The qualitative findings were then used to expand and refine the interview questions and develop a survey instrument. The survey instrument was pretested with 9 participants (4 assistant professors, 2 postdocs, 1 associate professor, and 2 graduate students) representing 6 disciplines (Library and Information Science, Chemistry, Mathematics, Business, Education, and Sports Management) for readability and validity. The finalized survey was distributed online to 1,680 researchers in the fall of 2016 by using Qualtrics survey software. Participants were recruited from 115 universities categorized as Doctoral Universities with Highest Research Activity (DUHRA) in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education . E-mail addresses were collected manually from departmental websites, and participants were contacted individually. When recruiting, an effort was made to obtain a sample stratified by seniority. The following five levels of seniority were used: graduate students, postdocs, assistant professors, associate professors, and full professors.