For in vitro and ex vivo cellular analyses, data were presented as the mean of triplicate experiments (m ± s.e.m.), and were representative of results obtained from three independent experiments that produced similar results. Statistical analyses were performed using the Mann–Whitney test. For in vivo experiments in rats, average of ankle joints per animal was treated independently for statistical purposes. Differences between groups were calculated using analysis of variance (ANOVA) two-way tests with Bonferonni post-hoc tests. Comparison inside each group was performed using ANOVA one-way tests. P < 0.05 was considered as significant.