Between-group differences (1 - between-group similarity) (a), within-group similarity over time (b), repertoire quality c for different task difficulty (H), and different kinds of cumulative process for OL at H=10 (d). For a–c: Blue = LE, Orange = SE, and Red = OL. LE and SE are inviable at H10 and are excluded. Each data point is the mean of 10 simulations, and whiskers show standard deviation. For d: Boxplots show minimum, 1st quartile, median, 3rd quartile, and maximum, where data comes from 10 simulations. The calculation of repertoire statistics and cumulative cultural change is explained in the ’Simulations and analysis’ section