eat or defecate , they remain nearly motionless , and the frequency of their breathing falls . Individuals usually brumate underwater , but they have also been found under banks and rocks , and in hollow stumps . In warmer winter climates , they can become active and come to the surface for basking . When the temperature begins to drop again , however , they quickly return to a brumation state . Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April . During brumation , T. s . elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks , producing ATP from glycolysis . The turtle 's metabolic rate drops dramatically , with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80 % to minimise energy requirements . The lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell , preventing acidosis . Red - eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate . Red - eared slider sunbathing : Heat absorption is more effective when their limbs are stretched outwards . Reproduction ( edit ) Hatching turtle with its egg tooth Female laying eggs in a nest she dug out with her hind legs Courtship and mating activities for red - eared sliders usually occur between March and July , and take place under water . During courtship , the male swims around the female and flutters or vibrates the back side of his long claws on and around her face and head , possibly to direct pheromones towards her . The female swims toward the male and , if she is receptive , sinks to the bottom for mating . If the female is not receptive , she may become aggressive towards the male . Courtship can last 45 minutes , but mating takes only 10 minutes . A pair of red - eared sliders . On occasion , a male may appear to be courting another male , and when kept in captivity may also show this behaviour towards other household pets . Between male turtles , it could be a sign of dominance and may preclude a fight . Young turtles may carry out the courtship dance before they reach sexual maturity at five years of age , but they are unable to mate . After mating , the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm . She may also have a change of diet , eating only certain foods , or not eating as much as she normally would . A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors . One female can lay up to five clutches in the same year , and clutches are usually spaced 12 to 36 days apart . The time between mating and egg - laying can be days or weeks . The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg - laying . This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season , as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female 's body in the absence of mating . During the last weeks of gestation , the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground , indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs . The female excavates a hole , using her hind legs , and lays her eggs in it . Incubation takes 59 to 112 days . Late - season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring . Just prior to hatching , the egg contains 50 % turtle and 50 % egg sac . A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth , which falls out about an hour after hatching . This egg tooth never grows back . Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two . If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready , they will return if possible . When a hatchling decides to leave the shell , it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron . The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible , and several days later it will have been absorbed into the turtle 's belly . The sac must be absorbed , and does not fall off . The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim . The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days . Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk , enough to allow air into the turtle 's body , results in death . This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason . An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo 's growth by the sac smothering the embryo . If it manages to reach term , the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac , which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death . The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely and while the opening has not completely healed yet . The sex of red - eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos ' development . Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22 -- 27 ° C ( 72 -- 81 ° F ) , whereas females develop at warmer temperatures . Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos . Red - eared sliders as pets ( edit ) T. s . elegans Red - eared slider turtles are the world 's most commonly traded reptile , due to their relatively low price , small size and easy maintenance . As with other turtles , tortoises , and box turtles , individuals that survive their first year or two can be expected to live generally around 30 years . But they are an infection risk , and when they mature they can inflict painful bites , which results in many being dumped into the wild with negative ecological , social and economic impacts . Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution ( edit ) A line of basking red - eared sliders faces an inquisitive mallard . Reptiles are asymptomatic ( meaning they suffer no adverse side effects ) carriers of bacteria of the genus Salmonella . This has given rise to justifiable concerns given the many instances of infection of humans caused by the handling of turtles , which has led to restrictions in the sale of red - eared sliders in the USA . A 1975 U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) regulation bans the sale ( for general commercial and public use ) of both turtle eggs and turtles with a carapace length of less than 4 in ( 10 cm ) . This regulation comes under the Public Health Service Act , and is enforced by the FDA in cooperation with state and local health jurisdictions . The ban was enacted because of the public health impact of turtle - associated salmonellosis . Turtles and turtle eggs found to be offered for sale in violation of this provision are subject to destruction in accordance with FDA procedures . A fine of up to $1,001 and / or imprisonment for up to one year is the penalty for those who refuse to comply with a valid final demand for destruction of such turtles or their eggs . Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to an exception in the FDA regulation which allows turtles under 4 in ( 10 cm ) to be sold `` for bona fide scientific , educational , or exhibition purposes , other than use as pets . '' As with many other animals and inanimate objects , the risk of Salmonella exposure can be reduced by following basic rules of cleanliness . Small children must be taught to wash their hands immediately after they finish playing with the turtle , feeding it , or changing its water . U.S. state law ( edit ) Some states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red - eared sliders because they can be an invasive species where they are not native and have been introduced through the pet trade . Now , it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild - type red - eared slider , as they interbreed with the local yellow - bellied slider population -- Trachemys scripta scripta is another subspecies of pond sliders , and hybrids typically combine the markings of the two subspecies . However , unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red - eared sliders , which are derived from captive breeding , are still allowed for sale . Male red - eared slider in an outdoor pond with goldfish and koi An Invasive species in Australia ( edit ) In Australia , breeding populations have been found in New South Wales and Queensland , and individual turtles have been found in the wild in Victoria , the Australian Capital Territory and Western Australia . Red - eared slider turtles are considered a significant threat to native turtle species - they mature more quickly , grow larger , produce more offspring and are more aggressive . Numerous studies provide evidence that red - eared slider turtles can out - compete native turtles for food and nesting and basking sites . Because red - eared slider turtles eat plants as well as animals , they could also have a negative impact on a range of native aquatic species , including rare frogs . There is also a significant risk that red - eared slider turtles will transfer diseases and parasites to native reptile species . There is evidence that a malaria - like parasite was spread to two wild turtle populations in Lane Cove River , Sydney . Social and economic costs are also likely to be substantial . The Queensland government has invested close to $1 million AUD in eradication programs to date . As outlined in the foregoing section , the turtle may also have significant public health costs due to the impacts of turtle - associated salmonella on human health . Outbreaks in multiple states and fatalities in children , associated with handling salmonella - infected turtles , have been recorded in the USA . Salmonella can also spread to humans when turtles contaminate drinking water . There have been varying degrees of action by state governments to date , ranging from ongoing eradication efforts by the Queensland government to very little action by the government of New South Wales . Experts have ranked the species as high priority for management in Australia and are calling for a national prevention and eradication strategy , including a concerted education and compliance program to stop the illegal trade , possession and release of slider turtles . In popular culture ( edit ) Within the second volume of the Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , the popular comic book heroes were revealed as specimens of the red - eared slider . The popularity of the Turtles led to a craze for keeping them as pets in Great Britain , and subsequent ecological havoc as turtles were accidentally or deliberately released into the wild . See also ( edit ) Yellow - eared slider References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Fritz Uwe ; Peter Havaš ( 2007 ) . `` Checklist of Chelonians of the World '' ( PDF ) . Vertebrate Zoology. 57 ( 2 ) : 207 -- 208 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2010 - 12 - 17 . Retrieved 29 May 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Boylan Sánchez Efrén . `` Las Tortugas '' . Ed . Antártida . Archived from the original on 20 June 2008 . Retrieved 20 July 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Acuario de Veracruz '' . Archived from the original on 4 July 2007 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Lowe S. , Browne M. , Boudjelas S. ( 2000 ) . 100 of the World 's Worst Invasive Alien Species . A Selection From the Global Invasive Species Database . IUCN / SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group ( ISSG ) , Auckland , New Zealand . Jump up ^ Win Kirkpatrick , Amanda Page & Marion Massam ( November 2007 ) . Pond Slider ( Trachemys scripta ) risk assessments for Australia ( PDF ) . Department of Agriculture and Food , Western Australia . Jump up ^ `` Tortugas : La Tortuga de Florida '' . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Tortuga de orejas rojas '' . Archived from the original on October 27 , 2007 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Tortuga de Orejas Rojas '' . Archived from the original on 11 July 2007 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Rodríguez Garrido María del Carmen . `` Tortugas en Estanques de jardín '' . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Jakob Christensen - Dalsgaard , Christian Brandt , Katie L. Willis , Christian Bech Christensen , Darlene Ketten , Peggy Edds - Walton , Richard R. Fay , Peter T. Madsen and Catherine E. Carr ( 2012 ) . `` Specialization for underwater hearing by the tympanic middle ear of the turtle , Trachemys scripta elegans '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B . The Royal Society . 279 ( 1739 ) : 2816 -- 2824 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 2012.0290 . PMC 3367789 . PMID 22438494 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Animal Diversity Web : ' ' Tachemys scripta ' ' '' . Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu . Retrieved 2010 - 03 - 16 . Jump up ^ J Whitfield Gibbons & Jeffery E Lovich ( 1990 ) . `` Sexual Dimorphism in Turtles with Emphasis on the Slider Turtle ( Trachemys scripta ) '' ( PDF ) . Herpetological Monographs . The Herpetological League . 4 . doi : 10.2307 / 1466966 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 11 - 05 . Jump up ^ H Mohan - Gibbons & T Norton ( 2010 ) . `` Turtles , tortoises and terrapins '' . In VV Tynes . Behaviour of Exotic Pets . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978 0 8138 0078 3 . Jump up ^ DP O'Rourke and J Schumacher ( 2002 ) . `` Biology and Diseases of Reptiles '' . In James G. Fox ; Lynn C. Anderson ; Franklin M. Loew ; Fred W. Quimby . Laboratory Animal Medicine . Academic Press . ISBN 978 0 12 263951 7 . Jump up ^ `` Red - eared slider Turtle '' . Encyclopaedia of North American Reptiles and Amphibians . Mobile Reference. 2009 - 12 - 15 . ISBN 1605014591 . Jump up ^ `` SCOTLAND Turtle mania causes welfare headache '' . BBC News . 2000 - 04 - 07 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ Lowe S. , Browne M. , Boudjelas S. , De Poorter M. ( 2000 ) 100 of the World 's Worst Invasive Alien Species A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database . Published by The Invasive Species Specialist Group ( ISSG ) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission ( SSC ) of the World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) , Updated and reprinted version : November 2004 . http://www.issg.org/pdf/publications/worst_100/english_100_worst.pdf , retrieved 2017 - 05 - 29 ^ Jump up to : Scalera , Riccardo . `` Trachemys scripta '' ( PDF ) . Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe . Europe Aliens . Retrieved 25 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Heidy Kikillus , K. ; Hare , K.M. ; Hartley , S. ( 2010 - 12 - 01 ) . `` Minimizing false - negatives when predicting the potential distribution of an invasive species : a bioclimatic envelope for the red - eared slider at global and regional scales '' . Animal Conservation. 13 : 5 -- 15 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 1795.2008. 00299. x . ISSN 1469 - 1795 . Jump up ^ `` Red - eared slider '' ( PDF ) . Animal Pest Alert. 6 . 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Species listed in the Annexes of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations '' . European Commission Environment. 16 September 2013 . Retrieved 27 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Capdevila Argüelles Laura ; Ángela Iglesias García ; Jorge F. Orueta ; Bernardo Zilletti . `` Lista negra preliminar de EEI para España '' . Especies Exóticas Invasoras : Diagnóstico y bases para la prevención y el manejo ( PDF ) . Madrid : Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales . Ministerio De Medio Ambiente . ISBN 84 - 8014 - 667 - 2 . Jump up ^ Japan to ban imports of red - eared slider turtles July 30 , 2015 The Japan Times Retrieved March 26 , 2016 Jump up ^ B Parry . `` The red eared slider and hickatee on Grand Cayman '' . British Chelonia Group . Retrieved 26 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Pendlebury , Paul ; Bringsøe , H. ; Pendelbury , Paul ( 2006 ) . `` NOBANIS -- Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet -- Trachemys scripta '' . Global Invasive Species Database . IUCN / SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group ( ISSG ) . Retrieved 17 August 2009 . Jump up ^ Hicks , J.M. ; Farrell , A.P. ( 2000 ) . `` The cardiovascular responses of the red - eared slider ( Trachemys scripta ) acclimated to either 22 or 5 degrees C.I. Effects of anoxic exposure on in vivo cardiac performance '' . The Journal of Experimental Biology . 203 ( Pt 24 ) : 3765 -- 3774 . PMID 11076774 . Jump up ^ Hicks , J.M. ; Farrell , A.P. ( 2000 ) . `` The cardiovascular responses of the red - eared slider ( Trachemys scripta ) acclimated to either 22 or 5 degrees C. II . Effects of anoxia on adrenergic and cholinergic control '' . The Journal of Experimental Biology . 203 ( Pt 24 ) : 3775 -- 3784 . PMID 11076740 . Jump up ^ Krivoruchko , A. ; Storey , K.B. ( 2010 ) . `` Forever Young : Mechanisms of Natural Anoxia Tolerance and Potential Links to Longevity '' . Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 3 ( 3 ) : 186 -- 198 . doi : 10.4161 / oxim. 3.3. 12356 . PMC 2952077 . PMID 20716943 . Jump up ^ J Chitty & A Raftery ( 2013 ) . `` Biology '' . Essentials of Tortoise Medicine and Surgery . Wiley Blackwell . p. 38 . ISBN 978 1 4051 9544 7 . ^ Jump up to : `` Reproducción '' . Archived from the original on 25 December 2012 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Trachemys scripta ; Turtles of the World by Ernst , et al '' . Nlbif.eti.uva.nl . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 15 . Retrieved 2010 - 03 - 16 . Jump up ^ Loza V. Antonio . `` Trachemys scripta elegans ( Tortuga de orejas rojas ) '' . Archived from the original on 17 July 2007 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Washington NatureMapping Program , Animal Facts : Red - eared Slider . Retrieved : 2012 - 11 - 13 . Jump up ^ Csurhes S , Hankamer C. 2012 . Red - eared slider turtle . Invasive species risk assessment . Queensland Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry Jump up ^ `` Turtle Source 's Slider Guide -- Introduction -- Is a slider right for you ? '' . Turtlesource.webs.com . Archived from the original on 2009 - 12 - 06 . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ Csurhes S , Hankamer C. 2012 . Red - eared slider turtle . Invasive species risk assessment . Queensland Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry . Jump up ^ Iglesias Isabel . `` Tortuga de orejas rojas '' . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Multistate Outbreak of Human Salmonella Infections Associated with Exposure to Turtles Jump up ^ GCTTS FAQ : `` 4 Inch Law '' , actually an FDA regulation Jump up ^ Turtles intrastate and interstate requirements ; FDA Regulation , Sec. 1240.62 , page 678 part d1 . Jump up ^ Turtle ban begins today ; New state law , newszap.com , 2007 - 07 - 01 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Csurhes S , Hankamer C. 2012 ( Updated 2016 ) ; Red - eared slider turtle ; Invasive animal risk assessment ; Biosecurity Queensland ; Queensland Government ; https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76836/IPA-Red-Eared-Slider-Turtle-Risk-Assessment.pdf ; retrieved 2017 - 05 - 29 Jump up ^ For example , see Polo - Cavia , N , López , P and Martín , J 2010 , ' Competitive interactions during basking between native and invasive freshwater turtle species ' , Biological Invasions , vol. 12 ( 7 ) , pp. 2141 -- 2152 Jump up ^ O'Keefe , S ; 2005 ; Investing in conjecture : eradicating the red - eared slider in Queensland ; 13th Australasian Vertebrate Pest Conference , Wellington , New Zealand Jump up ^ Department of Agriculture and Food 2009 , Red - eared slider animal pest alert no . 6 / 2009 , Department of Agriculture and Food , Western Australia. Social and economic impacts Jump up ^ Center for Disease Control 2007 , ' Turtle associated salmonellosis in humans -- United States 2006 -- 2007 , Center for Disease Control ' , MMWR Weekly , vol. 56 ( 26 ) , pp. 649 -- 652 . Jump up ^ Bomford , M 2008 , Risk assessment models for establishment of exotic vertebrates in Australia and New Zealand ; Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre , Canberra . Jump up ^ Invasive Species Council ; 2014 ; Biosecurity Failures in Australia : Red - eared slider turtles ; https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Biosecurity-failures-red-eared-slider-turtles.pdf . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 29 Jump up ^ For example see , Massam , M , Kirkpatrick , W & Page , A 2010 , Assessment and prioritisation of risk for forty introduced animal species , Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre , Canberra ; and Invasive Species Council ; 2014 ; Biosecurity Failures in Australia : Red - eared slider turtles ; https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Biosecurity-failures-red-eared-slider-turtles.pdf . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 29 ) . Jump up ^ `` ENGLAND ' Hero Turtle ' craze leads to duck deaths '' . BBC News . 2001 - 11 - 16 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 28 . Further reading ( edit ) Rachel M. Bowden : `` A Modified Yolk Biopsy Technique improves survivorship of turtle eggs '' . Cal State East Bay Press Sep. / Oct. 2009 , ISSN 1522 - 2152 pp. 611 -- 615 ( online copy , p. 216 , at Google Books ) Carl H. Ernst , Jeffrey E. Lovich : Turtles of the United States and Canada . Johns Hopkins University Press 2009 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 9121 - 2 , pp. 444 -- 470 ( online copy , p. 444 , at Google Books ) James H. Harding : Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region . University of Michigan Press 1997 , ISBN 0 - 472 - 06628 - 5 , pp. 216 -- 220 ( online copy , p. 216 , at Google Books ) John B. Jensen , Carlos D. Camp , Whit Gibbons : Amphibians and Reptiles of Georgia . University of Georgia Press 2008 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 3111 - 9 , pp. 500 -- 502 ( online copy , p. 500 , at Google Books ) External Links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trachemys_scripta_elegans . Discovery Channel 's Animal Planet : Red - eared slider Exotic pets : Information on aquatic turtles & tortoises including a few articles specific to red - eared sliders Gulf Coast Turtle & Tortoise Society : Natural History : Red - eared slider RedEarSider.com , a site about caring for turtles in captivity Family Emydidae ( pond turtles ) Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Reptilia Order : Testudines Suborder : Cryptodira Superfamily : Testudinoidea Family : Emydidae Genus Species of the subfamily Deirochelyinae Chrysemys Painted turtle Deirochelys Chicken turtle Graptemys Alabama map turtle Barbour 's map turtle Black - knobbed map turtle Cagle 's map turtle Escambia map turtle False map turtle Northern map turtle Ouachita map turtle Pascagoula map turtle Pearl River map turtle Ringed map turtle Texas map turtle Yellow - blotched map turtle Malaclemys Diamondback terrapin Pseudemys Alabama red - bellied cooter Northern red - bellied cooter Florida red - bellied cooter Peninsula cooter Rio Grande cooter River cooter Texas river cooter Trachemys Big Bend slider Baja California slider Central Antillean slider Colombian slider Cuatro Cienegas slider Cuban slider D'Orbigny's slider Hispaniolan slider Jamaican slider Maranhão slider Meso - American slider Nicaraguan slider Ornate slider Pond slider Yaqui slider Species of the subfamily Emydinae Clemmys Spotted turtle Emys Blanding 's turtle European pond turtle Sicilian pond turtle Western pond turtle Glyptemys Bog turtle Wood turtle Terrapene Coahuilan box turtle Common box turtle Ornate box turtle Spotted box turtle Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2011 update : annotated checklist . Subspecies and the extinct ( Gyremys sectabilis ) are not included . Extant turtle taxonomy Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Reptilia Subclass : Anapsida Order : Chelonii or Testudines Suborder Superfamily Family Subfamily Genus Cryptodira Chelydridae Chelydra Macrochelys Chelonioidea Cheloniidae Carettinae Caretta Lepidochelys Cheloniinae Chelonia Eretmochelys Natator Dermochelyidae Dermochelys Kinosternoidea Dermatemydidae Dermatemys Kinosternidae Kinosterninae Kinosternon Sternotherus Staurotypinae Claudius Staurotypus Testudinoidea Emydidae Deirochelyinae Chrysemys Deirochelys Graptemys Malaclemys Pseudemys Trachemys Emydinae Clemmys Emys Glyptemys Terrapene Geoemydidae Geoemydinae Batagur Cuora Cyclemys Geoclemys Geoemyda Hardella Heosemys Leucocephalon Malayemys Mauremys Melanochelys Morenia Notochelys Orlitia Pangshura Sacalia Siebenrockiella Vijayachelys Rhinoclemmydinae Rhinoclemmys Platysternidae Platysternon Testudinidae Aldabrachelys Astrochelys Chelonoidis Chersina Cylindraspis Geochelone Gopherus Homopus Indotestudo Kinixys Malacochersus Manouria Psammobates Pyxis Stigmochelys Testudo Trionychia Carettochelyidae Carettochelys Trionychidae Cyclanorbinae Cyclanorbis Cycloderma Lissemys Trionychinae Amyda Apalone Chitra Dogania Nilssonia Palea Pelochelys Pelodiscus Rafetus Trionyx Pleurodira Chelidae Chelinae Acanthochelys Chelus Mesoclemmys Phrynops Platemys Rhinemys Chelodininae Chelodina Elseya Elusor Emydura Flaviemys Myuchelys Pseudemydura Rheodytes Hydromedusinae Hydromedusa Pelomedusidae Pelomedusa Pelusios Podocnemididae Erymnochelys Peltocephalus Podocnemis Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update : annotated checklist . Extinct turtles not included . Portal Book See also List of Testudines families Taxon identifiers Wd : Q207839 EoL : 1242026 GBIF : 6157026 iNaturalist : 51271 ITIS : 173823 NCBI : 31138 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red-eared_slider&oldid=838430477 '' Categories : Reptiles described in 1839 Feral animals Invasive reptile species Turtles of Europe Reptiles of North America Reptiles of the United States Trachemys Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Articles with ' species ' microformats Articles prone to spam from April 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikispecies Asturianu Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 29 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2018 , at 23 : 57 . 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Question: where do red ear slider turtles lay eggs