Until the 20th century, the Latinate term "asphaltum" was also used. "Pissasphalt" (from Greek "pissasphaltus" "pitch" and "asphalt") names "A semi-liquid variety of bitumen, mentioned by ancient writers". The medicinal use of bituminous mummia has a parallel in Ayurveda: "shilajit" or "silajit" (from Sanskrit "shilajatu" "rock-conqueror") or "mumijo" (from Persian "mūmiyā" "wax") is "A name given to various solid or viscous substances found on rock in India and Nepal … esp. a usu. dark-brown odoriferous substance which is used in traditional Indian medicine and probably consists principally of dried animal urine". The usage of mumiya as medicine began with the famous Persian "mumiya" black pissasphalt remedy for wounds and fractures, which was confused with similarly appearing black bituminous materials used in Egyptian mummification. This was misinterpreted by Medieval Latin translators to mean whole mummies. Starting in the 12th century and continuing until as far as the 19th century, mummies and bitumen from mummies would be central in European medicine and art, as well as Egyptian trade. Bitumen or asphalt had many uses in the ancient world such as glue, mortar, and waterproofing. The ancient Egyptians began to use bitumen for embalming mummies during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BCE). According to historians of pharmacy, mummia became part of the materia medica of the Arabs, discussed by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (845–925) and Ibn al-Baitar (1197–1248). Medieval Persian physicians used bitumen/asphalt both as a salve for cuts, bruises, and bone fractures, and as an internal medicine for stomach ulcers and tuberculosis. They achieved the best results with a black pissasphalt that seeped from a mountain in Darabgerd, Persia. The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides' c. 50–70 "De Materia Medica" ranked bitumen from the Dead Sea as medicinally superior to the pissasphalt from Apollonia (Illyria), both of which were considered to be an equivalent substitute for the scarce and expensive Persian "mumiya". During the Crusades, European soldiers learned firsthand of the drug mummia, which was considered to have great healing powers in cases of fracture and rupture.