Production insuranceCompensation for specified losses related to production (e.g., insurance indexed to specific weather events) or supply chains (e.g., shipping insurance) Market and price insurance Compensation for specified market-related losses (e.g., price or currency fluctuation) Grants: Concessionary funding provided by public or philanthropic entities to support climate adaptation costs or outcomes (no expectation of repayment) Direct supportFunding for provision of goods (e.g., fertilizer, seeds, nursery stock) or services (e.g., technical assistance, product storage) to producers, local companies or intermediaries (e.g., for agronomic or business management expertise); can reduce credit risk when part of blended finance arrangements Performance-based grantsGrants or other concessionary funding contingent on achievement of defined adaptation outcomes (with possible third-party verification requirement); may support development and testing of new approaches (i.e., design funding; challenges/prizes) Governmental instruments Policy incentivesPublic policies designed to stimulate adaptation action among targeted groups (e.g., producers, consumers, agri-businesses, financiers) including direct or indirect subsidies (e.g., producer payments, tax breaks, health insurance), procurement policies (e.g., low carbon and sustainability criteria; nutrition-sensitive school feeding programmes) and other fiscal measures (e.g., infrastructure development; funding R&D in climate-resilient practices or technologies) (Shukla et al., 2019) Development aidInternational or domestic programmes that directly or indirectly fund adaptation actions including financial transfers (e.g., producer support or anti-poverty programmes) and subsidised credit