Other ecosystems (e.g., kelp forests, coral reefs) are relatively less able to move, however, and are projected to experience high rates of mortality and loss (very high confidence).’ SROCC (Bindoff et al., 2019a) ‘Kelp forests have experienced large-scale habitat loss and degradation of ecosystem structure and functioning over the past half century, implying a moderate to high level of risk at present conditions of global warming (high confidence).’ ‘The abundance of kelp forests has decreased at a rate of ~2% per year over the past half century, mainly due to ocean warming and marine heat waves [...], as well as from other human stressors (high confidence).’ ‘Changes in ocean currents have facilitated the entry of tropical herbivorous fish into temperate kelp forests decreasing their distribution and abundance (medium confidence).’ ‘The loss of kelp forests is followed by the colonisation of turfs, which contributes to the reduction in habitat complexity, carbon storage and diversity (high confidence).’Kelp forests will face moderate to high risk at temperatures above 1.5°C global sea surface warming