Mitosis - wikipedia Mitosis This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 24 January 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Meiosis , Miosis , Myiasis , Myositis , or Myosotis . Mitosis in an animal cell ( phases ordered counter-clockwise ) . Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus . Onion ( Allium ) cells in different phases of the cell cycle enlarged 800 diameters . a . non-dividing cells b . nuclei preparing for division ( spireme - stage ) c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures e. pair of daughter - cells shortly after division In cell biology , mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei . In general , mitosis ( division of the nucleus ) is preceded by the S stage of interphase ( during which the DNA is replicated ) and is often accompanied or followed by cytokinesis , which divides the cytoplasm , organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components . Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic ( M ) phase of an animal cell cycle -- the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other . The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next . These stages are prophase , prometaphase , metaphase , anaphase , and telophase . During mitosis , the chromosomes , which have already duplicated , condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell . The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei . The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells . Producing three or more daughter cells instead of normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis ( direct cell triplication / multiplication ) . Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis ( programmed cell death ) or cause mutations . Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations . Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells . Prokaryotic cells , which lack a nucleus , divide by a different process called binary fission . Mitosis varies between organisms . For example , animal cells undergo an `` open '' mitosis , where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate , whereas fungi undergo a `` closed '' mitosis , where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus . Most animal cells undergo a shape change , known as mitotic cell rounding , to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis . Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division . Important exceptions include the gametes -- sperm and egg cells -- which are produced by meiosis . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discovery 2 Overview 3 Phases of cell cycle and mitosis 3.1 Interphase 3.2 Mitosis 3.2. 1 Preprophase ( plant cells ) 3.2. 2 Prophase 3.2. 3 Prometaphase 3.2. 4 Metaphase 3.2. 5 Anaphase 3.2. 6 Telophase 3.3 Cytokinesis 4 Significance 5 Cell shape changes during mitosis 6 Errors and variations 7 Mitotic recombination 8 Timeline in pictures 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Discovery ( edit ) Cell division was first discovered by the German botanist Hugo von Mohl in 1835 as he worked with the green alga Cladophora glomerata . The German zoologist Otto Bütschli might have claimed the discovery of the process presently known as `` mitosis '' , a term coined by Walther Flemming in 1882 . Mitosis was discovered in frog , rabbit , and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875 . The term is derived from the Greek word μίτος mitos `` warp thread '' . Overview ( edit ) Types of mitosis Play media Time - lapse video of mitosis in a Drosophila melanogaster embryo The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell 's genome into two daughter cells . The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes -- complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function . Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell , the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis . This occurs during the S phase of interphase . Chromosome duplication results in two identical sister chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the centromere . When mitosis begins , the chromosomes condense and become visible . In some eukaryotes , for example animals , the nuclear envelope , which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm , disintegrates into small vesicles . The nucleolus , which makes ribosomes in the cell , also disappears . Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell , attach to the centromeres , and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell . The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart . Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes . As the cell elongates , corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase . A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes , which decondense to form interphase nuclei . During mitotic progression , typically after the anaphase onset , the cell may undergo cytokinesis . In animal cells , a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells . In plant cells , a cell plate forms between the two nuclei . Cytokinesis does not always occur ; coenocytic ( a type of multinucleate condition ) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis . Phases of cell cycle and mitosis ( edit ) Interphase ( edit ) Main article : Interphase The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle . It alternates with the much longer interphase , where the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division . Interphase is divided into three phases : G ( first gap ) , S ( synthesis ) , and G ( second gap ) . During all three parts of interphase , the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles . However , chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase . Thus , a cell grows ( G ) , continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes ( S ) , grows more and prepares for mitosis ( G ) , and finally divides ( M ) before restarting the cycle . All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins , cyclin - dependent kinases , and other cell cycle proteins . The phases follow one another in strict order and there are `` checkpoints '' that give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another . Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G phase to stop dividing . This can occur when cells become overcrowded ( density - dependent inhibition ) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism , as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons . Some G cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle . Mitosis ( edit ) Preprophase ( plant cells ) ( edit ) Main article : Preprophase In plant cells only , prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage . In highly vacuolated plant cells , the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin . This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome , a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division . In addition to phragmosome formation , preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments ( called preprophase band ) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle . This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide . The cells of higher plants ( such as the flowering plants ) lack centrioles ; instead , microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves , after the nuclear envelope breaks down . The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase . Prophase ( edit ) Main article : Prophase During prophase , which occurs after G interphase , the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation . During interphase , the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin . At the onset of prophase , chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope . In this stage , chromosomes are long , thin and thread - like . Each chromosome has two chromatids . The two chromatids are joined at the centromere . Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early G1 phase . The nucleolus also disappears during early prophase . Condensing chromosomes . Interphase nucleus ( left ) , condensing chromosomes ( middle ) and condensed chromosomes ( right ) . Close to the nucleus of animal cells are structures called centrosomes , consisting of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a loose collection of proteins . The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell 's microtubules . A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division , which is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins , giving a pair of centrosomes . The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus . Motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell . Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly , they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus , since they are absent from plants , and are not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis . Prometaphase ( edit ) Main article : Prometaphase At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells , phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles . As this happens , microtubules invade the nuclear space . This is called open mitosis , and it occurs in some multicellular organisms . Fungi and some protists , such as algae or trichomonads , undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus , or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope . In late prometaphase , kinetochore microtubules begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores . A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule - binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase . A number of polar microtubules find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle . Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood , it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor . When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore , the motor activates , using energy from ATP to `` crawl '' up the tube toward the originating centrosome . This motor activity , coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules , provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome 's two chromatids . Metaphase ( edit ) A cell in late metaphase . All chromosomes ( blue ) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate . Main article : Metaphase After the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase , the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell . The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane , an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes ( at approximately the midline of the cell ) . To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis , the metaphase checkpoint guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate . If the cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint , it proceeds to anaphase . Anaphase ( edit ) Main article : Anaphase During anaphase A , the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved , forming two identical daughter chromosomes . Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell . During anaphase B , polar microtubules push against each other , causing the cell to elongate . In late anaphase , chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level , to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus . In most animal cells , anaphase A precedes anaphase B , but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events . Telophase ( edit ) Main article : Telophase Telophase ( from the Greek word τελος meaning `` end '' ) is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events . At telophase , the polar microtubules continue to lengthen , elongating the cell even more . If the nuclear envelope has broken down , a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell 's old nuclear envelope . The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes ( though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes ) and the nucleolus reappears . Both sets of chromosomes , now surrounded by new nuclear membrane , begin to `` relax '' or decondense . Mitosis is complete . Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes . Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism . Cytokinesis ( edit ) Cilliate undergoing cytokinesis , with the cleavage furrow being clearly visible Main article : Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but rather a separate process , necessary for completing cell division . In animal cells , a cleavage furrow ( pinch ) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be , pinching off the separated nuclei . In both animal and plant cells , cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus , which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell . In plants , this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall , separating the two nuclei . The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants , whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis . Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell . The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M - phase . There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately , forming single cells with multiple nuclei . The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi , slime molds , and coenocytic algae , but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms . Even in animals , cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently , for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development . Significance ( edit ) Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set ; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell . Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances : Development and growth The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis . This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell , i.e. , zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body . Cell replacement In some parts of body , e.g. skin and digestive tract , cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones . New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced . In like manner , red blood cells have short lifespan ( only about 4 months ) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis . Regeneration Some organisms can regenerate body parts . The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by mitosis . For example , starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis . Asexual reproduction Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction . For example , the hydra reproduces asexually by budding . The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud . Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual . The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in plants . Cell shape changes during mitosis ( edit ) Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical animal cell cultured on a flat surface . The cell undergoes mitotic cell rounding during spindle assembly and then divides via cytokinesis . The actomyosin cortex is depicted in red , DNA / chromosomes purple , microtubules green , and membrane and retraction fibers in black . Rounding also occurs in live tissue , as described in the text . Main article : Mitotic cell rounding In animal tissue , most cells round up to a near - spherical shape during mitosis . In epithelia and epidermis , an efficient rounding process is correlated with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent correct positioning of daughter cells . Moreover , researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed it may result in spindle defects , primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture chromosomes . Therefore , mitotic cell rounding is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis . Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F - actin and myosin ( actomyosin ) into a contractile homogeneous cell cortex that 1 ) rigidifies the cell periphery and 2 ) facilitates generation of intracellular hydrostatic pressure ( up to 10 fold higher than interphase ) . The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement , such as would be important in a tissue scenario , where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and / or the extracellular matrix . Generation of pressure is dependent on formin - mediated F - actin nucleation and Rho kinase ( ROCK ) - mediated myosin II contraction , both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT2 through the activity of Cdk1 . Due to its importance in mitosis , the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active research . Errors and Variations ( edit ) An abnormal ( tripolar ) mitosis ( 12 o'clock position ) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach ( H&E stain ) Errors can occur during mitosis , especially during early embryonic development in humans . Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes , a condition associated with cancer . Early human embryos , cancer cells , infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells ( tripolar or multipolar mitosis ) , resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements . In nondisjunction , sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase . One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none . As a result , the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome , a condition known as trisomy , and the latter will have only one copy , a condition known as monosomy . On occasion , when cells experience nondisjunction , they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell , resulting in binucleated cells . Anaphase lag occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase . This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome . The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost . Therefore , one of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that chromosome . Endoreduplication ( or endoreplication ) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide . This results in polyploid cells or , if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly , polytene chromosomes . Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development . Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter , but prematurely terminate , mitosis . Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei , the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus . The cells then re-enter G and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again . This may occur multiple times , increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis . Platelet - producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation . Mitotic recombination ( edit ) Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 phase of the cell cycle repair recombinogenic DNA damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes . Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such damages preferentially by sister - chromatid recombination . Mutations in genes encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of DNA damaging agents . These findings suggest that mitotic recombination is an adaptation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal . Timeline in pictures ( edit ) Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes . Early prophase : Polar microtubules , shown as green strands , have established a matrix around the currently intact nucleus , with the condensing chromosomes in blue . The red nodules are the centromeres . Early prometaphase : The nuclear membrane has just disassembled , allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores , which assemble on the centromeres of the condensing chromosomes . Metaphase : The centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and have established the mitotic spindle . The chromosomes have congressed at the metaphase plate . Anaphase : Kinetochore microtubules pull the two sets of chromosomes apart , and lengthening polar microtubules push the halves of the dividing cell further apart , while chromosomes are condensed maximally . Telophase : Reversal of prophase and prometaphase events and thus completing the cell cycle . See also ( edit ) Aneuploidy Binary fission Chromosome abnormality Cytoskeleton Meiosis Mitogen Mitosis Promoting Factor Mitotic bookmarking Motor protein References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Carter , J. Stein ( 2014 - 01 - 14 ) . `` Mitosis '' . biology.clc.uc.edu . Archived from the original on 2012 - 10 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Cell Division : Stages of Mitosis Learn Science at Scitable '' . www.nature.com . Archived from the original on 2015 - 11 - 14 . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 16 . Jump up ^ Maton A , Hopkins JJ , LaHart S , Quon Warner D , Wright M , Jill D ( 1997 ) . Cells : Building Blocks of Life . 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In Jeon KJ . International Review Of Cytology : A Survey of Cell Biology . 249 . Waltham , MA : Academic Press . p. 146 . ISBN 9780080463506 . Jump up ^ Shi Q , King RW ( October 2005 ) . `` Chromosome nondisjunction yields tetraploid rather than aneuploid cells in human cell lines '' . Nature . 437 ( 7061 ) : 1038 -- 42 . doi : 10.1038 / nature03958 . PMID 16222248 . ^ Jump up to : Edgar BA , Orr - Weaver TL ( May 2001 ) . `` Endoreplication cell cycles : more for less '' . Cell. 105 ( 3 ) : 297 -- 306 . doi : 10.1016 / S0092 - 8674 ( 01 ) 00334 - 8 . PMID 11348589 . ^ Jump up to : Lee HO , Davidson JM , Duronio RJ ( November 2009 ) . `` Endoreplication : polyploidy with purpose '' . Genes & Development . 23 ( 21 ) : 2461 -- 77 . doi : 10.1101 / gad. 1829209 . PMC 2779750 . PMID 19884253 . Jump up ^ Italiano JE , Shivdasani RA ( June 2003 ) . `` Megakaryocytes and beyond : the birth of platelets '' . Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 1 ( 6 ) : 1174 -- 82 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1538 - 7836.2003. 00290. x . PMID 12871316 . Jump up ^ Vitrat N , Cohen - Solal K , Pique C , Le Couedic JP , Norol F , Larsen AK , Katz A , Vainchenker W , Debili N ( May 1998 ) . `` Endomitosis of human megakaryocytes are due to abortive mitosis '' . Blood . 91 ( 10 ) : 3711 -- 23 . PMID 9573008 . ^ Jump up to : Kadyk LC , Hartwell LH ( 1992 ) . `` Sister chromatids are preferred over homologs as substrates for recombinational repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae '' . Genetics . 132 ( 2 ) : 387 -- 402 . PMC 1205144 . PMID 1427035 . Jump up ^ Harris Bernstein , Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod ( 2011 ) . Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair . Chapter 19 in DNA Repair . Inna Kruman editor . InTech Open Publisher . DOI : 10.5772 / 25117 `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 29 . Further reading ( edit ) Morgan DL ( 2007 ) . The cell cycle : principles of control . London : Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 9539181 - 2 - 2 . Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , Raff M , Roberts K , Walter P ( 2002 ) . `` Mitosis '' . Molecular Biology of the Cell ( 4th ed . ) . Garland Science . Retrieved 2006 - 01 - 22 . Campbell N , Reece J ( December 2001 ) . `` The Cell Cycle '' . Biology ( 6th ed . ) . San Francisco : Benjamin Cummings / Addison - Wesley . pp. 217 -- 224 . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 6624 - 5 . Cooper G ( 2000 ) . `` The Events of M Phase '' . The Cell : A Molecular Approach ( 2nd ed . ) . Sinaeur Associates , Inc . Retrieved 2006 - 01 - 22 . Freeman S ( 2002 ) . `` Cell Division '' . Biological Science . Upper Saddle River , NJ : Prentice Hall . pp. 155 -- 174 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 081923 - 9 . Lodish H , Berk A , Zipursky L , Matsudaira P , Baltimore D , Darnell J ( 2000 ) . `` Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Control '' . Molecular Cell Biology ( 4th ed . ) . W.H. Freeman . Retrieved 2006 - 01 - 22 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mitosis . A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Khan Academy , lecture Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells General K - 12 classroom resources for Mitosis The Cell - Cycle Ontology WormWeb.org : Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage -- Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans ( hide ) Cell cycle proteins Cyclin A ( A1 , A2 ) B ( B1 , B2 , B3 ) D ( D1 , D2 , D3 ) E ( E1 , E2 ) CDK 5 6 7 8 9 10 CDK - activating kinase CDK inhibitor INK4a / ARF ( p14arf / p16 , p15 , p18 , p19 ) cip / kip ( p21 , p27 , p57 ) P53 p63 p73 family p53 p63 p73 Other Cdc2 Cdc25 Cdc42 Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein E2F Maturation promoting factor Wee Cullin ( CUL7 ) Phases and checkpoints Interphase G phase S phase G phase M phase Mitosis ( Preprophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase ) Cytokinesis Cell cycle checkpoints Restriction point Spindle checkpoint Postreplication checkpoint Other cellular phases Apoptosis G phase Meiosis Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mitosis&oldid=822178376 '' Categories : Cell cycle Mitosis 1835 in science Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца )  Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2018 , at 21 : 16 . 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Question: state the process that divides one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei


PDCA - wikipedia PDCA Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see PDCA ( disambiguation ) . PDCA ( plan -- do -- check -- act or plan -- do -- check -- adjust ) is an iterative four - step management method used in business for the control and continual improvement of processes and products . It is also known as the Deming circle / cycle / wheel , the Shewhart cycle , the control circle / cycle , or plan -- do -- study -- act ( PDSA ) . Another version of this PDCA cycle is OPDCA . The added `` O '' stands for observation or as some versions say : `` Observe the current condition . '' This emphasis on observation and current condition has currency with the literature on lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System . Contents ( hide ) 1 Meaning 1.1 Plan 1.2 Do 1.3 Check 1.4 Act 2 About 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading Meaning ( edit ) This section contains instructions , advice , or how - to content . The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts , not to train . Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how - to content or by moving it to Wikiversity , Wikibooks or Wikivoyage . ( October 2017 ) The PDCA cycle Continuous quality improvement with PDCA Plan ( edit ) During the plan phase , establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output ( the target or goals ) . By establishing output expectations , the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also a part of the targeted improvement . When possible start on a small scale to test possible effects . Do ( edit ) During the do phase , implement the plan , execute the process , make the product . Collect data for charting and analysis in the following check and act steps . Check ( edit ) In the check phase , study the actual results ( measured and collected in do phase above ) and compare against the expected results ( targets or goals from the plan phase ) to ascertain any differences . Look for deviation in implementation from the plan and also look for the appropriateness and completeness of the plan to enable the execution , i.e. , the doing . Charting data can make this much easier to see trends over several PDCA cycles and in order to convert the collected data into information . Information is needed for the next step : act . Act ( edit ) If the check phase shows that the plan phase which was implemented in do phase is an improvement to the prior standard ( baseline ) , then that becomes the new standard ( baseline ) for how the organization should act going forward ( new standards are thus said to be enACTed ) . Instead , if the check phase shows that the plan phase which was implemented in do phase is not an improvement , then the existing standard ( baseline ) will remain in place . In either case , if the check phase showed something different than expected ( whether better or worse ) , then there is some more learning to be done ... and that will suggest potential future PDCA cycles . Note that some who teach PDCA assert that the act phase involves making adjustments or corrective actions , but generally it would be counter to PDCA thinking to propose and decide upon alternative changes without using a proper plan phase , or to make them the new standard ( baseline ) without going through do and check steps . About ( edit ) PDCA was made popular by W. Edwards Deming , who is considered by many to be the father of modern quality control ; however , he always referred to it as the `` Shewhart cycle '' . Later in Deming 's career , he modified PDCA to `` Plan , Do , Study , Act '' ( PDSA ) because he felt that `` check '' emphasized inspection over analysis . The PDSA cycle was used to create the model of know - how transfer process , and other models . The concept of PDCA is based on the scientific method , as developed from the work of Francis Bacon ( Novum Organum , 1620 ) . The scientific method can be written as `` hypothesis -- experiment -- evaluation '' or as `` plan -- do -- check '' . Walter A. Shewhart described manufacture under `` control '' -- under statistical control -- as a three - step process of specification , production , and inspection . He also specifically related this to the scientific method of hypothesis , experiment , and evaluation . Shewhart says that the statistician `` must help to change the demand ( for goods ) by showing ( ... ) how to close up the tolerance range and to improve the quality of goods . '' Clearly , Shewhart intended the analyst to take action based on the conclusions of the evaluation . According to Deming , during his lectures in Japan in the early 1950s , the Japanese participants shortened the steps to the now traditional plan , do , check , act . Deming preferred plan , do , study , act because `` study '' has connotations in English closer to Shewhart 's intent than `` check '' . Multiple iterations of the PDCA cycle are repeated until the problem is solved . A fundamental principle of the scientific method and PDCA is iteration -- once a hypothesis is confirmed ( or negated ) , executing the cycle again will extend the knowledge further . Repeating the PDCA cycle can bring its users closer to the goal , usually a perfect operation and output . Another fundamental function of PDCA is the `` hygienic '' separation of each phase , for if not properly separated measurements of effects due to various simultaneous actions ( causes ) risk becoming confounded . PDCA ( and other forms of scientific problem solving ) is also known as a system for developing critical thinking . At Toyota this is also known as `` Building people before building cars '' . Toyota and other lean manufacturing companies propose that an engaged , problem - solving workforce using PDCA in a culture of critical thinking is better able to innovate and stay ahead of the competition through rigorous problem solving and the subsequent innovations . Deming continually emphasized iterating towards an improved system , hence PDCA should be repeatedly implemented in spirals of increasing knowledge of the system that converge on the ultimate goal , each cycle closer than the previous . One can envision an open coil spring , with each loop being one cycle of the scientific method , and each complete cycle indicating an increase in our knowledge of the system under study . This approach is based on the belief that our knowledge and skills are limited , but improving . Especially at the start of a project , key information may not be known ; the PDCA -- scientific method -- provides feedback to justify guesses ( hypotheses ) and increase knowledge . Rather than enter `` analysis paralysis '' to get it perfect the first time , it is better to be approximately right than exactly wrong . With improved knowledge , one may choose to refine or alter the goal ( ideal state ) . The aim of the PDCA cycle is to bring its users closer to whatever goal they choose . When PDCA is used for complex projects or products with a certain controversy , checking with external stakeholders should happen before the Do stage , since changes to projects and products that are already in detailed design can be costly ; this is also seen as Plan - Check - Do - Act . Rate of change , that is , rate of improvement , is a key competitive factor in today 's world . PDCA allows for major `` jumps '' in performance ( `` breakthroughs '' often desired in a Western approach ) , as well as kaizen ( frequent small improvements ) . In the United States a PDCA approach is usually associated with a sizable project involving numerous people 's time , and thus managers want to see large `` breakthrough '' improvements to justify the effort expended . However , the scientific method and PDCA apply to all sorts of projects and improvement activities . See also ( edit ) COBIT Decision cycle DMAIC Lean manufacturing Learning cycle Lesson study OODA loop Performance management Quality storyboard Robert S. Kaplan ( closed loop management system ) Six sigma Theory of constraints Total security management Software development process References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tague , Nancy R. ( 2005 ) ( 1995 ) . `` Plan -- Do -- Study -- Act cycle '' . The quality toolbox ( 2nd ed . ) . Milwaukee : ASQ Quality Press . pp. 390 -- 392 . ISBN 0873896394 . OCLC 57251077 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Rother , Mike ( 2010 ) . Toyota kata : managing people for improvement , adaptiveness , and superior results . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0071635238 . OCLC 318409119 . Jump up ^ `` Taking the first step with PDCA '' . 2 February 2009 . Retrieved 17 March 2011 . Jump up ^ Aguayo , Rafael ( 1990 ) . Dr. Deming : the American who taught the Japanese about quality . A Lyle Stuart book . Secaucus , NJ : Carol Pub . Group . p. 76 . ISBN 0818405198 . OCLC 22347078 . Also published by Simon & Schuster , 1991 . Jump up ^ Dubickis , Mikus ; Gaile - Sarkane , Elīna ( December 2017 ) . `` Transfer of know - how based on learning outcomes for development of open innovation '' . Journal of Open Innovation : Technology , Market , and Complexity. 3 ( 1 ) : 4 . doi : 10.1186 / s40852 - 017 - 0053 - 4 . Jump up ^ Dubberly , Hugh ( 2008 ) ( 2004 ) . `` How do you design ? : a compendium of models '' . dubberly.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Shewhart , Walter Andrew ( 1986 ) ( 1939 ) . Statistical method from the viewpoint of quality control . New York : Dover . ISBN 0486652327 . OCLC 13822053 . Reprint . Originally published : Washington , DC : Graduate School of the Department of Agriculture , 1939 . Jump up ^ Deming , W. Edwards ( 1986 ) . Out of the crisis . Cambridge , MA : Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Center for Advanced Engineering Study . ISBN 0911379010 . OCLC 13126265 . ^ Jump up to : Moen , Ronald ; Norman , Clifford . `` Evolution of the PDCA cycle '' ( PDF ) . westga.edu . Paper delivered to the Asian Network for Quality Conference in Tokyo on September 17 , 2009 . Retrieved 1 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Berengueres , José ( 2007 ) . The Toyota production system re-contextualized . Tokyo : José Berengueres . p. 74 . ISBN 1847534775 . OCLC 906982187 . ^ Jump up to : Liker , Jeffrey K. ( 2004 ) . The Toyota way : 14 management principles from the world 's greatest manufacturer . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0071392319 . OCLC 54005437 . Further reading ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to PDCA . Kolesar , Peter J. ( 2005 ) ( 1994 ) . `` What Deming told the Japanese in 1950 '' . In Wood , John C. ; Wood , Michael C. W. Edwards Deming : critical evaluations in business and management . 2 . New York : Routledge . pp. 87 -- 107 . ISBN 9780415323888 . OCLC 55738077 . Reprint . Originally published : Quality Management Journal 2 ( 1 ) ( 1994 ) : 9 -- 24 . Langley , Gerald J. ; Moen , Ronald D. ; Nolan , Kevin M. ; Nolan , Thomas W. ; Norman , Clifford L. ; Provost , Lloyd P. ( 2009 ) ( 1996 ) . The improvement guide : a practical approach to enhancing organizational performance ( 2nd ed . ) . San Francisco : Jossey - Bass . ISBN 9780470192412 . OCLC 236325893 . Shewhart , Walter Andrew ( 1980 ) ( 1931 ) . Economic control of quality of manufactured product . Milwaukee : American Society for Quality . ISBN 0873890760 . OCLC 7543940 . 50th anniversary commemorative reissue . Originally published : New York : Van Nostrand , 1931 . ( hide ) Lean manufacturing tools Cellular manufacturing Takt time Standardized work Continuous - flow manufacturing Kanban 5 Whys Single - minute exchange of die Poka - yoke Production leveling Total productive maintenance 5S ( methodology ) PDCA Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PDCA&oldid=806671566 '' Categories : Lean manufacturing Process management Manufacturing Production and manufacturing Commercial item transport and distribution Management Inventory Quality American inventions Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Articles needing cleanup from October 2017 All pages needing cleanup Articles containing how - to sections Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский کوردی Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 October 2017 , at 13 : 33 . 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Question: who is the originator of the plan-do-check-act model of performance improvement


Stevia - wikipedia Stevia Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the sweetener . For other uses , see Stevia ( disambiguation ) . Steviol , the basic building block of stevia 's sweet glycosides Stevia ( / ˈstiːviə , ˈstɛviə / ) is a sweetener and sugar substitute extracted from the leaves of the plant species Stevia rebaudiana . The active compounds of stevia are steviol glycosides ( mainly stevioside and rebaudioside ) , which have up to 150 times the sweetness of sugar , are heat - stable , pH - stable , and not fermentable . Stevia 's taste has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar , and some of its extracts may have a bitter or licorice - like aftertaste at high concentrations . The legal status of stevia as a food additive or dietary supplement varies from country to country . In the United States , high - purity stevia glycoside extracts are generally recognized as safe ( GRAS ) and allowed as ingredients in food products , but stevia leaf and crude extracts do not have GRAS or Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) approval for use in food . The European Union approved stevia additives in 2011 , and in Japan , stevia has been widely used as a sweetener for decades . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Discovery 1.2 Early regulation 1.3 Commercial use 2 Industrial extracts 3 Mechanism of action 4 Safety and regulations 4.1 Availability and legal status by country 5 See also 6 References History ( edit ) Discovery ( edit ) Stevia rebaudiana The plant Stevia rebaudiana has been used for more than 1,500 years by the Guaraní peoples of South America , who called it ka'a he'ê ( `` sweet herb '' ) . The leaves have been used traditionally for hundreds of years in both Brazil and Paraguay to sweeten local teas and medicines , and as a `` sweet treat '' . The genus was named for Spanish botanist and physician Petrus Jacobus Stevus ( Pedro Jaime Esteve 1500 -- 1556 ) , a professor of botany at the University of Valencia . In 1899 , Swiss botanist Moisés Santiago Bertoni , while conducting research in eastern Paraguay , first described the plant and the sweet taste in detail . Only limited research was conducted on the topic until in 1931 two French chemists isolated the glycosides that give stevia its sweet taste . Early regulation ( edit ) During the 1990s , the United States Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) received two petitions requesting that stevia be classified as generally recognized as safe ( GRAS ) , but the FDA `` disagreed with ( the ) conclusions ( detailed in the petitions ) '' . In 2015 , the FDA still regarded stevia as `` not an approved food additive '' , and stated that it `` has not been affirmed as GRAS in the United States due to inadequate toxicological information '' . Stevia remained banned for all uses until the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 , after which the FDA revised its stance and permitted stevia to be used as a dietary supplement , although still not as a food additive . In December 2008 , the FDA gave a `` no objection '' approval for GRAS status to Truvia ( developed by Cargill and the Coca - Cola Company ) and PureVia ( developed by PepsiCo and the Whole Earth Sweetener Company , a subsidiary of Merisant ) , both of which use rebaudioside A derived from the stevia plant . However , the FDA said that these products are not stevia , but a highly purified product . As of 2017 , high - purity stevia glycosides are considered safe and allowable as ingredients in food products sold in the United States . In June 2016 , the U.S. Customs and Border Protection issued an order of detention for stevia products made in China based on information that the products were made using prison labor . Early studies prompted the European Commission in 1999 to ban stevia 's use in food in the European Union pending further research . In 2006 , research data compiled in the safety evaluation released by the World Health Organization found no adverse effects . Commercial use ( edit ) In the early 1970s , sweeteners such as cyclamate and saccharin were gradually decreased or removed from a variant formulation of Coca - Cola . Consequently , use of stevia as an alternative began in Japan , with the aqueous extract of the leaves yielding purified steviosides developed as sweeteners . The first commercial stevia sweetener in Japan was produced by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co. , Ltd. in 1971 . The Japanese have been using stevia in food products and soft drinks , ( including Coca Cola ) , and for table use . In 2006 , Japan consumed more stevia than any other country , with stevia accounting for 40 % of the sweetener market . In the mid-1980s , stevia became popular in U.S. natural foods and health food industries , as a noncaloric natural sweetener for teas and weight - loss blends . The makers of the synthetic sweetener NutraSweet ( at the time Monsanto ) asked the FDA to require testing of the herb . In 2007 , the Coca - Cola Company announced plans to obtain approval for its stevia - derived sweetener , Rebiana , for use as a food additive within the United States by 2009 , as well as plans to market Rebiana - sweetened products in 12 countries that allow stevia 's use as a food additive . In May 2008 , Coca Cola and Cargill announced the availability of Truvia , a consumer brand stevia sweetener containing erythritol and Rebiana , which the FDA permitted as a food additive in December 2008 . Coca - Cola announced intentions to release stevia - sweetened beverages in late December 2008 . From 2013 onwards , Coca - Cola Life , containing stevia as a sweetener , was launched in various countries around the world . Shortly afterward , PepsiCo and Pure Circle announced PureVia , their brand of stevia - based sweetener , but withheld release of beverages sweetened with rebaudioside A until receipt of FDA confirmation . Since the FDA permitted Truvia and PureVia , both Coca Cola and PepsiCo have introduced products that contain their new sweeteners . As of 2006 , China was the world 's largest exporter of stevioside products . Industrial extracts ( edit ) Rebaudioside A has the least bitterness of all the steviol glycosides in the Stevia rebaudiana plant . To produce rebaudioside A commercially , stevia plants are dried and subjected to a water extraction process . This crude extract contains about 50 % rebaudioside A . The various glycosides are separated and purified via crystallization techniques , typically using ethanol or methanol as solvent . Stevia extracts and derivatives are produced industrially and marketed under different trade names . Rebiana is an abbreviated name for the stevia extract , rebaudioside A . Truvia is the brand for an Erythritol , Rebiana , and natural flavoring concoction manufactured by Cargill and developed jointly with the Coca - Cola Company . PureVia is PepsiCo 's brand of rebiana . Mechanism of action ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Glycosides are molecules that contain glucose residues bound to other non-sugar substances called aglycones ( molecules with other sugars are polysaccharides ) . Preliminary experiments deduce that the tongue 's taste receptors react to the glycosides and transduce the sweet taste sensation and the lingering bitter aftertaste by direct activation of sweet and bitter receptors . According to basic research , steviol glycosides and steviol interact with a protein channel called TRPM5 , potentiating the signal from the sweet or bitter receptors , amplifying the taste of other sweet , bitter and umami tastants . The synergetic effect of the glycosides on the sweet receptor and TRPM5 explains the sweetness sensation . Some steviol glycosides ( rebaudioside A ) are perceived sweeter than others ( stevioside ) . Steviol can not be further digested in the digestive tract and is taken up into the bloodstream , metabolised by the liver to steviol glucuronide , and excreted in the urine . Safety and Regulations ( edit ) A 2011 review found that the use of stevia sweeteners as replacements for sugar might benefit people with diabetes , children , and those wishing to lower their intake of calories . Although both steviol and rebaudioside A have been found to be mutagenic in laboratory in vitro testing , these effects have not been demonstrated for the doses and routes of administration to which humans are exposed . Two 2010 review studies found no health concerns with stevia or its sweetening extracts . The WHO 's Joint Experts Committee on Food Additives has approved , based on long - term studies , an acceptable daily intake of steviol glycoside of up to 4 mg / kg of body weight . In 2010 , The European Food Safety Authority established an acceptable daily intake of 4 mg / kg / day of steviol , in the form of steviol glycosides . Meanwhile , the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center warns that `` steviol at high dosages may have weak mutagenic activity , '' and a review `` conducted for '' the Center for Science in the Public Interest notes that there are no published carcinogenicity results for rebaudioside A ( or stevioside ) . Availability and legal status by country ( edit ) The plant may be grown legally in most countries , although some countries restrict its use as a sweetener . The legally allowed uses and maximum dosage of the extracts and derived products vary widely from country to country . Argentina : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain Australia and New Zealand : All steviol glycoside extracts were approved in 2008 . Brazil : stevioside extract approved as food additive since 1986 Canada ( as of November 2012 ) Steviol glycosides became available as a food additive on 30 November 2012 . Stevia rebaudiana leaf and extracts are available as dietary supplements . Chile : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain China : available since 1984 , regulatory status uncertain Colombia : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain European Union : Steviol glycosides were approved and regulated as food additives by the European Commission on 11 November 2011 . Hong Kong : steviol glycosides approved as food additives since January 2010 India : In a notification dated 13 Nov 2015 FSSAI has permitted its use in a range of products . This includes carbonated water , dairy - based desserts and flavoured drinks , yoghurts , ready - to - eat cereals , fruit nectars and jams . Madhu - Tulsi ( Sweeteners in Food Regulations ; Public Health and Municipal Services Ordinance ) . Indonesia : ( 2012 ) Steviol glycosides are available as food additives since 2012 . Stevia leaf is available as a dietary supplement . Israel : approved as food additive since January 2012 . Japan : widely available since the 1970s and regulated as an existing additive since 1995 . Korea : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Malaysia : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Mexico : mixed steviol glycoside extract ( not separate extracts ) approved since 2009. : Norway : Steviol glycoside approved as food additive ( E 960 ) since June 2012 . The plant itself has not been approved as of September 2012 . Stevia extract on sale in a supermarket in Paraguay Paraguay : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Peru : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Philippines : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Russian Federation : stevioside approved as food additive since 2008 , in the `` minimal dosage required '' to achieve the goal . Saudi Arabia : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Singapore : steviol glycosides approved as food additive in certain foods , since 2005 Previously it was banned . South Africa : approved since September 2012 and widely available . Taiwan : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Thailand : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Turkey : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . United Arab Emirates : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . Uruguay : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . United States ( as of April 2017 ) : Purified rebaudioside A has been allowed since December 2008 as a food additive ( sweetener ) , sold under various trade names , and classified as `` generally recognized as safe '' ( `` GRAS '' ) . Stevia rebaudiana leaf and extracts have been available as dietary supplements since 1995 , but the 2008 FDA authorization does not extend to them , and they do not have GRAS status . Vietnam : available as of 2008 , regulatory status uncertain . See also ( edit ) Asteraceae , botanical family containing Stevia Steviol glycoside , the chemical responsible for the sweetness Sugar substitute , primary usage of stevia Thaumatin , a natural sweetener , derived from an African fruit Miraculin , a substance that modifies the perception of sour foods into sweet References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Stevia '' . British & World English . Oxforddictionaries.com. 7 February 2013 . Retrieved 13 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia '' . US English . Oxforddictionaries.com. 7 February 2013 . Retrieved 13 February 2013 . Jump up ^ H.M.A.B. Cardello , M.A.P.A. Da Silva , M.H. Damasio ( 1999 ) . `` Measurement of the relative sweetness of stevia extract , aspartame and cyclamate / saccharin blend as compared to sucrose at different concentrations '' . Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 54 ( 2 ) : 119 -- 129 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1008134420339 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Raji Akintunde Abdullateef , Mohamad Osman ( 1 January 2012 ) . `` Studies on effects of pruning on vegetative traits in Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni ( Compositae ) '' . International Journal of Biology . 4 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.5539 / ijb. v4n1p146 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) ^ Jump up to : `` Has Stevia been approved by FDA to be used as a sweetener ? '' . US Food and Drug Administration . 28 April 2017 . Retrieved 27 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Stones , Mike ( 2011 ) . `` Stevia wins final EU approval '' . foodmanufacture.co.uk . Retrieved 22 November 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia herb shakes up global sweetener market '' . The Independent . Retrieved 13 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Misra , H. ; Soni , M. ; Silawat , N. ; Mehta , D. ; Mehta , B.K. ; Jain , D.C. ( April 2011 ) . `` Antidiabetic activity of medium - polar extract from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bert . ( Bertoni ) on alloxan - induced diabetic rats '' . J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 3 ( 2 ) : 242 -- 8 . doi : 10.4103 / 0975 - 7406.80779 . PMC 3103919 . PMID 21687353 . Jump up ^ Parsons , WT ; Cuthbertson , EG ( 2001 ) . Noxious Weeds of Australia , 2nd ed . Collingswood , Australia : CSIRO Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 643 - 06514 - 7 . , page 309. This reference refers specifically to Stevia eupatoria , a related weed having the same nomenclature origin . Jump up ^ Bertoni , Moisés Santiago ( 1899 ) . Revista de Agronomia de l'Assomption. 1 : 35 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Bridel , M. ; Lavielle , R. ( 1931 ) . `` Sur le principe sucre des feuilles de kaa - he - e ( stevia rebaundiana B ) '' . Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences ( Parts 192 ) : 1123 -- 5 . Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/07/dining/so-sweet-so-natural-so-la.html Jump up ^ Food and Drug Administration ( 1995 , rev 1996 , 2005 ) . Import Alert # 45 - 06 : `` Automatic Detention of Stevia Leaves , Extract of Stevia Leaves , and Food Containing Stevia '' Jump up ^ McCaleb , Rob ( 1997 ) . `` Controversial Products in the Natural Foods Market '' . Herb Research Foundation . Retrieved 8 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Newmarker , Chris ( 18 December 2008 ) . `` Federal regulators give OK for Cargill 's Truvia sweetener '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved 18 December 2008 . Jump up ^ `` What refined Stevia preparations have been evaluated by FDA to be used as a sweetener ? '' . fda.gov . U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 22 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` CBP Commissioner Issues Detention Order on Stevia Produced in China with Forced Labor '' . June 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ European Commission Scientific Committee on Food ( June 1999 ) . Opinion on Stevioside as a Sweetener ^ Jump up to : Benford , D.J. ; DiNovi , M. ; Schlatter , J. ( 2006 ) . `` Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives : Steviol Glycosides '' ( PDF ) . WHO Food Additives Series . World Health Organization Joint FAO / WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives ( JECFA ) . 54 : 140 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia '' . Morita Kagaku Kogyuo Co. , Ltd. 2004 . Retrieved 6 November 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , Georgia ( Feb 2014 ) . `` Stevia '' . NebGuide : University of Nebraska -- Lincoln Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources . Retrieved 12 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Zeavin , Edna . `` The Outlaw Herbal Sweetener '' . East West Journal . February 1988 . p. 28 . `` Stevia , also called sweet leaf or sweet herb , is making inroads into the health food and natural foods markets . '' ^ Jump up to : Keville , Kathi . `` Exploring South America 's Medicinal Plants '' . Vegetarian Times . April 1987 . p. 47 . Jump up ^ Stanford , Duane D. ( 31 May 2007 ) . `` Coke and Cargill teaming on new drink sweetener '' . Atlanta Journal - Constitution . Archived from the original on 3 June 2007 . Retrieved 31 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Etter , Lauren & McKay , Betsy ( 31 May 2007 ) . `` Coke , Cargill Aim For a Shake - Up in Sweeteners '' . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 1 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Truvia ingredients '' . Retrieved 15 May 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia sweetener gets US FDA go - ahead '' . Decision News Media SAS . 18 December 2008 . Retrieved 11 May 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Coke to sell drinks with stevia ; Pepsi holds off '' . The Seattle Times . Associated Press . 15 December 2008 . Retrieved 16 December 2008 . Jump up ^ Geller , Martinne ( 26 June 2013 ) . `` Coke to sell ' natural ' mid-calorie cola in Argentina '' . Reuters . Retrieved 27 June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` FDA Approves 2 New Sweeteners '' . The New York Times . Associated Press . 17 December 2008 . Retrieved 11 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Purkayastha , S. `` '' A Guide to Reb - A `` , Food Product Design '' . Retrieved 28 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Prakash I , Dubois GE , Clos JF , Wilkens KL , Fosdick LE ( July 2008 ) . `` Development of rebiana , a natural , non-caloric sweetener '' . Food Chem. Toxicol. 46 Suppl 7 : S75 -- 82 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fct. 2008.05. 004 . PMID 18554769 . Jump up ^ Mike Hughlett ( 10 August 2013 ) . `` New Cargill sweetener aims at the giant worldwide cola market '' . Star Tribune Media Company LLC , Minneapolis , MN . Retrieved 5 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Hellfritsch , C ; Brockhoff , A ; Stähler , F ; Meyerhof , W ; Hofmann , T ( 11 July 2012 ) . `` Human psychometric and taste receptor responses to steviol glycosides '' . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry . 60 ( 27 ) : 6782 -- 93 . doi : 10.1021 / jf301297n . PMID 22616809 . Jump up ^ Philippaert , K ; Pironet , A ; Mesuere , M ; Sones , W ; Vermeiren , L ; Kerselaers , S ; Pinto , S ; Segal , A ; Antoine , N ; Gysemans , C ; Laureys , J ; Lemaire , K ; Gilon , P ; Cuypers , E ; Tytgat , J ; Mathieu , C ; Schuit , F ; Rorsman , P ; Talavera , K ; Voets , T ; Vennekens , R ( 31 March 2017 ) . `` Steviol glycosides enhance pancreatic beta - cell function and taste sensation by potentiation of TRPM5 channel activity '' . Nature Communications . 8 : 14733 . doi : 10.1038 / ncomms14733 . PMC 5380970 . PMID 28361903 . Jump up ^ Well , C ; Frank , O ; Hofmann , T ( 2013 ) . `` Quantitation of sweet steviol glycosides by means of a HILIC - MS / MS - SIDA approach '' . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry . 61 ( 47 ) : 11312 -- 20 . doi : 10.1021 / jf404018g . PMID 24206531 . Jump up ^ Geuns , JM ; Buyse , J ; Vankeirsbilck , A ; Temme , EH ; Compernolle , F ; Toppet , S ( 5 April 2006 ) . `` Identification of steviol glucuronide in human urine '' . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry . 54 ( 7 ) : 2794 -- 8 . doi : 10.1021 / jf052693e . PMID 16569078 . ^ Jump up to : Goyal , S.K. ; Samsher ; Goyal , R.K. ( February 2010 ) . `` Stevia ( Stevia rebaudiana ) a bio-sweetener : a review '' . Int J Food Sci Nutr. 61 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 10 . doi : 10.3109 / 09637480903193049 . PMID 19961353 . ^ Jump up to : Kobylewski , Sarah ; Eckhert , Curtis . `` Toxicology of Rebaudioside A : A Review '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 19 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Geuns JM ( 2003 ) . `` Stevioside '' . Phytochemistry. 64 ( 5 ) : 913 -- 21 . doi : 10.1016 / S0031 - 9422 ( 03 ) 00426 - 6 . PMID 14561506 . Jump up ^ Brusick DJ ( 2008 ) . `` A critical review of the genetic toxicity of steviol and steviol glycosides '' . Food Chem Toxicol. 46 ( 7 ) : S83 -- S91 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fct. 2008.05. 002 . PMID 18556105 . Jump up ^ Ulbricht , C. ; Isaac , R. ; Milkin , T. ; Poole , E.A. ; Rusie , E. ; et al. ( April 2010 ) . `` An evidence - based systematic review of stevia by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration '' . Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem. 8 ( 2 ) : 113 -- 27 . PMID 20370653 . Jump up ^ `` Joint FAO / WHO Expert Committee on food additives , Sixty - ninth Meeting '' . World Health Organization . 4 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia '' . Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center . Retrieved 19 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Olam and Wilmar in 50 : 50 JV to Acquire 20 % Stake in PureCircle , a Leading Producer of Natural High - Intensity Sweeteners for USD 106.2 Mln '' . flex-news-food.com. 1 July 2008 . Retrieved 5 April 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Stevia gets Australian approval for food and beverages '' . Foodnavigator.com . Retrieved 13 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Notice of Modification to the List of Permitted Sweeteners to Enable the Use of Steviol Glycosides as a Table - Top Sweetener and as a Sweetener in Certain Food Categories -- Document Reference Number NOM / ADM - 0002 '' . Health Canada . 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Commission Regulation ( EU ) No 1131 / 2011 '' ( PDF ) . Official Journal of the European Union : 205 . 11 November 2011 . Retrieved 15 November 2011 . The CE regulation establishes steviol glycosides as food additive , and establishes maximum content levels in foodstuff and beverages . Jump up ^ Halliday , Jess ( 8 September 2009 ) . `` France approves high Reb A stevia sweeteners '' . foodnavigator.com . Retrieved 23 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Cap 132U Schedule ( Sweeteners in Food Regulations ; Public Health and Municipal Services Ordinance ) `` . legislation.gov.hk. 2011 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sweetener Stevia clears FSSAI hurdle Business Standard News '' . Business-standard.com. 2015 - 11 - 24 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ Indonesia 's Minister of Health ( 2012 ) , Regulation of No. 033 on Food Additives Jump up ^ `` Stevia Sweeteners Now Approved in Israel '' . greenprophet.com. 2012 . Retrieved 5 April 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Act for Partial Provisions of the Food Sanitation Act and the Nutrition Improvement Act , Supplementary Provisions Article 2 '' . houko.com. 1995 . Retrieved 11 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegian Stevia fact sheet Norwegian Institute of Public Health '' . Fhi.no. 17 June 1999 . doi : 10.2903 / j. efsa. 2010.1537 . Retrieved 13 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Technical regulations for juice products from fruits and vegetables '' ( PDF ) . Russian Federation Federal Law . 27 October 2008 . p . Table 5 . Jump up ^ `` Sale of Food Act , Chapter 283 , Section 56 ( 1 ) : Food Regulations '' ( PDF ) . Agri - Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore . 2005 . Jump up ^ Li , Simon ( 27 March 2002 ) . Fact Sheet : Stevioside ( PDF ) . Hong Kong Legislative Council Secretariat Research and Library Services Division . Jump up ^ `` Stevia approved for use in South Africa '' . Foodstuffsa.co.za. 2012 - 09 - 10 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ Curry , Leslie Lake . `` Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No . GRN 000287 '' . Retrieved 28 August 2010 . 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Question: where does stevia in the raw come from