List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field - wikipedia List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field Jump to : navigation , search The following is a list of people who are considered a `` father '' or `` mother '' ( or `` founding father '' or `` founding mother '' ) of a scientific field . Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and / or delineation of that field ; they may also be seen as `` a '' rather than `` the '' father or mother of the field . Debate over who merits the title can be perennial . As regards science itself , the title has been bestowed on the ancient Greek philosophers Thales -- who attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology -- and Democritus , the atomist . Contents ( hide ) 1 Natural sciences 1.1 Biology 1.2 Chemistry 1.3 Earth sciences 1.4 Medicine and physiology 1.5 Physics and astronomy 2 Formal sciences 2.1 Mathematics 2.2 Systems theory 3 Social sciences 3.1 Economics 3.1. 1 Schools of thought 3.1. 2 Theories 4 Other fields 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Natural Sciences ( edit ) Biology ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Bacteriology Robert Koch / Ferdinand Cohn / Louis Pasteur First to produce precise , correct descriptions of bacteria . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Biogeography Alfred Russel Wallace `` ... Often described as the Father of Biogeography , Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world . '' Biology Aristotle Ecology Carl Linnaeus / Ernst Haeckel / Eugenius Warming Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature ( 1772 ) , Haeckel coined the term `` ecology '' ( German : Oekologie , Ökologie ) ( 1866 ) , Warming authored the first book on plant ecology . Plantesamfund ( 1895 ) . Entomology Jan Swammerdam Johan Christian Fabricius Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus 's system of classification . William Kirby Ethology Nikolaas Tinbergen Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen , Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch , joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Evolution Natural selection Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Genetics Gregor Mendel For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants , which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance . William Bateson Proponent of Mendelism . Ichthyology Peter Artedi `` Far greater than either of these ... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology , Petrus ( Peter ) Artedi ( 1705 -- 35 ) . '' Lichenology Erik Acharius `` Erik Acharius , the father of lichenology ... '' Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek / Louis Pasteur The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria . Molecular biology Linus Pauling Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran Founded the ( world 's first ? ) molecular biophysics unit ( 1970 ) . Paleontology Leonardo da Vinci George Cuvier Parasitology Francesco Redi The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies . Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek First to produce precise , correct descriptions of protozoa . Taxonomy Carl Linnaeus Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world . Virology Dmitry Ivanovsky Martinus Beijerinck The first men to discover viruses ( 1892 ) . Chemistry ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Atomic theory ( early ) Democritus Founder of atomism in cosmology . Atomic theory ( modern ) Father Roger Boscovich First coherent description of atomic theory . John Dalton First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures . Chemical thermodynamics ( modern ) Gilbert Lewis / Willard Gibbs / Merle Randall / Edward Guggenheim Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances ( 1923 ) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs ( 1933 ) , which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry . Chemistry ( early ) Jabir ( `` Geber '' ) ibn Hayyan ( died 815 ) Introduced the experimental method to Islamic alchemy . Chemistry ( modern ) Antoine Lavoisier Elements of Chemistry ( 1787 ) Robert Boyle The Sceptical Chymist ( 1661 ) Jöns Berzelius Development of chemical nomenclature ( 1800s ) John Dalton Revival of atomic theory ( 1803 ) Green chemistry Paul Anastas Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign . Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn Applied Radiochemistry ( 1936 ) First person to split an atomic nucleus ( nuclear fission , 1938 ) Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery ( 1944 ) Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev Arranged the sixty - six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals ( 1869 ) . Physical chemistry Mikhail Lomonosov The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term ( 1752 ) . Jacobus van ' t Hoff Jacobus van ' t Hoff is considered to be one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry . His work helped found the discipline as it is today . Svante Arrhenius Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry . On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances ( 1876 ) , Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange ( 1882 ) . Wilhelm Ostwald `` Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry ... '' Hermann von Helmholtz Earth Sciences ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Geochemistry ( modern ) Victor Goldschmidt For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements . Early geodesy ( mathematical geography ) Eratosthenes Eratosthenes was first to write the word Geography ( from Geo - and - graphy , literally `` writing about the Earth '' ) Modern geodesy Al - Biruni Geology ( modern ) Father Nicholas Steno James Hutton For setting down most of the principles of modern geology . For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory . Limnology ( modern ) G. Evelyn Hutchinson Mineralogy Georgius Agricola Meteorology Naval oceanography ( modern ) Matthew Fontaine Maury Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener Acoustical oceanography Leonid Brekhovskikh Stratigraphy Father Nicholas Steno Speleology Édouard - Alfred Martel Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology . Medicine and Physiology ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Anatomy ( modern ) Marcello Malpighi Biophysics Hermann von Helmholtz Biomechanics Christian Wilhelm Braune First to describe the methodology of human gait walking . Bioelectromagnetics Luigi Galvani First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments . Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck `` In developing ways to do this , Beck became the father of cognitive therapy , one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years . '' The Prospect of Immortality ( 1962 ) Cryonics Robert Ettinger Dentistry ( modern ) Pierre Fauchard Electrophysiology Emil du Bois - Reymond The discoverer of nerve action potential . Emergency medicine Peter Safar Frank Pantridge Safar pioneered CPR , intensive - care units and developed standards for EMT , ambulance design and equipment . Pantridge : Epidemiology ( modern ) John Snow Fitness Jack LaLanne Gynaecology J. Marion Sims Histology Marcello Malpighi Human anatomy ( modern ) Vesalius De humani corporis fabrica ( 1543 ) Medical genetics Victor McKusick Mendelian Inheritance in Man Medicine ( early ) Imhotep Charaka Hippocrates None . Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine . Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath . Medicine ( modern ) Sir William Osler Neurosurgery Harvey Cushing Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th Century . Nursing ( modern ) Florence Nightingale See Nursing # History . Nutrition ( modern ) Justus von Liebig Antoine - Laurent Lavoisier `` Justus Von Liebig , the ' father of modern nutrition ' , developed the perfect infant food . It consisted of ( ... ) '' `` In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry , Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition , as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body ... '' Organ transplantation Thomas Starzl Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin . Developed major advances in organ preservation , procurement and transplantation . Orthopedic surgery ( modern ) Hugh Owen Thomas He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery . He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints ; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II . Psychology ( experimental ) Wilhelm Wundt Founded the first laboratory for psychological research . Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ( `` Rhazes '' ) Wrote The Diseases of Children , the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field . Physiology Claude Bernard An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine ( 1865 ) Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden `` It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden , ' the Father of Physical Culture , ' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys . '' Plastic surgery Sushruta Harold Gillies Wrote the Sushruta Samhita . Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Psychophysics Ernst Heinrich Weber Gustav Fechner Elements of Psychophysics ( 1860 ) Space medicine Hubertus Strughold `` After Wernher von Braun , he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government , and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the ' father of space medicine ' '' Surgery ( early ) Sushruta Wrote the Sushruta Samhita . Surgery ( modern ) Abu al - Qasim ( `` Abulcasis '' ) al - Zahrawi Guy de Chauliac Ambroise Paré John Hunter Joseph Lister William Stewart Halsted See also Father of modern surgery Kitab al - Tasrif ( 1000 AD ) . Chirurgia magna Leader in surgical techniques , especially the treatment of wounds . Experimental , scientific approach to surgery . Use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic . Introduction of residency system in the United States . Toxicology Paracelsus Physics and astronomy ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Acoustics Ernst Chladni For important research in vibrating plates Atomic bomb Enrico Fermi J. Robert Oppenheimer Leslie Groves Edward Teller For their role in the Manhattan Project Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky George Cayley Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow , was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift . Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built Physical cosmology Albert Einstein ( founder ) Henrietta Leavitt ( mother ) Edwin Hubble ( father ) Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables , the `` Standard Candle '' by which Hubble later determined galactic distances . Einstein 's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology . Classical mechanics Isaac Newton ( founder ) Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( 1687 ) Electricity William Gilbert Michael Faraday Book : De Magnete ( 1600 ) Discovered electromagnetic induction ( 1831 ) Electrodynamics André - Marie Ampère Book : Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena , Uniquely Deduced from Experience ( 1827 ) Energetics Willard Gibbs Publication : On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances ( 1876 ) Experimental physics ( founder ) Ibn al - Haytham ( Alhazen ) For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics ( 1021 ) Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( 1543 ) Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford Developed the Rutherford atom model ( 1909 ) Nuclear science Marie Curie Pierre Curie Optics Ibn al - Haytham ( Alhazen ) Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics ( 1021 ) . Physics ( early ) Ibn al - Haytham ( Alhazen ) Francis Bacon Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures . Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum ( 1620 ) . Physics ( modern ) Galileo Galilei His development and extensive use of experimental physics , e.g. the telescope Plasma physics Irving Langmuir Hannes Alfvén Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations , Langmuir waves . Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics . Quantum mechanics Max Planck ( founder ) Werner Heisenberg Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form Relativity Albert Einstein ( founder ) Pioneered special relativity ( 1905 ) and general relativity ( 1915 ) Spaceflight ( rocketry ) Robert Hutchings Goddard Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Hermann Oberth Goddard launched the first liquid - fueled rocket . Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation . Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot ( founder ) Publication : On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power ( 1824 ) Formal Sciences ( edit ) Mathematics ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Algebra ( see also The father of algebra ) Muhammad Al - Khwarizmi ( Algorismi ) Brahmagupta Diophantus Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al - Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline . First use of symbolism ( syncopation ) in his Arithmetica . Algebraic topology Henri Poincaré Published Analysis Situs in 1895 , introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology , which are now considered part of algebraic topology . Analysis Augustin - Louis Cauchy Karl Weierstrass Analytic geometry René Descartes Pierre de Fermat ( founders ) For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System Calculus Isaac Newton Gottfried Leibniz See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy . Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions Computer science Charles Babbage Alan Turing In the history of computer science Babbage is often regarded as one of the first pioneers of computing and Turing invented the principle of the modern computer and the stored program concept that almost all modern day computers use . Computer programming Ada Lovelace Work on Charles Babbage 's proposed mechanical general - purpose computer , the Analytical Engine Cryptanalysis Al - Kindi Developed the first code breaking algorithm based on frequency analysis . He wrote a book entitled `` Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages '' , containing detailed discussions on statistics . Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge ( founder ) Developed a graphical protocol that creates three - dimensional virtual space on a two - dimensional plane Fractal geometry Benoît B. Mandelbrot Geometry Euclid Euclid 's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms . Graph theory Leonhard Euler See Seven Bridges of Königsberg Italian school of algebraic geometry Corrado Segre Publications and students developing algebraic geometry Modern algebra Emmy Noether Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring , and suggested that topology be studied algebraically . Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions . Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai , Nikolai Lobachevsky ( founders ) Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid 's fifth postulate is not true Number theory Pythagoras Probability Gerolamo Cardano , Pierre de Fermat , Blaise Pascal , Christiaan Huygens ( founders ) Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory , about which Huygens wrote the first book Projective geometry Girard Desargues ( founder ) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci - Curbastro ( founder ) Book : The Absolute Differential Calculus Trigonometry Hipparchus Constructed the first trigonometric table . Vector algebra , vector calculus Willard Gibbs Oliver Heaviside ( founders ) For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus Systems Theory ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Chaos theory Henri Poincaré Mary Cartwright Edward Lorenz Poincaré 's work on the three - body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system . Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos . Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation . Cybernetics Norbert Wiener Book Cybernetics : Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine . 1948 . Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh Information theory Claude Shannon Article : A Mathematical Theory of Communication ( 1948 ) Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson Book : Applied Optimal Control Robust control George Zames Small gain theorem and H infinity control . Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov Lyapunov function System dynamics Jay Wright Forrester Book : Industrial dynamics ( 1961 ) Social Sciences ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Anthropology Herodotus Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī Bibliometrics Paul Otlet The term bibliométrie was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934 and defined as `` the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents . '' Demography Ibn Khaldun Muqaddimah ( Prolegomena ) ( 1377 ) Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher Jean - François Champollion First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph , and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian , before the Rosetta stone 's discovery . Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone . Historiography Ibn Khaldun Wrote several essential books History Herodotus ( who also coined the term ) Indology Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī Wrote the Indica International law Alberico Gentili Francisco de Vitoria Hugo Grotius Influential contributions to the theory of international law , war and human rights Linguistics ( early ) Panini Wrote the first descriptive grammar ( of Sanskrit ) Linguistics ( modern ) Ferdinand de Saussure Noam Chomsky Sociology Ibn Khaldun Adam Ferguson Auguste Comte ( who also coined the term ) Marquis de Condorcet ( founder ) Wrote the first sociological book , the Muqaddimah ( Prolegomena ) . `` Father of modern sociology '' Introduced the scientific method into sociology . Economics ( edit ) Field Person ( s ) considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Accounting and bookkeeping Luca Pacioli Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping . Economics ( early ) Ibn Khaldun Chanakya / Kautilya Publication : Muqaddimah ( 1370 ) Publication : Arthashastra ( 400 BCE - 200 CE ) Economics ( modern ) Richard Cantillon Anders Chydenius Adam Smith First specific treatise on economics . The National Gain ( 1765 ) , a pamphlet that included key ideas about free trade . The Wealth of Nations ( 1776 ) . Evolutionary economics Ecological economics Thermoeconomics bioeconomics Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen The Entropy Law and the Economic Process ( 1971 ) Macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes Author of The General Theory of Employment , Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist , Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking . Prior to Keynes , the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self - fixing . During the Great Depression , when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself , Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust . This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal . Mathematical economics Daniel Bernoulli Forerunner of the Tableau économique . Monetary economics Nicole Oresme ( c. 1322 -- 1382 ) Irving Fisher ( 1867 -- 1947 ) Milton Friedman ( 1912 -- 2006 ) Oresme 's De Moneta . `` Irving Fisher ( ... ) spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates , how money affects inflation , and the impact of money on overall economic activity . For this work , he is regarded as the father of monetary economics . '' `` ( ... ) no less an authority than the University of Chicago 's Milton Friedman , the father of monetary economics , ( ... ) '' Microcredit Muhammad Yunus Founded Grameen Bank Personnel economics Edward Lazear Published the first paper in the field . Schools of thought ( edit ) Field Person ( s ) considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Austrian School Carl Menger Communism Karl Marx Friedrich Engels David Ricardo School of Salamanca Francisco de Vitoria Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality Theories ( edit ) Field Person ( s ) considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Expectations theory Thomas Cardinal Cajetan Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money Modern portfolio theory Harry Markowitz Social choice theory Kenneth Arrow Created the field with his 1951 book Social Choice and Individual Values . Other fields ( edit ) Field Person / s considered `` father '' or `` mother '' Rationale Science ( modern ) Galileo Galilei For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method , physics and observational astronomy Family and consumer science Ellen Swallow Richards Founded the American Association of Home Economics , currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences . `` Bringing science into the home , Richards hoped to `` ... attain the best physical , mental , and moral development '' for the family , which she believed was the basic unit of civilization . '' See also ( edit ) Founders of statistics Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ A name suggested in 1802 by the German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term later that year by Jean - Baptiste Lamarck . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Singer , C. ( 2008 ) . A Short History of Science to the 19th century . Streeter Press . p. 35 . Jump up ^ Needham , C.W. ( 1978 ) . Cerebral Logic : Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain . Loose Leaf . p. 75 . ISBN 0 - 398 - 03754 - X . Jump up ^ Pamela Gossin , Encyclopedia of Literature and Science , 2002 . Jump up ^ Drews G ( 1999 ) . `` Ferdinand Cohn , a Founder of Modern Microbiology '' . ASM News 65 ( 8 ) . ^ Jump up to : p. 18 , Foundations in microbiology : basic principles , Kathleen Park Talaro , 6th ed. , international ed. , McGraw - Hill , 2007 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 126232 - 3 . Jump up ^ DK Publishing ( 2010 ) . Explorers : Tales of Endurance and Exploration . Penguin . p. 272 . ISBN 9780756675110 . Jump up ^ Strong , W.F. ; Cook , John A. ( July 2007 ) , `` Reviving the Dead Greek Guys '' , Global Media Journal , Indian Edition , ISSN 1550 - 7521 , archived from the original on 2007 - 12 - 07 Jump up ^ Goodland , R.J. ( 1975 ) The tropical origin of ecology : Eugen Warming 's jubilee . Oikos , 26 , 240 - 245 . ( 1 ) Jump up ^ p. 208 , A history of social thought , Paul Hanly Furfey , The Macmillan company , 1942 . Jump up ^ p. 162 , Museum : the Macleays , their collections and the search for order , Robyn Stacey , Ashley Hay , Cambridge University Press , 2007 , ISBN 0 - 521 - 87453 - X . Jump up ^ p. 118 , The fossil hunter : dinosaurs , evolution , and the woman whose discoveries changed the world , Shelley Emling , Macmillan , 2009 , ISBN 0 - 230 - 61156 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973 '' . Nobelprize.org . Retrieved 9 September 2016 . The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973 was awarded jointly to Karl von Frisch , Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen ' for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns ' . Jump up ^ Darwin , Charles ( 1842 , published 1909 ) , `` Pencil Sketch of 1842 '' , in Darwin , Francis , The foundations of The origin of species : Two essays written in 1842 and 1844. , Cambridge University Press , < http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype = text&pageseq = 1 > Retrieved on 2006 - 12 - 15 Jump up ^ Moore , James ( 2006 ) , `` Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin '' , Speaking of Faith ( Radio Program ) , American Public Media , < `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 22. > Retrieved on 2006 - 12 - 15 Jump up ^ van Wyhe , John ( 2006 ) , Charles Darwin : gentleman naturalist : A biographical sketch , < http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html > Retrieved on 2006 - 12 - 15 Jump up ^ `` The Father of Genetics '' . Cartage.org.lb . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ p. 91 , Theory change in science : strategies from Mendelian genetics , Lindley Darden , Oxford University Press US , 1991 , ISBN 0 - 19 - 506797 - 5 . Jump up ^ Jordan , David Starr ( 1905 ) . A Guide to the Study of Fishes . Henry Holt and Company . , online at Google Books , p. 390 . Jump up ^ Department of Cryptogamic Botany at the Swedish Museum of Natural History ( 17 December 1999 ) . Jump up ^ Madigan M , Martinko J ( editors ) ( 2006 ) . Brock Biology of Microorganisms , 11th ed. , Prentice Hall . Jump up ^ `` Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University '' . OregonState.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Prathap , Gangan ( March 2004 ) , `` Indian science slows down : The decline of open - ended research '' , Current Science , 86 ( 6 ) : 768 -- 769 ( 768 ) Jump up ^ p. 287 , On social structure and science ( volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology ) , Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka , University of Chicago Press , 1996 , ISBN 0 - 226 - 52071 - 4 . Jump up ^ Levine R , Evers C. `` The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation ( 1668 - 1859 ) '' . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ Hovey , Edmund Otis , `` The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus '' , New York : New York Academy of Sciences , 1908 . Jump up ^ Rothbard , Murray N. ( 2006 ) . Economic thought before Adam Smith : An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought ( PDF ) . Cheltnam , UK : Edward Elgar . p. 10 . ISBN 0 - 945466 - 48 - X . Jump up ^ Woods , Thomas . How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization , p 4 & 107 . ( Washington , DC : Regenery , 2005 ) ; ISBN 0 - 89526 - 038 - 7 . Jump up ^ Patterson , Elizabeth C. ( 1970 ) . John Dalton and the Atomic Theory . Garden City , New York : Anchor . p. 10 . Jump up ^ Ott , Bevan , J. ; Boerio - Goates , Juliana ( 2001 ) . Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications . ISBN 0 - 12 - 530990 - 2 . Jump up ^ Derewenda , Zygmunt S. ( 2007 ) , `` On wine , chirality and crystallography '' , Acta Crystallographica A , 64 : 246 -- 258 ( 247 ) , doi : 10.1107 / s0108767307054293 , PMID 18156689 Jump up ^ John Warren ( 2005 ) . `` War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq : a sadly mismanaged affair '' , Third World Quarterly , Volume 26 , Issue 4 & 5 , p. 815 - 830 . Jump up ^ Dr. A. Zahoor ( 1997 ) . JABIR IBN HAIYAN ( Geber ) Archived 2008 - 06 - 30 at the Wayback Machine ... University of Indonesia . Jump up ^ Paul Vallely . How Islamic inventors changed the world . The Independent . ^ Jump up to : Kim , Mi Gyung ( 2003 ) . Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution ( Epilogue : A Tale of Three Fathers ) . ISBN 0 - 262 - 11273 - 6 . Jump up ^ Berzelius , Jöns ( 1779 -- 1848 ) - Eric Weisstein 's World of Scientific Biography Jump up ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online , 2 Aug 2007 Jump up ^ `` 404 : Not Found '' . American Chemical Society . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle ( On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons ) , Naturwissenschaften Volume 27 , Number 1 , 11 - 15 ( 1939 ) . The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser - Wilhelm - Institut für Chemie , Berlin - Dahlem . Received 22 December 1938 . Jump up ^ Chemistry Contexts . by Irwin , D ; Farrelly , R ; Garnett , P. Longman Sciences , ( 2001 ) Jump up ^ Meijer , E.W. ( 2001 ) . `` Jacobus Henricus van ' t Hoff ; Hundred Years of Impact on Stereochemistry in the Netherlands '' . Angewandte Chemie International Edition . 40 ( 20 ) : 3783 -- 3789 . doi : 10.1002 / 1521 - 3773 ( 20011015 ) 40 : 20 < 3783 : : AID - ANIE3783 > 3.0.CO ; 2 - J. PMID 11668534 . Jump up ^ Spek , Trienke M. van der ( 2006 ) . `` Selling a Theory : The Role of Molecular Models in J.H. van ' t Hoff 's Stereochemistry Theory '' . Annals of Science . 63 ( 2 ) : 157 -- 177 . doi : 10.1080 / 00033790500480816 . Jump up ^ Kreuzfeld , HJ ; Hateley , MJ. ( 1999 ) . `` 125 years of enantiomers : back to the roots Jacobus Henricus van ' t Hoff 1852 -- 1911 '' . Enantiomer. 4 ( 6 ) : 491 -- 6 . PMID 10672458 . Jump up ^ Jacob Darwin Hamblin ( 2005 ) . Science in the Early Twentieth Century : An Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 9 . ISBN 9781851096657 . His interest in both fields would serve him well , because he became a principal founder of physical chemistry . Jump up ^ Elizabeth H. Oakes ( 2010 ) . Encyclopedia of World Scientists . Infobase Publishing . p. 562 . ISBN 9781438118826 . Jump up ^ p. 12 , Plotting the globe : stories of meridians , parallels , and the international date line , Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger , Greenwood Publishing Group , 2006 , ISBN 0 - 275 - 98895 - 3 . Jump up ^ p. 389 , `` Eratosthenes '' , D.R. Dicks , in Dictionary of Scientific Biography , ed . Charles Coulston Gillispie , vol. 4 , New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1971 . Jump up ^ Ahmed , Akbar S. ( 1984 ) . `` Al - Beruni : The First Anthropologist '' . RAIN. 60 ( 60 ) : 9 -- 10 . doi : 10.2307 / 3033407 Jump up ^ Ph. D , Joseph J. Kerski ( 17 October 2016 ) . `` Interpreting Our World : 100 Discoveries That Revolutionized Geography : 100 Discoveries That Revolutionized Geography '' . ABC - CLIO . Retrieved 15 January 2018 -- via Google Books . ^ Jump up to : Woods , Thomas . How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization , p 4 & 96 . ( Washington , DC : Regenery , 2005 ) ; ISBN 0 - 89526 - 038 - 7 . Jump up ^ Jack Repcheck : The Man Who Found Time : James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth 's Antiquity . London and Cambridge , Massachusetts : Simon & Schuster ( 2003 ) . Jump up ^ `` G. Evelyn Hutchinson '' . lakes.Chebucto.org . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ p. 19 , Reader 's guide to the history of science , Arne Hessenbruch , Taylor & Francis , 2000 , ISBN 1 - 884964 - 29 - X . Jump up ^ Lewis , Charles Lee , associate professor of the United States Naval Academy : Pathfinder of the Seas ( book ) . Jump up ^ Mikhalevsky , P ; Godin , O ; Naugolnykh , K ; Dubrovsky , N ( 2005 ) . `` Leonid Maksimovich Brekhovskikh '' . Physics Today . 58 ( 11 ) : 70 -- 71 . Bibcode : 2005PhT ... 58k ... 70M . doi : 10.1063 / 1.2155769 . Jump up ^ Durand , V. Mark , Jim ; David H Barlow ( 2005 ) . Essentials of Abnormal Psychology . Thomson Wadsworth . p. 235 . ISBN 0 - 495 - 03128 - 3 . Jump up ^ Klein , Bruce ( August 13 , 2004 ) . `` The Father of Cryonics , Robert C.W. Ettinger , Interview with Bruce Klein '' . Immortality Institute . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ de Vaux , Jean Claude . `` The Pierre Fauchard Academy '' . Archived from the original on 2000 - 12 - 13 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 22 . Jump up ^ Acierno , LJ ; Worrell , LT ( January 2007 ) . `` Peter Safar : father of modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation '' . Clinical Cardiology. 30 ( 1 ) : 52 -- 4 . doi : 10.1002 / clc. 20042 . ISSN 0160 - 9289 . PMID 17262769 . Jump up ^ Mitka , Mike ( May 2003 ) . `` Peter J. Safar , MD : ' father of CPR , ' innovator , teacher , humanist '' ( PDF ) . JAMA. 289 ( 19 ) : 2485 -- 6 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 289.19. 2485 . ISSN 0098 - 7484 . PMID 12759308 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 06 - 27 . Jump up ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12 / 29 / 2004 . Jump up ^ Father of fitness , Jack La Lanne , turns 90 , MSNBC , September 24 , 2004 . `` He continues to live by his motto , ' I ca n't die , it would ruin my image ! ' '' Jump up ^ `` Medscape Log In '' . www.Medscape.com . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` History of Women and Science , Health , and Technology '' . Wisc.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Vallejo - Manzur F et al. ( 2003 ) `` The resuscitation greats . Andreas Vesalius , the concept of an artificial airway . '' Resuscitation '' 56 : 3 - 7 Jump up ^ `` Page Not Found - ASHG '' . www.ASHG.org . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Mostafa Shehata MD ( 2004 ) . `` The Father of Medicine : A Historical Reconsideration '' . Turk Klin J Med Ethics. 12 : 171 -- 176 ( 176 ) . Jump up ^ Nirupama Laroia M.D. ; Sharma Deeksha ( 2006 ) . `` The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus '' . Mary Ann Liebert , Inc. 1 ( 2 ) : 94 -- 98 . doi : 10.1089 / bfm. 2006.1. 94 . Jump up ^ Hippocrates , Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 . Microsoft Corporation . Archived 2009 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ p. 4 , Surgery : Basic Science and Clinical Evidence , Jeffrey A. Norton , Philip S. Barie , R. Randal Bollinger , Alfred E. Chang , Stephen F. Lowry , Sean J Mulvihill , M.D. , Harvey I Pass , M.D. , Robert W Thompson , M.D. , Springer , 2008 , ISBN 0 - 387 - 30800 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : `` Father of neurosurgery Dr Harvey Cushing 's legacy '' . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Black , Rebecca . The Support of Breastfeeding : Module 1 . Jones and Bartlett Publishers . p. 9 . ISBN 0 - 7637 - 0208 - 0 . Jump up ^ Lavoisier , Antoine . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 24 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Cronin , Mike ( 2010 - 01 - 29 ) . `` Starzl , Tribune - Review reporters claim Carnegie Science Awards '' . Pittsburgh Tribune - Review . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 29 . Jump up ^ p. 533 , Orthopaedic Pathology , Peter G. Bullough , Elsevier Health Sciences , 2009 , 5th ed. , ISBN 03 - 23074 - 73 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Wilhelm Wundt - AllPsych '' . AllPsych.com . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Tschanz David W. ( 2003 ) . `` Arab Roots of European Medicine '' . Heart Views. 4 : 2 . Jump up ^ Bernard , Claude . An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine , 1865 . First English translation by Henry Copley Greene , published by Macmillan & Co. , Ltd. , 1927 ; reprinted in 1949 . The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University . Jump up ^ Oursler , Fulton ; Will Oursler ( 1949 ) . Father Flanagan of Boys Town . Doubleday . p. 270 . ^ Jump up to : A. Singh and D. Sarangi ( 2003 ) . `` We need to think and act '' , Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery . ^ Jump up to : H.W. Longfellow ( 2002 ) . `` History of Plastic Surgery in India '' , Journal of Postgraduate Medicine . Jump up ^ `` Freud , Sigmund - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy '' . www.iep.UTM.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Aaen - Stockdale , Craig ( 2008 ) , `` Ibn al - Haytham and psychophysics '' , Perception , 37 ( 4 ) : 636 -- 638 , doi : 10.1068 / p5940 , PMID 18546671 Jump up ^ Lee , Martin A. ; Bruce Shlain ( 1986 ) . Acid Dreams : The Complete Social History of LSD : The CIA , the Sixties , and Beyond . Grove Press . p. 6 . ISBN 0 - 8021 - 3062 - 3 ... See also Harry Armstrong . Jump up ^ Martin - Araguz A. ; Bustamante - Martinez C. ; Fernandez - Armayor Ajo V. ; Moreno - Martinez J.M. ( 2002 ) . `` Neuroscience in al - Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine '' . Revista de neurología. 34 ( 9 ) : 877 -- 892 . PMID 12134355 . Jump up ^ p. 283 , Old - Time Makers of Medicine , James J. Walsh , New York : Fordham University Press , 1911 . Jump up ^ Pare , Ambroise . '' Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 25 Aug. 2007 < http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441 > . Jump up ^ Gray C ( May 1983 ) . `` The remarkable surgical collection of John Hunter '' . Can Med Assoc J. 128 ( 10 ) : 1225 -- 8 . PMC 1875296 . PMID 6340814 . Jump up ^ The knife man : the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter , father of modern surgery , Wendy Moore , Random House , 2005 , ISBN 0 - 7679 - 1652 - 2 . Jump up ^ pp. 51 - 55 , Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize , Ulf Lagerkvist , World Scientific , 2003 , ISBN 981 - 238 - 234 - 8 . Jump up ^ Joseph Lister , Father of Modern Surgery , Rhoda Truax , Bobbs Merrill , Indianapolis and New York , 1944 . Jump up ^ Voorhees , J.R. ; Tubbs , R.S. ; Nahed , B. ; Cohen - Gadol , A.A. ( 2009 ) . `` William S. Halsted and Harvey W. Cushing : reflections on their complex association '' . Journal of Neurosurgery. 110 ( 2 ) : 384 -- 390 . doi : 10.3171 / 2008.4. 17516 . PMID 18976064 . Jump up ^ Paracelsus : Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 ( 1 ) : 2 - Toxicological Sciences Jump up ^ Chladniite : A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics , McCoy , T.J. ; Steele , I.M. ; Keil , K. ; Leonard , B.F. ; Endress , M. , Meteoritics , vol. 28 , no . 3 , volume 28 , page 394 , 07 / 1993 Jump up ^ `` Cayley , Sir George . '' Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 25 Aug. 2007 < http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092 > . ^ Jump up to : `` Milestones in the birth of Cosmology '' . FSU.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Christianson , Gale ( 1984 ) . In the Presence of the Creator : Isaac Newton & his times . New York : Free Press . Jump up ^ Merriam - Webster Collegiate Dictionary , 2000 , CD - ROM , version 2.5 . Jump up ^ He also invented the electrical generator , which is the basic source for producing electricity to begin with . ( 1831 ) Frank Ashall , Remarkable Discoveries ! , Cambridge University Press - 1996 . page 1 Jump up ^ André - Marie Ampère - Encyclopædia Britannica Jump up ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs Archived 2013 - 05 - 17 at the Wayback Machine . - Britannica , 1911 Jump up ^ Thiele , Rüdiger ( 2005 ) , `` In Memoriam : Matthias Schramm '' , Arabic Sciences and Philosophy , Cambridge University Press , 15 : 329 -- 331 , doi : 10.1017 / S0957423905000214 Jump up ^ Thiele , Rüdiger ( August 2005 ) , `` In Memoriam : Matthias Schramm , 1928 -- 2005 '' , Historia Mathematica , 32 ( 3 ) : 271 -- 274 , doi : 10.1016 / j. hm. 2005.05. 002 Jump up ^ Danielson , Dennis , `` The First Copernican : Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution '' , Walker & Company , 2006 Jump up ^ Pasachoff , Naomi ( 2005 ) . Ernest Rutherford : Father Of Nuclear Science ( Great Minds of Science ) . ISBN 0 - 7660 - 2441 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Resources '' . IAEA.org . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ R.L. Verma ( 1969 ) . Al - Hazen : father of modern optics . Jump up ^ Jim Al - Khalili , The ' first true scientist ' , BBC.co.uk , 4 January 2009 . Jump up ^ MLA style : `` Bacon , Francis , Viscount Saint Alban , Baron of Verulam . '' Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 28 Dec. 2007 < http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408 > . APA style : Bacon , Francis , Viscount Saint Alban , Baron of Verulam. ( 2007 ) . Jump up ^ Weidhorn , Manfred ( 2005 ) . The Person of the Millennium : The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History . iUniverse , p. 155 . ISBN 0 - 595 - 36877 - 8 . Jump up ^ R. Fitzpatrick ( 2011 ) . A brief history of plasma physics . Jump up ^ Heilbron , J.L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man : Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science ( Harvard , 2000 ) Jump up ^ ( 2 ) . URL accessed December 5 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Perrot , Pierre ( 1998 ) . A to Z of Thermodynamics . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 856552 - 6 . Jump up ^ Solomon Gandz ( 1936 ) , The sources of al - Khwarizmi 's algebra , Osiris I , p. 263 -- 277 : `` In a sense , Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called the father of algebra than Diophantus , because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake , Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers . '' Jump up ^ Serish Nanisetti , Father of algorithms and algebra , The Hindu , June 23 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Boyer , Carl B. ( 1991 ) . `` The Arabic Hegemony '' . A History of Mathematics ( Second ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons , Inc. p. 228 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 54397 - 7 . Diophantus sometimes is called `` the father of algebra , '' but this title more appropriately belongs to al - Khwarizmi . It is true that in two respects the work of al - Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus . First , it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and , second , the algebra of al - naren is thoroughly rhetorical , with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta 's work . Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols ! It is quite unlikely that al - Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus , but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta ; yet neither al - Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers . Jump up ^ Derbyshire , John ( 2006 ) . `` The Father of Algebra '' . Unknown Quantity : A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra . Joseph Henry Press . p. 31 . ISBN 0 - 309 - 09657 - X . Diophantus , the father of algebra , in whose honor I have named this chapter , lived in Alexandria , in Roman Egypt , in either the 1st , the 2nd , or the 3rd century CE . Jump up ^ Ioan Mackenzie James , ed. ( 1999 ) . History of Topology . Elsevier . p. 544 . ISBN 9780444823755 . Poincaré : the founder of algebraic topology Jump up ^ Poincaré , Henri , `` Analysis situs '' , Journal de l'École Polytechnique ser 2 , 1 ( 1895 ) pp. 1 -- 123 Jump up ^ p. 750 , Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1 , M.N. Mukherjee , P. Mukhopadhyay , S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta , Academic Publishers , 2008 , 5th ed. , ISBN 81 - 89781 - 54 - 5 . Jump up ^ p. 147 , Collisions , rings , and other Newtonian N - body problems , Donald Saari , American Mathematical Society , 2005 , ISBN 0 - 8218 - 3250 - 6 . Jump up ^ Gullberg , Jan ( 1997 ) . Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers . W.W. Norton Jump up ^ Bell , E.T. ( 1937 ) ( 1986 ) . Men of Mathematics , Touchstone edition , New York : Simon & Schuster , pp. 91 -- 2 . Jump up ^ George Gheverghese Joseph ( 2000 ) . The Crest of the Peacock . Princeton University Press . Jump up ^ `` The man who cracked the Kama Sutra code '' . 4 October 2000 . Jump up ^ Coles , Michael ; Landrum , Rodney ( 2011 ) . Expert SQL Server 2008 Encryption . Apress . ISBN 9781430233657 . Jump up ^ BIN NGAH , Lutfi A. ( 2015 ) . All - optical synchronization for quantum networking ( PDF ) ( PhD ) . UNIVERSITÉ NICE SOPHIA ANTIPOLIS . p. 16 . Jump up ^ `` Monge , Gaspard , comte de Peluse . '' Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 24 Aug. 2007 < http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349 > . Jump up ^ Artmann , Benno ( 1999 ) . Euclid : The Creation of Mathematics . New York : Springer . Jump up ^ Biggs , N. Lloyd , E. and Wilson , R. ( 1986 ) . Graph Theory , 1736 - 1936 . London : Oxford University Press Jump up ^ H.F. Baker ( 1926 ) , `` Corrado Segre '' , Journal of the London Mathematical Society 1 : 269 Jump up ^ Ne'eman , Yuval ( 1999 ) , `` The Impact of Emmy Noether 's Theorems on XXIst Century Physics '' , in Teicher , M. , The Heritage of Emmy Noether , Israel Mathematical Conference Proceedings , Bar - Ilan University , American Mathematical Society , Oxford University Press , pp. 83 -- 101 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 851045 - 1 , OCLC 223099225 Jump up ^ Dick 1981 , p. 174 . Jump up ^ van der Waerden 1985 , p. 244 . Jump up ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg , Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries : Development and history New York : W.H. Freeman , 1993 . Jump up ^ p. 46 , Aristarchus of Samos : The Ancient Copernicus , Thomas Heath , Oxford , 1913 . Jump up ^ Stigler , Stephen M. ( 1990 ) . The History of Statistics : The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900 . Belknap Press / Harvard University Press . Jump up ^ O'Connor , John J ; Edmund F. Robertson `` Gérard Desargues '' . MacTutor History of Mathematics archive . Jump up ^ O'Connor , John J ; Edmund F. Robertson `` Gregorio Ricci - Curbastro '' . MacTutor History of Mathematics archive . Jump up ^ Boyer ( 1991 ) . `` Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration '' . A History of Mathematics ( Second ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons , Inc. p. 162 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 54397 - 7 . For some two and a half centuries , from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes , Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems , but no systematic trigonometry had resulted . Then , presumably during the second half of the second century B.C. , the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea ( ca . 180 - ca . 125 B.C. ) , who thus earned the right to be known as the father of trigonometry . Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180 ° to 0 ° , tending toward a limit of 1 . However , it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles . Jump up ^ Boyer 's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore 's opinion , that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE ( Ore ( 1988 ) . `` Diophantine Problems '' . Number Theory and its History . Dover Publications , Inc . pp. 176 -- 179 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 65620 - 9 . The tablet , catalogued as Plimpton 322 , is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C. , at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans ... It is evident , however , that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem , but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables. ) Jump up ^ Wheeler , Lynde , Phelps ( 1951 ) . Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind . Ox Bow Press . Jump up ^ Michael J. Crowe ( 1994 ) . A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System . Dover Publications ; Reprint edition . Jump up ^ Jonathan Mendelson & Elana Blumenthal . `` Chaos Theory and Fractals '' . Mendelson Productions in collaboration with Blumenthal Enterprises . Retrieved 4 July 2012 . Henri Poincaré was really the `` Father of Chaos ( Theory ) , '' however . Jump up ^ `` Mistress of Girton whose mathematical work formed the basis of chaos theory '' . Obituaries Electronic Telegraph . 11 April 1998 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Freeman J. Dyson , Mary Lucy Cartwright ( 1900 -- 1998 ) : Chaos theory , pp. 169 -- 177 , in Out of the Shadows : Contributions of Twentieth - Century Women to Physics , edited by Nina Byers and Gary Williams , 498 p . ( Cambridge University Press , 2006 ) ; ISBN 0 - 521 - 82197 - 5 Jump up ^ `` Edward Lorenz , father of chaos theory and butterfly effect , dies at 90 '' . MIT.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Conway , F. , and Siegelman , J. , 2005 . Dark Hero of the Information Age : in search of Norbert Wiener , the father of cybernetics . Basic Books , New York . 423pp . ISBN 0 - 7382 - 0368 - 8 Jump up ^ `` Bell Labs website : `` For example , Claude Shannon , the father of Information Theory , had a passion ... '' `` . Bell-Labs.com . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2004 Distinguished Alumni '' . IaState.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Bryson , A.E. ; Ho , Y.C. ( 1975 ) . Applied optimal control . Washington , DC : Hemisphere . Jump up ^ `` Jay Wright Forrester - Biography , Inventions , & Facts '' . Britannica.com . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ p. 22 , A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900 , Charles Singer , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1959 . Jump up ^ Ahmed Akbar S ( 1984 ) . `` Al - Beruni : The First Anthropologist '' . RAIN. 60 : 9 -- 10 . doi : 10.2307 / 3033407 . ^ Jump up to : Zafarul - Islam Khan , At The Threshold ( sic ) Of A New Millennium -- II , The Milli Gazette . Jump up ^ Otlet , P. ( 1934 ) , Traité De Documentation : Le Livre Sur Le Livre , Théorie Et Pratique , Editiones Mundaneum : Mons , Belgium Jump up ^ Rousseau , Ronald ( 2014 ) , `` Library Science : Forgotten Founder of Bibliometrics . '' , Nature , 510 : 218 ^ Jump up to : H. Mowlana ( 2001 ) . `` Information in the Arab World '' , Cooperation South Journal 1 . Jump up ^ Woods , Thomas . How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization , p 4 & 109 . ( Washington , DC : Regenery , 2005 ) ; ISBN 0 - 89526 - 038 - 7 . Jump up ^ Akhtar S.W. ( 1997 ) . `` The Islamic Concept of Knowledge '' . Al - Tawhid : A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture . 12 : 3 . Jump up ^ Willcox , William Bradford ; Arnstein , Walter L. ( 1966 ) . The Age of Aristocracy , 1688 to 1830 . Volume III of A History of England , edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith ( Sixth Edition , 1992 ed . ) . Lexington , MA . p. 133 . ISBN 0 - 669 - 24459 - 7 . Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became `` the father of modern sociology . '' Jump up ^ Auguste Comte , Britannica Student Encyclopedia . Accessed October 5 , 2006 . Jump up ^ p. 87 , Full Meridian of Glory , Paul Murdin , New York : Springer , 2009 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 75533 - 5 ( print ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 75534 - 2 ( online ) . ^ Jump up to : DIWAN , Jaswith . ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEORIES . LONDON : MORRE . pp. 001 -- 002 . id # 94452 . Jump up ^ I.M. Oweiss ( 1988 ) , `` Ibn Khaldun , the Father of Economics '' , Arab Civilization : Challenges and Responses , New York University Press , ISBN 0 - 88706 - 698 - 4 . Jump up ^ L.K. Jha , K.N. Jha ( 1998 ) . `` Chanakya : the pioneer economist of the world '' , International Journal of Social Economics 25 ( 2 - 4 ) , p. 267 - 282 Jump up ^ Rothbard , Murray N. ( 2006 ) . `` Chapter 12 -- The founding father of modern economics : Richard Cantillon '' . Economic thought before Adam Smith : An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought . Cheltnam , UK : Edward Elgar . p. 345 . ISBN 0 - 945466 - 48 - X . The honour of being called the ' father of modern economics ' belongs , then , not to its usual recipient , Adam Smith , but to a gallicized Irish merchant , banker , and adventurer who wrote the first treatise on economics more than four decades before the publication of the Wealth of Nations . Richard Cantillon ( c. early 1680s - 1734 ) ... Jump up ^ Pelo , June . `` Anders Chydenius '' . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 26 . Jump up ^ Steven Pressman , Fifty Major Economists , Routledge 1999 ( ISBN 0 - 415 - 13481 - 1 ) , p. 20 . Jump up ^ `` Acton Institute : Anders Chydenius ( 1729 - 1803 ) '' . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 26 . Jump up ^ Cleveland C. ; Ruth M. ( 1997 ) . `` When , where , and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process ? A survey of Georgescu - Roegen 's contribution to ecological economics '' . Ecological Economics . 22 : 203 -- 223 . doi : 10.1016 / s0921 - 8009 ( 97 ) 00079 - 7 . Jump up ^ Daly H ( 1995 ) . `` On Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen 's contributions to economics : An obituary essay '' . Ecological Economics . 13 : 149 -- 54 . doi : 10.1016 / 0921 - 8009 ( 95 ) 00011 - w . Jump up ^ Mayumi K ( 1995 ) . `` Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen ( 1906 - 1994 ) '' . Structural Change and Economic Dynamics . 6 : 115 -- 120 . doi : 10.1016 / 0954 - 349x ( 95 ) 00014 - e . Jump up ^ Mayumi , Kozo ; Gowdy , John , eds. ( 1999 ) . Bioeconomics and Sustainability : Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen . Cheltenham : Edward Elgar . ISBN 1 - 85898 - 667 - 2 . Jump up ^ Mayumi , Kozo ( 2001 ) . The Origins of Ecological Economics : The Bioeconomics of Georgescu - Roegen . Routledge , Taylor & Francis Group . ISBN 0 - 415 - 23523 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` John Maynard Keynes '' . Investopedia . Investopedia . Retrieved 11 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Blinder , Alan . `` Keynesian Economics '' . Library of Economics and Liberty . Liberty Fund . Retrieved 11 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Briggs , Brad . `` John Maynard Keynes : The Man Who Transformed the Economic World '' . Investing Answers . Retrieved 11 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Rothbard , p 379 . Jump up ^ Woods , p. 155 . Jump up ^ Pressman , Steven ( 2006 ) . 50 Major Economists . Routledge Key Guides ( 2 ed . ) . Taylor & Francis . p. 137 . ISBN 9780415366489 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Dun 's Review '' . Dun 's Review . Dun & Bradstreet Publications Corp. 94 : 146 . 1969 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Expanding Microcredit in India : A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation '' , Grameen Dialogue . Jump up ^ Rothbard , p 167 Jump up ^ Karl Marx ( 1863 ) : Theories of Surplus Value , Chapter 10 : Carey ( the passage to be looked up later ) therefore denounces him as the father of communism . `` Mr. Ricardo 's system is one of discords ... its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations ... His hook is the true manual of the demagogue , who seeks power by means of agrarianism , war , and plunder . '' ( H.C. Carey , The Past , the Present , and the Future , Philadelphia , 1848 , pp. 74 -- 75 . ) Jump up ^ Rothbard , p 102 Jump up ^ Rothbard , p 100 - 101 Jump up ^ `` Find Local Contractors - Home Remodeling Contractors on Ecnext '' . goliath.Ecnext.com . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Pamela Gossin , Encyclopedia of Literature and Science , 2002 . Jump up ^ Finocchiaro , Maurice A. ( Fall 2007 ) , `` Book Review -- The Person of the Millennium : The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History '' , The Historian 69 ( 3 ) : 601 -- 602 Jump up ^ Weidhorn , Manfred ( 2005 ) . The Person of the Millennium : The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History . Universe , p. 155 . Jump up ^ `` Ellen Swallow Richards - Vassar College Encyclopedia - Vassar College '' . VCEncyclopedia.Vassar.edu . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field&oldid=837970340 '' Categories : Lists of scientists Lists of people by name feature Science pioneers Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2007 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 03 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

Question: who is considered the father of modern cosmology


List of winners of the New York City Marathon - wikipedia List of winners of the New York City Marathon Jump to : navigation , search The New York City Marathon is a 42,195 - meter ( 26.2 mile ) race through all five boroughs of New York City , and ranks as the largest marathon in the world , with a record 51,392 finishers ( 29,927 men / 21,465 women ) in 2016 . Since its inaugural race in 1970 , 34 men and 25 women have won the open division of the New York City Marathon , representing 22 different countries . From 1970 through 1975 , the race was held entirely in Central Park . It has started in Staten Island and gone through New York City 's other four boroughs since 1976 . Grete Waitz of Norway has won the race more than any other athlete , having completed her 9th victory in 1988 , setting three course records in the process . Current course records were set by Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya in 2011 in the men 's division , and by Margaret Okayo of Kenya in 2003 in the women 's division . A wheelchair race has been held since 2000 . Among the wheelchair racers , Edith Hunkeler of Switzerland and Tatyana McFadden of USA has the most victories , with five each ( McFadden has four in a row ) . Tatyana McFadden also holds the women 's course record with a time of 1 : 43 : 04 set in 2015 , while Kurt Fearnley of Australia holds the men 's record with 1 : 29 : 22 set in 2006 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Men 's open division 2 Women 's open division 3 Men 's wheelchair division 4 Women 's wheelchair division 5 Victories by nationality 6 References 7 External links Men 's open division ( edit ) Rodgers Rop , winner of the 2002 New York City Marathon . He won the Boston Marathon that same year . Paul Tergat , winner of the 2005 New York City Marathon , participating in an event for the World Food Program . Marílson Gomes dos Santos , winner of the 2006 and 2008 New York City Marathons , and the first and only Brazilian to win it in either division . Year Winner Country Time Notes 1970 Gary Muhrcke United States 2 : 31 : 38 Course record 1971 Norman Higgins United States 2 : 22 : 54 Course record 1972 Sheldon Karlin United States 2 : 27 : 52 1973 Tom Fleming United States 2 : 21 : 54 Course record Norbert Sander United States 2 : 26 : 30 Tom Fleming United States 2 : 19 : 27 Course record , 2nd victory 1976 Bill Rodgers United States 2 : 10 : 10 Course record 1977 Bill Rodgers United States 2 : 11 : 28 2nd victory 1978 Bill Rodgers United States 2 : 12 : 12 3rd victory 1979 Bill Rodgers United States 2 : 11 : 42 4th victory 1980 Alberto Salazar United States 2 : 09 : 41 Course record 1981 Alberto Salazar United States 2 : 08 : 13 World record , 2nd victory 1982 Alberto Salazar United States 2 : 09 : 29 3rd victory Rod Dixon New Zealand 2 : 08 : 59 1984 Orlando Pizzolato Italy 2 : 14 : 53 1985 Orlando Pizzolato Italy 2 : 11 : 34 2nd victory 1986 Gianni Poli Italy 2 : 11 : 06 Ibrahim Hussein Kenya 2 : 11 : 01 1988 Steve Jones United Kingdom 2 : 08 : 20 1989 Juma Ikangaa Tanzania 2 : 08 : 01 Course record 1990 Douglas Wakiihuri Kenya 2 : 12 : 39 1991 Salvador García Mexico 2 : 09 : 28 1992 Willie Mtolo South Africa 2 : 09 : 29 1993 Andrés Espinosa Mexico 2 : 10 : 04 1994 Germán Silva Mexico 2 : 11 : 21 1995 Germán Silva Mexico 2 : 11 : 00 2nd victory Giacomo Leone Italy 2 : 09 : 54 1997 John Kagwe Kenya 2 : 08 : 12 1998 John Kagwe Kenya 2 : 08 : 45 2nd victory 1999 Joseph Chebet Kenya 2 : 09 : 14 2000 Abdelkader El Mouaziz Morocco 2 : 10 : 09 2001 Tesfaye Jifar Ethiopia 2 : 07 : 43 Course record 2002 Rodgers Rop Kenya 2 : 08 : 07 2003 Martin Lel Kenya 2 : 10 : 30 Hendrick Ramaala South Africa 2 : 09 : 28 2005 Paul Tergat Kenya 2 : 09 : 30 2006 Marílson Gomes dos Santos Brazil 2 : 09 : 58 2007 Martin Lel Kenya 2 : 09 : 04 2nd victory 2008 Marílson Gomes dos Santos Brazil 2 : 08 : 43 2nd victory 2009 Meb Keflezighi United States 2 : 09 : 15 Gebregziabher Gebremariam Ethiopia 2 : 08 : 14 2011 Geoffrey Mutai Kenya 2 : 05 : 06 Course record 2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy 2013 Geoffrey Mutai Kenya 2 : 08 : 24 2nd victory 2014 Wilson Kipsang Kenya 2 : 10 : 59 2015 Stanley Biwott Kenya 2 : 10 : 34 2016 Ghirmay Ghebreslassie Eritrea 2 : 07 : 51 2017 Geoffrey Kamworor Kenya 2 : 10 : 53 Women 's open division ( edit ) Paula Radcliffe , winner of the 2004 , 2007 & 2008 New York City Marathons . Jeļena Prokopčuka , winner of the 2005 and 2006 New York City Marathons , the first and only Latvian runner to win in either division . Year Winner Country Time Notes 1972 Nina Kuscsik United States 3 : 08 : 41 Course record 1973 Nina Kuscsik United States 2 : 57 : 07 Course record , 2nd victory Kathrine Switzer United States 3 : 07 : 29 Kim Merritt United States 2 : 46 : 14 Course record 1976 Miki Gorman United States 2 : 39 : 11 Course record 1977 Miki Gorman United States 2 : 43 : 10 2nd victory 1978 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 32 : 30 Course record 1979 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 27 : 33 Course record , 2nd victory 1980 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 25 : 42 Course record , 3rd victory 1981 Allison Roe New Zealand 2 : 25 : 29 Course record 1982 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 27 : 14 4th victory Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 27 : 00 5th victory 1984 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 29 : 30 6th victory 1985 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 28 : 34 7th victory 1986 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 28 : 06 8th victory Priscilla Welch United Kingdom 2 : 30 : 17 1988 Grete Waitz Norway 2 : 28 : 07 9th victory 1989 Ingrid Kristiansen Norway 2 : 25 : 30 1990 Wanda Panfil Poland 2 : 30 : 45 1991 Liz McColgan United Kingdom 2 : 27 : 32 1992 Lisa Ondieki Australia 2 : 24 : 40 Course record 1993 Uta Pippig Germany 2 : 26 : 24 1994 Tegla Loroupe Kenya 2 : 27 : 37 1995 Tegla Loroupe Kenya 2 : 28 : 06 2nd victory Anuţa Cătună Romania 2 : 28 : 18 1997 Franziska Rochat - Moser Switzerland 2 : 28 : 43 1998 Franca Fiacconi Italy 2 : 25 : 17 1999 Adriana Fernandez Mexico 2 : 25 : 06 2000 Lyudmila Petrova Russia 2 : 25 : 45 2001 Margaret Okayo Kenya 2 : 24 : 21 Course record 2002 Joyce Chepchumba Kenya 2 : 25 : 56 2003 Margaret Okayo Kenya 2 : 22 : 31 Course record , 2nd victory Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2 : 23 : 10 2005 Jeļena Prokopčuka Latvia 2 : 24 : 41 2006 Jeļena Prokopčuka Latvia 2 : 25 : 05 2nd victory 2007 Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2 : 23 : 09 2nd victory 2008 Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2 : 23 : 56 3rd victory 2009 Derartu Tulu Ethiopia 2 : 28 : 52 Edna Kiplagat Kenya 2 : 28 : 20 2011 Firehiwot Dado Ethiopia 2 : 23 : 15 2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy 2013 Priscah Jeptoo Kenya 2 : 25 : 07 2014 Mary Keitany Kenya 2 : 25 : 07 2015 Mary Keitany Kenya 2 : 24 : 25 2nd victory 2016 Mary Keitany Kenya 2 : 24 : 26 3rd victory 2017 Shalane Flanagan United States 2 : 26 : 53 Fifth US woman to win ; first since 1977 Men 's wheelchair division ( edit ) David Weir , winner of the 2010 race Masazumi Soejima , winner of the 2011 race Year Winner Country Time Notes 2000 Ayari , Kamel Kamel Ayari Tunisia 1 : 53 : 50 2001 Mendoza , Saúl Saúl Mendoza Mexico 1 : 39 : 29 Course record 2002 Schabort , Krige Krige Schabort South Africa 1 : 38 : 27 Course record 2003 Schabort , Krige Krige Schabort South Africa 1 : 32 : 19 Course record , 2nd victory Mendoza , Saúl Saúl Mendoza Mexico 1 : 33 : 16 2nd victory 2005 van Dyk , Ernst Ernst van Dyk South Africa 1 : 31 : 11 Course record 2006 Fearnley , Kurt Kurt Fearnley Australia 1 : 29 : 22 Course record 2007 Fearnley , Kurt Kurt Fearnley Australia 1 : 33 : 58 2nd victory 2008 Fearnley , Kurt Kurt Fearnley Australia 1 : 44 : 51 3rd victory 2009 Fearnley , Kurt Kurt Fearnley Australia 1 : 35 : 58 4th victory Weir , David David Weir United Kingdom 1 : 37 : 29 2011 Soejima , Masazumi Masazumi Soejima Japan 1 : 31 : 41 2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy 2013 Hug , Marcel Marcel Hug Switzerland 1 : 40 : 14 2014 Fearnley , Kurt Kurt Fearnley Australia 1 : 30 : 55 5th victory ( Note that the course was shortened by 3 miles at the start ) 2015 van Dyk , Ernst Ernst van Dyk South Africa 1 : 30 : 54 2nd victory 2016 Hug , Marcel Marcel Hug Switzerland 1 : 35 : 44 2nd victory 2017 Hug , Marcel Marcel Hug Switzerland 1 : 37.17 3rd victory Women 's wheelchair division ( edit ) Year Winner Country Time Notes 2000 Xuan , Anh Nguyen Thi Anh Nguyen Thi Xuan Vietnam 2 : 46 : 47 2001 Porcellato , Francesca Francesca Porcellato Italy 2 : 08 : 51 Course record 2002 Blauwet , Cheri Cheri Blauwet United States 2 : 14 : 39 2003 Blauwet , Cheri Cheri Blauwet United States 1 : 59 : 30 Course record , 2nd victory Hunkeler , Edith Edith Hunkeler Switzerland 1 : 53 : 27 Course record 2005 Hunkeler , Edith Edith Hunkeler Switzerland 1 : 54 : 52 2nd victory 2006 McGrory , Amanda Amanda McGrory United States 1 : 54 : 19 2 seconds ahead of 2nd - place finisher 2007 Hunkeler , Edith Edith Hunkeler Switzerland 1 : 52 : 38 Course record , 3rd victory 2008 Hunkeler , Edith Edith Hunkeler Switzerland 2 : 06 : 42 4th victory 2009 Hunkeler , Edith Edith Hunkeler Switzerland 1 : 58 : 15 5th victory McFadden , Tatyana Tatyana McFadden United States 2 : 02 : 22 2011 McGrory , Amanda Amanda McGrory United States 1 : 50 : 25 Course record 2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy 2013 McFadden , Tatyana Tatyana McFadden United States 1 : 59 : 13 2nd victory 2014 McFadden , Tatyana Tatyana McFadden United States 1 : 42 : 16 3rd victory ( Note that their course was shortened by 3 miles at the start ) 2015 McFadden , Tatyana Tatyana McFadden United States 1 : 43 : 04 4th victory ; course record 2016 McFadden , Tatyana Tatyana McFadden United States 1 : 47 : 43 5th victory Victories by nationality ( edit ) Country Men 's Open Women 's Open Men 's Wheelchair Women 's Wheelchair Total United States 14 7 0 9 30 Kenya 14 10 0 0 24 Norway 0 10 0 0 10 Mexico 0 7 United Kingdom 5 0 7 Switzerland 0 5 9 Italy 0 6 Australia 0 5 0 6 South Africa 0 0 6 Ethiopia 0 0 Brazil 0 0 0 New Zealand 0 0 Latvia 0 0 0 Morocco 0 0 0 Tanzania 0 0 0 Germany 0 0 0 Poland 0 0 0 Romania 0 0 0 Russia 0 0 0 Tunisia 0 0 0 Vietnam 0 0 0 Eritrea 0 0 0 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Dicker , Ron ( November 6 , 2000 ) . `` NEW YORK CITY MARATHON : WHEELCHAIRS ; In First Official Race , the Winner Stays Clear of Controversy '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Rose , Derek ; Bill Hutchinson ( November 5 , 2001 ) . `` PATRIOTIC STRUT TO MARATHON '' . Daily News . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Lichtenstein , Grace ( November 4 , 2002 ) . `` THE MARATHON : WHEELCHAIR COMPETITION ; Swiss Legislator Wins Without Vote '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , Lena ( November 3 , 2003 ) . `` Glue and Cable Wire Aid Tenacious Winner '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , Lena ( November 8 , 2004 ) . `` MARATHON 2004 : NOTEBOOK ; Strategy Pays Off in Men 's Wheelchair Race '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Litsky , Frank ( November 7 , 2005 ) . `` After a Bumpy Challenge , a Road Record and Sore Arms '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Litsky , Frank ( November 5 , 2006 ) . `` Potholes Fail to Stop Winner of Wheelchair Race '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Litsky , Frank ( November 5 , 2007 ) . `` Racecar Driver Is Fourth in Handcycle '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` Defending Champions at New York Marathon '' . International Paralympic Committee . November 11 , 2008 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Lilly , Brandon ( November 5 , 2001 ) . `` MARATHON 2001 : WHEELCHAIR DIVISION ; Israeli Sets Mark in Men 's Hand - Cycle Competition '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 20 . External links ( edit ) `` TCS New York City Marathon Results Archive '' , New York Road Runners . `` RRIC Annual Marathon Report 2006 '' , Running USA Wire , May 20 , 2006 . `` New York City Marathon Winners '' . Encarta . MSN . Archived from the original on 2009 - 11 - 01 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 22 . New York City Marathon ... 1987 ... ... 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 List of winners New York City Marathon -- men 's winners 1970 : Gary Muhrcke ( USA ) 1971 : Norman Higgins ( USA ) 1972 : Sheldon Karlin ( USA ) 1973 : Tom Fleming ( USA ) 1974 : Norbert Sander ( USA ) 1975 : Tom Fleming ( USA ) 1976 - 79 : Bill Rodgers ( USA ) 1980 - 82 : Alberto Salazar ( USA ) 1983 : Rod Dixon ( NZL ) 1984 - 85 : Orlando Pizzolato ( ITA ) 1986 : Gianni Poli ( ITA ) 1987 : Ibrahim Hussein ( KEN ) 1988 : Steve Jones ( GBR ) 1989 : Juma Ikangaa ( TAN ) 1990 : Douglas Wakiihuri ( KEN ) 1991 : Salvador García ( MEX ) 1992 : Willie Mtolo ( RSA ) 1993 : Andrés Espinosa ( MEX ) 1994 - 95 : Germán Silva ( MEX ) 1996 : Giacomo Leone ( ITA ) 1997 - 98 : John Kagwe ( KEN ) 1999 : Joseph Chebet ( KEN ) 2000 : Abdelkader El Mouaziz ( MAR ) 2001 : Tesfaye Jifar ( ETH ) 2002 : Rodgers Rop ( KEN ) 2003 : Martin Lel ( KEN ) 2004 : Hendrick Ramaala ( RSA ) 2005 : Paul Tergat ( KEN ) 2006 : Marílson Gomes dos Santos ( BRA ) 2007 : Martin Lel ( KEN ) 2008 : Marílson Gomes dos Santos ( BRA ) 2009 : Meb Keflezighi ( USA ) 2010 : Gebregziabher Gebremariam ( ETH ) 2011 : Geoffrey Mutai ( KEN ) 2012 : Marathon canceled 2013 : Geoffrey Mutai ( KEN ) 2014 : Wilson Kipsang Kiprotich ( KEN ) 2015 : Stanley Biwott ( KEN ) 2016 : Ghirmay Ghebreslassie ( ERI ) 2017 : Geoffrey Kamworor ( KEN ) World Marathon Majors Berlin Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Boston Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Chicago Marathon -- List ( M / W ) London Marathon -- List ( M / W ) New York City Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Tokyo Marathon -- List ( M / W ) New York City Marathon -- women 's winners 1971 : Beth Bonner ( USA ) 1972 -- 1973 : Nina Kuscsik ( USA ) 1974 : Kathrine Switzer ( USA ) 1975 : Kim Merritt ( USA ) 1976 -- 1977 : Miki Gorman ( USA ) 1978 -- 1980 : Grete Waitz ( NOR ) 1981 : Allison Roe ( NZL ) 1982 -- 1986 : Grete Waitz ( NOR ) 1987 : Priscilla Welch ( GBR ) 1988 : Grete Waitz ( NOR ) 1989 : Ingrid Kristiansen ( NOR ) 1990 : Wanda Panfil ( POL ) 1991 : Liz McColgan ( GBR ) 1992 : Lisa Ondieki ( AUS ) 1993 : Uta Pippig ( GER ) 1994 -- 1995 : Tegla Loroupe ( KEN ) 1996 : Anuța Cătună ( ROM ) 1997 : Franziska Rochat - Moser ( SUI ) 1998 : Franca Fiacconi ( ITA ) 1999 : Adriana Fernández ( MEX ) 2000 : Lyudmila Petrova ( RUS ) 2001 : Margaret Okayo ( KEN ) 2002 : Joyce Chepchumba ( KEN ) 2003 : Margaret Okayo ( KEN ) 2004 : Paula Radcliffe ( GBR ) 2005 -- 2006 : Jeļena Prokopčuka ( LAT ) 2007 -- 2008 : Paula Radcliffe ( GBR ) 2009 : Derartu Tulu ( ETH ) 2010 : Edna Kiplagat ( KEN ) 2011 : Firehiwot Dado ( ETH ) 2012 : Marathon canceled 2013 : Priscah Jeptoo ( KEN ) 2014 -- 2016 : Mary Keitany ( KEN ) 2017 : Shalane Flanagan ( USA ) World Marathon Majors Berlin Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Boston Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Chicago Marathon -- List ( M / W ) London Marathon -- List ( M / W ) New York City Marathon -- List ( M / W ) Tokyo Marathon -- List ( M / W ) World Marathon Majors Marathons Tokyo winners Boston winners London winners Berlin winners Chicago winners New York City winners Results Final standings IAAF World Championships Marathon World Marathon Cup Olympic Games Marathon Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_winners_of_the_New_York_City_Marathon&oldid=808935333 '' Categories : Lists of marathon winners New York City Marathon winners Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with hCards Talk Contents About Wikipedia Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2017 , at 03 : 35 . 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Question: when was the last time an american won the new york marathon


Scythe - wikipedia Scythe Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Scythe ( disambiguation ) . Not to be confused with Sickle . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Parts of a scythe : 1 . Toe 2 . Chine 3 . Beard 4 . Heel 5 . Tang 6 . Ring 7 . Snath or snaith 8 . Grips A scythe ( / saɪð , saɪθ / ) is an agricultural hand tool for mowing grass or reaping crops . It has largely been replaced by horse - drawn and then tractor machinery , but is still used in some areas of Europe and Asia . The word `` scythe '' derives from Old English siðe . In Middle English and after it was usually spelt sithe or sythe . However , in the 15th century some writers began to use the sc - spelling as they thought ( wrongly ) the word was related to the Latin scindere ( meaning `` to cut '' ) . Nevertheless , the sithe spelling lingered and notably appears in Noah Webster 's dictionaries . A traditional wooden scythe . A modern scythe of a pattern common in parts of Europe A scythe consists of a shaft about 170 centimetres ( 67 in ) long called a snaith , snath , snathe or sned , traditionally made of wood but now sometimes metal . Simple snaiths are straight with offset handles , others have an `` S '' curve or are steam bent in three dimensions to place the handles in an ergonomic configuration but close to shaft . The snaith has either one or two short handles at right angles to it , usually one near the upper end and always another roughly in the middle . The handles are usually adjustable to suit the user . A curved , steel blade between 60 to 90 centimetres ( 24 to 35 in ) ) long is mounted at the lower end at 90 ° , or less , to the snaith . Scythes almost always have the blade projecting from the left side of the snaith when in use , with the edge towards the mower ; left - handed scythes are made but can not be used together with right - handed scythes as the left - handed mower would be mowing in the opposite direction and could not mow in a team . Contents ( hide ) 1 Use 1.1 The mowing action 1.2 Sharpening 2 History 3 In national cultures 4 In art 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Use ( edit ) Using a scythe The addition of a cradle aligns the seed heads and makes picking up and winnowing easier The use of a scythe is traditionally called mowing , now often scything to distinguish it from machine mowing . The mower holds the top handle in the left hand and the central one in the right , with the arms straight , the blade parallel and very close to the ground and the uncut grass to the right . The body is then twisted to the right , the blade hooks the grass and is swung steadily to the left in a long arc ending in front of the mower and depositing the cut grass neatly to the left . The mower takes a small step forward and repeats the motion , proceeding with a steady rhythm , stopping at frequent intervals to hone the blade . The correct technique has a slicing action on the grass , cutting a narrow strip with each stroke , leaving a uniform stubble on the ground and forming a regular windrow on the left . The mower moves along the mowing - edge with the uncut grass to the right and the cut grass laid in a neat row to the left , on the previously mown land . Each strip of ground mown by a scythe is called a swathe ( pronounced / sweɪð / : rhymes with `` bathe '' ) or swath ( / swɒθ / : rhymes with `` Goth '' ) . Mowing may be done by a team of mowers , usually starting at the edges of a meadow then proceeding clockwise and finishing in the middle . Mowing grass is easier when it is damp , and so hay - making traditionally began at dawn and often stopped early , the heat of the day being spent raking and carting the hay cut on previous days or peening the blades . Scythes are designed for different tasks . A long , thin blade 90 to 100 centimetres ( 35 to 39 in ) is most efficient for mowing grass or wheat , while a shorter , more robust scythe 60 to 70 centimetres ( 24 to 28 in ) is more appropriate for clearing weeds , cutting reed or sedge and can be used with the blade under water for clearing ditches and waterways . Skilled mowers using traditional long - bladed scythes honed very sharp were used to maintain short lawn grass until the invention of the lawnmower . Many cultures have used a variety of ' cradles ' to catch cut different kinds of grain stems , keeping the seed heads aligned and laying them down in an orderly fashion to make them easier to sheaf and winnow . Mowing with a scythe is a skilled task made to look easy by experienced mowers but needs time to learn the skill . Long - bladed traditional scythes , typically around 90 centimetres ( 35 in ) ( such as in the example below ) and suitable for mowing grass or wheat are harder to use at first , consequently , beginners usually start on shorter blades , say 70 centimetres ( 28 in ) or less . Common beginner 's errors include : setting up the snaith with the handles in the wrong locations to suit the body , setting the blade at the wrong turn - in and turn - up angles to suit the conditions , choosing a blade that is too long for the skill level , failing to start with a sharp edge and persevering with a dull one during use , chopping or hacking at the grass , trying to cut too wide a strip of grass at once and striking the ground with the blade . Traditionally , beginners relied on mentors to help them set up and maintain their scythe and to teach them to mow comfortably and efficiently . The mowing action ( edit ) 1 . Start of the stroke after stepping forward into the swathe . 2 . Swinging left into the cut and deepening the swathe . 3 . Finish of the stroke and depositing on the windrow to the left . Sharpening ( edit ) The cutting edge of a scythe blade is traditionally maintained by occasional peening followed by frequent honing . Peening reforms the malleable edge , by hammering , to : create the desired profile , to temper the metal and to remove minor nicks and dents . For mowing fine grass the bevel angle may be peened extremely fine , while for coarser work a larger angle is created to give a more robust edge . Peening requires some skill and is done using a peening hammer and special anvils or by using a peening jig . Historically , a peening station was set up on the edge of the field during harvest but now more likely back in the workshop . In the example below , a short scythe blade , being used to clear brambles , is being sharpened . Before going to the forest the blade is peened back in the workshop , this reforms the malleable steel to create an edge profile that can then be honed . Peening is done only occasionally , how often depends on the hardness of the steel and the nature of the work . The Austrian blade shown is being used to cut tough - stemmed brambles and it is being peened about every thirty hours of work . Nicks and cuts to the blade edge can usually be worked out of the blade by peening and a new edge profile formed for honing . A peening jig is being used here but blades can be free - peened using various designs of peening anvils . The peening jig shown has two interchangeable caps that set different angles ; a coarse angle is set first about 3mm back from the edge and the fine angle is then set on the edge , leaving an edge that lends itself to being easily honed . The blade is then honed using progressively finer honing stones and then taken to the field . In the field the blade is honed using a fine , ovoid whetstone ( or rubber ) , fine - grained for grass , coarser for cereal crops . Honing is done the moment the mower senses that the edge has gone off , this may be every half hour depending on the conditions . The laminated honing stone shown here has two grades of stone and is carried into the field soaking in a water - filled holster on the belt . A burr is set up on the outside of the blade by stroking the blade on the inside , the burr is then taken off by gently stroking it on the outside . There are a great many opinions , regional traditions and variations on exactly how to do this , some eastern European countries even set up the burr on the inside . A peening jig anvil , note the two colour - coded caps Peening a scythe blade using the jig A typical ovoid honing stone soaking in a water filled sheath Setting up a burr on the outside of the blade by honing on the inside . Taking the burr off the outside of the blade by honing on the outside . The finished blade Historical image , from a 1945 wheat harvest , showing a very long blade being honed on the job . Setting up the burr . Removing the burr on the outside face , ready to mow again . Unlike the European blades , typical American style blades are made of harder , more brittle steel and are not usually peened , or can not be peened at all , without cracking . The harder blade holds an edge longer and requires less frequent honing in the field but after heavy use or damage the edge must be reshaped by grinding , which subtracts metal , rather than reforming the more malleable edge by peening . Some examples have a laminated construction with a hard , brittle , core providing the edge and softer sides providing strength . History ( edit ) German peasant with scythe from 850 AD The scythe may have dated back as far as c. 500 BC , and seems to have been used in Ancient Rome , but became more common in Europe with agricultural developments during the Carolingian era ( 8th century AD ) . Initially used mostly for mowing hay , it had replaced the sickle for reaping crops by the 16th century as the scythe was better ergonomically and consequently more efficient . In about 1800 the grain cradle , was sometimes added to the standard scythe when mowing grain ; the cradle was an addition of light wooden fingers above the scythe blade which kept the grain stems aligned and the heads together to make the collection and threshing easier . In the developed world the scythe has largely been replaced by the motorised lawn mower and combine harvester . However , the scythe remained in common use for many years after the introduction of machines because a side - mounted finger - bar mower , whether horse or tractor drawn , could not mow in front of itself and scythes were still needed to open up a meadow by clearing the first swathe to give the mechanical mower room to start . The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities of Sir William Smith claims that the scythe , known in Latin as the falx foenaria as opposed to the sickle , the falx messoria , was used by the ancient Romans. According to ancient Greek mythology it was believed that Gaea the Greek goddess mother of Titans gave ' a sickle was made out of the strongest metal ' to her youngest son ' Kronos ' who is also youngest of Titans ( also known as God of Harvest ) to seek vengeance against her Husband Ouranos for Torturing their oldest sons . To illustrate this , Smith cites an image of Saturn holding a scythe , from an ancient Italian cameo . The Grim Reaper and the Greek Titan Cronus were often depicted carrying or wielding a scythe . According to Jack Herer and `` Flesh of The Gods '' ( Emboden , W.A. , Jr. , Praeger Press , NY , 1974 . ) ; the ancient Scythians grew hemp and harvested it with a hand reaper that we still call a scythe . The Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet in Sheffield , England is a museum of a scythe - making works that was in operation from the end of the 18th century until the 1930s . This was part of the former scythe - making district of north Derbyshire , which extended into Eckington . Other English scythe - making districts include that around Belbroughton . The German Renaissance scythe sword , the Greek and Roman harpe and the Egyptian khopesh were scythes or sickles modified as weapons or symbols of authority . An improvised conversion of the agricultural scythe to a war scythe by re-attaching the blade parallel to the snaith , similar to a bill has also been used throughout history as a weapon . See Scythes in art below for an example . In national cultures ( edit ) The under - side of the blade normally facing the ground , note that it is convex across it width while the top side is concave or cupped . This snaith has been steam - bent to place the handles in the correct position for the mower without the need to offset them . The diagonal tension brace is atypical . The scythe is still an indispensable tool for farmers in developing countries and in mountainous terrain . In Romania , for example , in the highland landscape of the Transylvanian Apuseni mountains , scything is a very important annual activity , taking about 2 -- 3 weeks to complete for a regular house . As scything is a tiring physical activity and is relatively difficult to learn , farmers help each other by forming teams . After each day 's harvest , the farmers often celebrate by having a small feast where they dance , drink and eat , while being careful to keep in shape for the next day 's hard work . In other parts of the Balkans , such as in Serbian towns , scything competitions are held where the winner takes away a small silver scythe . In small Serbian towns , scything is treasured as part of the local folklore , and the winners of friendly competitions are rewarded richly with food and drink , which they share with their competitors . Among Basques scythe - mowing competitions are still a popular traditional sport , called segalaritza ( from Spanish verb segar : to mow ) . Each contender competes to cut a defined section of grown grass before his rival does the same . There is an international scything competition held at Goricko where people from Austria , Hungary , Serbia and Romania , or as far away as Asia appear to showcase their culturally unique method of reaping crops . In 2009 , a Japanese gentleman showcased a wooden reaping tool with a metal edge , which he used to show how rice was cut . He was impressed with the speed of the local reapers , but said such a large scythe would never work in Japan . The Norwegian municipality of Hornindal has three scythe blades in its coat - of - arms . Scythes are beginning a comeback in American suburbs , since they `` do n't use gas , do n't get hot , do n't make noise , do make for exercise , and do cut grass '' . In art ( edit ) 1817 illustration of a Polish peasant sharpening a scythe . ( Drawn by Jan Piotr Norblin , engraved by Philibert - Louis Debucourt . ) Death and the woodcutter by Jean - François Millet , 1859 Niittomiehet ( Mowers men ) , by Pekka Halonen , 1891 Death and the Mother by Niels Hansen Jacobsen - Sankt Petri , Copenhagen Peasant infantry armed with scythes pray before the battle of Racławice ( 1794 ) by Józef Chełmoński . Winslow Homer , The Veteran in a New Field ' 1865 ' See also ( edit ) Bagging hook , similar to the sickle Billhook , a version of the sickle used for cutting woody stems Grain cradle , for aligning grain stems Harpe , a Greek or Roman long sickle or scythe Khopesh , an Egyptian long sickle or scythe as a weapon Scythe sword , scythe blade converted to use as a weapon Sickle , the archetypal forerunner of the scythe War scythe , a polearm resembling a modified scythe Kama ( weapon ) , a Japanese hand scythe used in farming , and martial arts References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Oxford English Dictionary , Oxford University Press , 1933 : Scythe Jump up ^ `` Online Etymology Dictionary '' . etymonline.com . Jump up ^ `` Browse 1828 = > Word SITHE : : Search the 1828 Noah Webster 's Dictionary of the English Language '' . 1828.mshaffer.com. 2012 - 06 - 03 . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Browse 1913 = > Word SITHE : : Search the 1913 Noah Webster 's Dictionary of the English Language '' . 1913.mshaffer.com. 2012 - 06 - 03 . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` How to Use a Scythe - Modern Homesteading - MOTHER EARTH NEWS '' . Jump up ^ `` Peening and Sharpening - Scythe Cymru '' . Jump up ^ Tomlin , Steve ( 31 May 2016 ) . `` Learning to peen a scythe '' . Jump up ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica . `` Scythe '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 26 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust . Simt.co.uk ( 2010 - 10 - 03 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ K.M. Battye , ' Sickle - makers and other metalworkers in Eckington 1534 -- 1750 : a study of metal workers tools , raw materials and made goods , using probate wills and inventories ' Tools and Trades 12 ( 2000 ) , 26 -- 38 . Jump up ^ P.W. King , ' The north Worcestershire Scythe Industry ' Historical Metallurgy 41 ( 2 ) , 124 -- 47 . Jump up ^ Reif , Albert ; Ruşdea , Evelyn ; Păcurar , Florin ; Rotar , Ioan ; Brinkmann , Katja ; Auch , Eckhard ; Goia , Augustin ; Bühler , Josef ( 2008 ) . `` A Traditional Cultural Landscape in Transformation '' . Mountain Research and Development . 28 : 18 . doi : 10.1659 / mrd. 0806 . Jump up ^ Events in Serbia . Hay making on Rajac . Accommodation in Sumadija . Guaranted Tours . Visitserbia.org . Retrieved on 2011 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Serbian Scything Competition on Mt . Plavinac photo stock photos Profimedia # 0071934552 . Profimedia.rs ( 2010 - 06 - 13 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Krajinski park Goričko . Park-goricko.org ( 2010 - 05 - 21 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Blog Archives . The One Scythe Revolution ( 2010 - 02 - 28 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Newman , Barry ( June 29 , 2012 ) . `` Who Needs a WeedWacker When You Can Use a Scythe ? Grim Reaper Jokes Aside , Suburbanites Take Swing at Ancient Mower '' . Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 1 July 2012 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scythes . Scythe Network , a site dedicated to modern usage , with links to numerous equipment suppliers in North America . ( hide ) Garden tools Averruncator Axe Chainsaw Cultivator Daisy grubber Dibber Earth auger Edger Garden fork Garden hose Grass shears Grass stitcher Hedge trimmer Hoe Hori hori Irrigation sprinkler Lawn aerator Lawn mower Lawn sweeper Leaf blower Loppers Machete Mattock Pickaxe Pitchfork Plough ( plow ) Post hole digger Potting bench Pruning shears ( secateurs ) Rake Riddle Rotary tiller Scythe Shovel Sickle Spade String trimmer Trowel Tsakat Watering can Weeder Wheelbarrow Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythe&oldid=818827267 '' Categories : Cutting tools Mechanical hand tools Gardening tools Blade weapons Farming tools Heraldic charges Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from January 2015 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Aragonés Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца )  Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Коми Kurdî Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Livvinkarjala Lumbaart Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Napulitano Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Võro Walon Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2018 , at 20 : 46 . 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