One hundred patients with primary GBM were identified from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Patient image data and corresponding clinical data were extracted from The Cancer Imaging Archive . All patients had undergone routine MRI prior to surgery and treatment. Pre-contrast T1-weighted (T1) images, post-gadolinium T1 (T1c) images, T2-weighted (T2) images, and T2 fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images were acquired. Patient genomic and molecular data were obtained from cBioPortal  and included data on genetic pathway activation (PARADIGM scores ). This study abided by the TCGA data use agreement and was Institutional Review Board-exempt.