Landscape- and larger-scale shifts in ecosystem structure and function (order-of-magnitude increases or abrupt decreases in cover and/or biomass of novel growth forms or functional types) are occurring in non- equilibrium ecosystems (systems which exist in multiple states, often disturbance-controlled) in response to changing disturbance regime, climate and rising CO 2 (high confidence) Woody plant encroachment has been occurring in multiple ecosystems, including subtropical and tropical fire driven grassland and savanna systems, upland grassland systems, arid grasslands and shrublands (high confidence), leading to large-scale biodiversity changes, albedo changes, and impacts on water delivery, grazing services and human livelihoods