The effects of α-GalCer in the progression of autoimmune disease models have also been controversial. For example, it was shown that α-GalCer prevented the onset of diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, a representative type 1 diabetes model17,18. Conversely, there have been contradictory reports regarding the effects of α-GalCer in NZB/NZW F1 (BWF1) mice, an experimental model of SLE in which lupus nephritis-like lesions develop. Thus, one report showed that α-GalCer-activated NKT cells exacerbated the experimental lupus nephritis19, whereas a long-term reduction in severe proteinuria following α-GalCer treatment was reported in another study20.