Non-lithium metal anodes (such as Al, Mg and so on) can be of interest due to the possibility of multi-electron transfer during metal plating (Fig. 5c). In particular, non-lithium metal anodes, such as Mg in Mg-ion batteries, offer the promise of dendrite-free metal deposition, which would mitigate some safety and durability concerns associated with cell shorting from dendrites piercing through the separator as well as from irreversible metal consumption65.