H330, 311, 301, 372, 319, 335, 315 Eye irrit (2), STOT/SE (3), Skin irrit (2) Phorate 298-02-2 Acute tox (1) H310, 300 Pichloram 1918-02-1 Pyrethrum 8003-34-7 Pyrethrin (I and II) 121-21-1 121-29-9 Acute tox (4) H332, 312, 302 Rotenone 83-79-4 Acute tox (3), Eye irrit (2), STOT/SE (3), Skin irrit (2) H301, 319, 335, 315 Sulfotep 3689-24-5 Acute tox (1) H310, 300 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 91 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 92 Table 2.5 Workplace exposure limits (WELs) for pesticides in EH40/2005 (as amended 2007) WEL (mg/m 3 ) Type 8h STEL Captan OC 5.0 15.0 Chlorpyrifos* OP 0.2 0.6 Sk Endsulfan* OC 0.1 0.3 Sk Malathion OP 10.0 \200\223 Sk Paraquat dichloride e Byp 0.08 _ Phorate OP 0.05 0.2 Sk Picloram 10.0 20.0 Rotenone Bo 5.0 10.0 Sulfotep OP 0.1 _ Sk OC, organochlorine; OP, organophosphate; Bot, botanical; Byp, bypiridylium; P, pyrethrin. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 92 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM PHENOL 93 Phenol General substance information \200 CAS No. 108 \200\22395 \200\2232: formula C 6 H 5 OH \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 2ppm \200 Physical properties: c olorless or white crystalline solid, slightly soluble in water, mp = 43 C, bp = 182 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Muta (2), acute tox (3), skin corr (1B), STOT/RE (2); H341, 311, 301, 373, 314. Uses/occurrence \200 Main use is in the manufacture of phenolic resins and plastics \200 Also as intermediates in nylon and epoxy resins \200 Phenol has a range of other uses i n production of fertilizers, paints, rubber, textiles, drugs, paper, soap, and wood preservatives Also used as a disinfectant. Key health effects \200 Phenol can be absorbed through the skin \200 Corrosive to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract \200 Dermal exposure can lead to effects on the central nerv ous system (tremors, convulsions, nausea, circulatory failure, bowel cramps, and unconsciou sness). Subsequent respiratory failure may result in death. See b p. 806, Phenol poisoning for acute poisoning with phenols. Measurement MDHS 96,72 Pumped sorbent tubes, solvent desorption, analysis by GC. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 93 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 94 Styrene General substance information \200 CAS No. 100 \200\22342 \200\2235: formula C 6 H 5 CH=CH 2 \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 430mg/m 3 (100ppm); STEL of 1080mg/m 3 (250ppm). Limit values are currently under review by HSE Physical properties: colorless liquid with oily odor, slightly soluble in water, mp = \210\222 31 C, bp = 145 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Acute tox (4), eye/skin irrit (2); H332, 319, 315. Uses/occurrence \200 Major use is the production of polystyrene and as a copolymer in the production of styrene-butadiene rubber, styrene-acrylonitrile, and acrylonitrile-butadiene -styrene polymers and polyester resins Also used in the manufacture of reinforced plastics. Key health effects \200 Acute central nervous system depression \200 Eye irritation fol lowing exposure to liquid or vapor \200 Skin irritation following repeated exposure to li quid \200 Nasal irritation \200 Repeated exposure can result in central nervous system effects and ototoxicity. Measurement \200 MDHS 72,96 Pumped sorbent tubes, solvent /thermal desorption, analysis by GC MDHS 80,88 Diffusive sorbent samplers, solvent /thermal desorption, analysis by GC. Further information HSE (2003). Assessing and controlling styrene levels during contact mol ding of \201 bre-reinforced plastic (FRP) products . Available at: M http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/pps14.pdf 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 94 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM TETRACHLOROETHYLENE (PERCHLOROETHYLENE) 95 Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) General substance information \200 CAS No. 127 \200\22318 \200\2234: formula Cl 2 C=CCl 2 \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 345mg/m 3 (50ppm); STEL of 689mg/m 3 (100ppm) Physical properties: colorless liquid practically insoluble in water with an ether odor, mp = \210\222 22 C, bp = 121 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Carc (2); H351. Uses/occurrence \200 Major use is as a dry cleaning agent \200 Used as a cleaning/degre asing agent in the automotive and other industries. Key health effects \200 Acute central nervous system effects (drowsiness, dizziness, with unconsciousness at high exposures; very high exposures may be fatal) Irritation of skin and respiratory tract \200 Liver and kidney toxicity \200 Evidence f rom animal studies indicates that tetrachloroethylene may cause cancer. Measurement \200 MDHS 72,96 Pumped sorbent tubes, solvent /thermal desorption, analysis by GC MDHS 88 Diffusive sorbent samplers, solvent desorption analysis by GC. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 95 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 96 Vinyl chloride General substance information \200 CAS No. 75 \200\22301 \200\2234: formul a H 2 C=CHCl \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 3ppm \200 Physical proper ties: colorless gas with a sweet odor, slightly soluble in water, mp = \210\222 154 C, bp = \210\222 14 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Carc (1A); H350. Uses/occurrence Used as chemical intermediate in the production of polymers, mainly poly- v inyl chloride (PVC) and copolymer resins. Key health effects \200 Liver cancer (angiosarcoma) (see b p. 264, Hepatic angiosarcoma) \200 Other chronic effects include liver and spleen toxicity, bone deterioration, circulatory disorders affecting feet and hands, and soft tissue lesions Acute central nervous system effects (e.g. dizziness and disorientation). Measurement \200 MDHS 96 Pumped sorbent tubes, solvent desorption, GC \200 MDHS 88 Diff usive sorbent samplers, solvent desorption, GC \200 MDHS 80 Diffusive sorbent tubes, ther mal desorption, GC. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 96 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM ARSINE 97 Arsine General substance information \200 CAS No. 7784 \200\22342 \200\2231: formula AsH 3 \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 0.16mg/m 3 (0.05ppm) \200 Physical p roperties: colorless gas, garlic-like odor but odorless at low concentrations, slightly sol uble in water, mp = \210\222 117 C, bp = \210\222 63 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Acute tox (2), STOT/RE (2); H330, 373. Uses/occurrence \200 Generated by the action of acid on arsenic \200 Used as a doping a gent in the semiconductor industry \200 Minor use in the production of organic chemicals. Key health effects \200 Haemolysis is main acute effect, leading to haemolytic anemia, possible kidney damage, and jaundice Renal failure may subsequently occur, sometimes leading to death. Measurement MDHS 34 Withdrawn. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 97 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 98 Carbon monoxide General substance information \200 CAS No. 630 \200\22308 \200\2230: form ula CO \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 35mg/m 3 (30ppm); STEL of 232mg/m 3 (200ppm) Physical properties: colorless odorless gas, sparingly soluble in water, mp = \210\222 199 C, bp = \210\222 92 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Repr (1A), acute tox (3), STOT/RE (1); H360D, 331, 372 . Uses/occurrence \200 Used in the production of hydrogen and acetic acid and in the production of hydrocarbons (Fischer \200\223Tropsch process) Also used as an industrial reducing agent \200 Produced as a ubiquitous by-product of inc omplete combustion. Key health effects Acute effects resulting from formation of carboxyhaemoglobin: \200 Asp hyxiation \200 Effects on the developing fetus \200 Cardiovascular effects (effects in subjects with pre-existing cardiovascular disease; exacerbation of exercise-induced angina; ventricular arrhythmia; ta chycardia) CNS effects (headache, dizziness, impaired \201 ne manual dexterity, impaired mental capacity, fatigue, visual disturbance). Treatment See b p. 794, Carbon monoxide poisoning for management of acute exposure. Measurement \200 NIOSH 6604 Pumped sampling into inert sample bag, electrochemical detector Colorimetric methods commonly used. Pumped sampling on to proprietary tubes coated with rea gent and pre-calibrated. (Also suitable for grab sampling.) BMGV 30ppm in end-tidal breath (post-shift). Further information EH43. Carbon Monoxide. Health Hazards and Precautionary Measures . Avai lable at:: M http://www. hse.gov.uk/gas/domestic/co.htm 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 98 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM HYDROGEN sulfide 99 Hydrogen sulfide General substance information \200 CAS No. 7783 \200\22306 \200\22304: f ormula H 2 S \200 Occupational exposure limit: WEL, 8h TWA of 7mg/m 3 (5ppm); STEL of 14mg/m 3 (7ppm) Physical properties: colorless gas, odor of rotten eggs at low concentration but odorless at higher concentrations, mp = \210\222 86 C, bp = \210\222 6 1 C. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Acute tox (2); H330. Uses/occurrence \200 Used as a digesting agent in paper production and in the production of sulfide ores Encountered as a product of the decay of organic matter (e.g. sewage works, animal renderin g) and desulphurization processes in the metal, oil, and gas industries. Key health effects \200 Irritation of eyes and upper respiratory tract \200 Pulmonary o edema may occur with prolonged exposure \200 CNS effects (headache, dizziness, staggering gait) may occur with high concentrations At higher concentrations, CNS effects can lead to paralysis of respiratory system, asphyxiation, and sometimes death. Treatment See b p. 800, Hydrogen sulfide poisoning, for management of acute exposure. Measurement NIOSH 6013 Pumped sampling on to \201 lter and sorbent tube, derivatiza- tion , ion chromatography. HSE publications Toxicology of Substances in Relation to Major Hazards. Hydrogen Sulfide . Available at: M http:// www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/infosheets/is6 \200\2232009.htm. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 99 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 100 Nitrogen dioxide General substance information \200 CAS No. 10102 \200\22344 \200\2230: f ormula NO 2 \200 Occupational exposure limit: none \200 Physical properties: reddish br own gas with irritating odor. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Acute tox (2), skin corr (1B); H330, 314. Uses/occurrence \200 Used in the production of nitric acid and nitrate fertilizers \200 Produced as a reaction by-product during metal degreasing with nitric acid and during the breakdown of silage in agriculture Also produced during combustion processes. Key health effects \200 Irritation of the upper respiratory tract resulting from brief ex posure to high concentrations Lung damage in the form of emphysema may be caused by repeated exposure Measurement \200 No MDHS Colorimetric methods commonly used although may be generic for N O x . Pumped sampling on to proprietary tubes coated with reagent and pre-calibrated. (Also suitable for grab sampling) \200 OSHA ID-190/NIOSH 6014 Pumped sampling on to sorbent tu be NO 2 converted to nitrite, analysis by IC or AS. May be used with three- stage sorbent/o xidation tubes for simultanous determination of NO. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 100 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM OZONE 101 Ozone General substance information \200 CAS No. 10028 \200\22315 \200\2236. \200 Occup ational exposure limit: short-term exposure limit 0.2ppm (0.4mg/ m 3 ) Physical properties: ozone is a liquid or gas, depending on temperature, appearing bluish in color. The gas has a pleasant odor at low concentrations (<2ppm); at hi gher concentrations the gas is pungent. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Currently no classi \201 cation. Uses/occurrence \200 Generated during arc welding and from photochemical oxidation of automobile exhaust gasses Used as a disinfectant for air and water, and for bleaching textiles, oils, and waxes Uses include water fumigant, bleaching and oxidizing agent. Key health effects \200 Respiratory tract and muscosal irritant \200 High concentration leads to pulmonary oedema. Measurement Colorimetric detection tubes available. Further information EH38. Ozone Health Hazards and Precautionary Measures . Available at: M . http://www.hse.gov. uk/pubns/priced/eh38.pdf 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 101 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM CHAPTER 2 Chemical hazards 102 Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) General substance information \200 CAS No. 7446 \200\22309 \200 \2235 \200 Occupational exposure limit: no WELs; TLV-TWA, 2ppm (5.2mg/m 3 ); TLV-STEL, 5ppm (13mg/m 3 ) Physical properties: colorless gas with pungent odor; density twice than of air. CLP classi \201 cation and labeling Acute tox (3), skin corr (1B); H331, 314. Uses/occurrence \200 Formed when materials containing sulfur are burned. Important air po llutant, especially in the vicinity of smelters and electrical power plants burning soft co al or high sulfur oil Sulfur dioxide also used in paper industries as a bleaching, disinfecting, and fumigating agent. Key health effects \200 Acute: mucous membrane irritant. Prolonged high exposures may lead to pulmonary oedema and death. May trigger asthmatic attacks in more susceptible indiv iduals. Eye irritant, if prolonged may lead to corneal ulceration Chronic: chronic bronchitis and diminution in olfactory and gustatory senses. Measurement \200 Sample on impregnated cellulose \201 lter containing potassium hydroxide. An acetate pre- \201 lter is used to collect particulate sulfates. The impregna ted \201 lter is extracted with water and extract analyzed by chromatography Also sampled using a bubbler containing hydrogen peroxide \200 Direct reading instruments and colorimetric tubes are also available. 02_Smedley_Chap02.indd 102 12/31/2012 8:44:08 PM 103 Chapter 3 Biological hazards Human tissue and body \202 uids 104 Microbial pathogens (in laboratory settings) 108 Gene tically modi \201 ed organisms 110 Animals and animal products 112 Organic dusts and mists 114 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 103 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 104 Human tissue and body \202 uids Sources of exposure/industries See Table 3.1 for routes o f exposure. Respiratory infections Those who undertake aerosol-generating procedures, e.g. post-mortem staff, physiotherapists (suction and expectoration), bronchoscopy staff. Fecal \200\223oral infections Sewage workers, laboratory staff. Factors affecting exposure and risk assessment The risk of transmission is determined by: \200 Dose or level of expo sure depends on the details of the incident including route of exposure and body \202 uid involved Source infectivity. Risk assessment for BBV exposure is described in detail on b p. 816, Ma nagement of needlestick and contamination incidents. Health effects These are described for each organism: HBV ( b p. 152, Hepatitis B); HCV ( b p. 154, Hepatitis C); HIV b p. 156), VHF ( b p. 158, Viral haemor- rhagic fevers); TB ( b p. 166, Tuberculosis); SARS ( b p. 172, Severe acute respiratory syndrome); in \202 uenza ( b p. 174). Risk controls \200 Adherence to standard infection control procedures, including hand hyg iene, use of PPE (gloves for procedures that involve a risk of contamination, double gloves for surgical procedures on patients known to be infected with BBV). Aprons, goggles, and m ask are required where there is a risk of splashing, boots or overshoes if \202 oor is co ntaminated. Other risk controls include: \200 use of safer sharps devices, avoidance of r e-sheathing needles \200 correct disposal of sharps and infected waste \200 correct tra nsportation of specimens \200 \201 ltering respiratory masks for aerosol-generating pro cedures \200 immunization against HBV, TB, in \202 uenza \200 appropriate decontaminat ion procedures for spills Prompt management of sharps and contamination incidents ( b p. 816, Management of needlestick and contamination incidents). Relevant legislation An EU Directive aimed at preventing sharps injuries in healthcare was issued in 2010. Member states must implement the directive by May 2013. HSE are currently c onsidering the implication for UK law. For more informa- tion see M http://www.nhsemployers .org/EmploymentPolicyAndPractice/ European_Employment_policy/Pages/Initiatives-On-Needlesti ck-Injuries. aspx 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 104 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM HUMAN TISSUE AND BODY FLUIDS 105 Table 3.1 Routes of exposure Route Examples Through non-intact skin or intact mucous membranes (blood-borne transmission) Blood-borne viruses (BBV) hepatitis B (HBV) \200 hepatitis C (HCV) \200 human immunode \201 ciency virus (HIV) \200 hepatitis D (HDV) \200 viral haemorrhagic fevers Malaria \200 Tuberculosis \200 In \202 uenza \200 SARS \200 Enteroviruses \200 T yphoid Inhalation (respiratory transmission) Ingestion (fecal \200\223oral transmission) Human biological material associated with transmission of BBV \200 Blood \200 Blood-sta ined \202 uid \200 Pleural \202 uid \200 Pericardial \202 uid \200 Peritoneal \202 uid \200 Cerebrospinal \202 uid Synovial \202 uid \200 Amniotic \202 uid \200 Breast milk \200 Semen \200 Vagin al secretions \200 Un \201 xed tissues and organs Occupations at increased risk from BBV \200 Health care workers (HCWs), in Police and \201 re \201 ghters \200 Prison workers \200 Social workers \200 Milita ry personnel There is a lower, but signi \201 cant, risk among: \200 Embalmers and crema torium particular: \200 surgeons, theater nurses \200 dentists \200 midwives \200 dialysis technicians \200 ambulance technicians \200 mortuary technicians \200 laboratory wor kers \200 chiropodists \200 acupuncturists workers \200 Cleaners 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 105 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 106 Speci \201 c guidance and further information Guidance for clinical health care workers Pr otection against infection with blood-borne viruses . M http://www.dh.gov.uk/ Guidance on risk controls in hospitals and laboratory environments HSE (2005). Biological a gents: Managing the risks in laboratories and healthcare premises. Available at: M http://www.hse.gov.uk/biosafety/biologagents.pdf Controlling the risks of infection at work from human remains: a guide for those involved i n funeral services (including embalmers) and those involved in exhumation. M http://www.hse .gov.uk/ pubns/web01.pdf Safe working and the prevention of infection in the mortuary and post-mortem room. M http:/ / www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/mortuary-infection.pdf; M http://www.hpa.org.uk; M http:// ww w.hse.gov.uk/biosafety/infection.htm 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 106 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 108 Microbial pathogens (in laboratory settings) Common sources Exposure to dangerous pathogens through work occurs almost exclusively in the experimental or clinical laboratory setting, often in health care or veterinary science (see Table 3.2). Table 3.2 Classi \201 cation of microbial pathogens (according to COSHH Regulations) Hazard group HG 1 Unlikely to cause human disease HG 2 Can cause human disease, and likely to be a hazard to employees, but unlikely to spread in the community and is treatable HG 3 A hazard to employees, and also likely to spread to the community, but is treatable HG 4 Can cause severe disease in humans, a hazard to employees and the community, and no treatme nt or prophylaxis available A full list of speci \201 c agents and their classi \201 cation is published. 1 Factors that affect the risk assessment \200 Consequence of infection (serious human dise ase) \200 Potential for transmission: infect and harm employees \200 spread to the community Amenability to treatment. Risk controls These are de \201 ned in detail in guidance from the Health and Safety Commi ssion (HSC) and Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens (ACDP). In summary, risk controls include the following. Exposure controls \200 Containment: three levels of containment for Hazard Group 2 \200 \2234 pathogens, including: \200 separation from other activities \200 \200\223ve pressure v entilation \200 high-ef \201 ciency particulate absorption (HEPA) \201 ltered air inta ke and output restriction to authorized personnel (e.g. access controls) \200 safety cabinet \200 obs ervation window to allow monitoring from outside. 1 HSE/ACDP (2004). The approved list of biological agents . ACDP. Available at: M http://ww w.hse. gov.uk/pubns/misc208.pdf 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 108 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM MICROBIAL PATHOGENS (IN LABORATORY SETTINGS) 109 Use of PPE including respiratory protective equipment \200 Emergency/incident planning (h andling accidents) \200 Vector control (rats mainly) \200 Display biohazard warnings \200 Safe decontamination and disinfection procedures \200 Safe waste management \200 Safe transportation of pathogens \200 Good hygiene: separation of eating areas for staff, hand washing routines. Occupational health input \200 Immunization where available \200 Health surveillance: i n practice this consists mainly of education to be vigilant and report symptoms, record of immunity Advise on individual susceptibility, e.g. pregnancy, immunosuppression. Speci \201 c legislation and guidance \200 Mainly outlined in general legislation (COSHH , MHSWR) but with additional guidance Biological agents: managing the risks in laboratories and healthcare premises. M http://www .hse.gov.uk/biosafety/biologagents.pdf \200 Safe working and the prevention of infection in clinical laboratories and similar facilities. M http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/ clinical-laboratories.pdf Immunization against infectious disease (The Green Book). Department of Health 2007. \200 M http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publi cations/ PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_079917 The Management, Design and Operation of Microbiological Containment Laboratories . HSC, ACDP, 2001 Vaccination of Laboratory Workers Handling Vaccinia and Related Poxviruses Infectious for Humans . HSC, ACDP, Advisory Committee on Genetic Modi \201 cati on, 1990. 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 109 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 110 Genetically modi \201 ed organisms Genetic modi \201 cation (GM) is the term given to del iberate manipulation of the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of organisms in a way that does n ot occur in nature. The aim of GM is to introduce new or altered character- istics into pla nts, animals or, most commonly, micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses, and fungi). These modi \201 ed attributes can be transferred subse- quently between cells or organisms. Common sources/speci \201 c industries \200 GM is carried out in laboratories, animal ho uses, and plant growth facilities (known as \200\230contained use \200\231). Those at risk of occupational exposure include: laboratory workers \200 animal house workers \200 horticulturalists in experimental fac ilities. Health effects These mainly relate to genetically modi \201 ed micro-organisms (GMMs) and include speci \201 c infections. Risk assessment and control This is governed by primary legislation (The GMO (Contained Use ) Regulations 2000 (with subsequent amendments, most recently in 2010). The regulations (se e b p. 111, References) give a framework for the usual principles of risk assessment, risk reduction, monitoring, and review, requiring: \200 Risk assessment of all activities invo lving gentetically modi \201 ed organisms (GMOs) A GM safety committee should be set up to advise on risk assessments \200 Use of a four-l evel classi \201 cation system based on the risk of the activity (this is based on the four levels of containment for microbial laboratories). See b p. 108, Microbial pathogens (in laboratory settings), Table 3.2 Noti \201 cation of all premises to HSE before they are used for GM activities for the \201 rst time Noti \201 cation of individual activities of Class 2 to Class 4 to the Competent Authority (administered by HSE) Maintenance of a public register of GM premises and certain activities. In addition, labora tories should follow good laboratory and containment practice. 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 110 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS 111 Relevant legislation \200 The Genetically Modi \201 ed Organisms (Contained Use) Regulat ions 2000. M http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2000/20002831.htm The Genetically Modi \201 ed Organisms (Contained Use) (Amendment) Regulations 2002. M htt p://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/63/ contents/made The Genetically Modi \201 ed Organisms (Contained Use) (Amendment) Regulations 2005. M htt p://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/2466/ contents/made. Further information and guidance HSE Contained use of genetically modi \201 ed organisms. M http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg86.pdf 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 111 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 112 Animals and animal products Common sources and industries Any industry that involves direct contact with animals (live or dead), their excreta, or products: \200 Agriculture \200 Veterinary medicine \200 Meat processing (including abbatoirs), packing, and distributio n. Potential health effects Zoonoses These are a group of infections typically found in animal s as the primary host, but which spread from animals to humans (see Table 3.3). Some can be transmitted from human to human. There are approximately 40 poten- tial zoonoses in the UK and approximately 300,000 people in a variety of occupations are potentially exposed. Alth ough most zoonoses are mild and self-limiting, some may cause long-term health effects. Table 3.3 Zoonoses Zoonotic infection Animal host Anthrax Cows, sheep, others Glanders Horses, cats, dogs Streptococcus suis Pigs Brucellosis Cows, sheep, goats, pigs Lyme disease Deer Chlamydia infections Poultry, exotic birds, sheep Q fever Sheep, cows, goats Orf Sheep The common zoonoses are covered in b Occupational infections, pp. 149 \200\22396. Allergic (immune-mediated) disease Some organic antigens are animal products (e.g. rat urin e), or found in association with animal products (e.g. bloom on bird feathers) see b p. 114 , Organic dusts and mists. Risk assessment \200 Route of exposure : h igh risk with skin contamination, inhalation o f dusts and aerosols, and ingestion. Prevention/exposure control \200 Good husbandry practices for livestock: good standards of hygiene in young-stock housing \200 low stocking densities \200 avoid contaminating animal drinking water with dung \200 keep animals as stress-free as possib le 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 112 1/2/2013 1:25:34 PM ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 113 Education and awareness of zoonoses: warn employees and visitors about the risk of zoonoses and preventive measures advise early consultation with a doctor and declaration of exposure to animals if suspicious symptoms occur Identify those with individual susceptibility and restrict from exposure: pregnant women (avoid pregnant sheep) \200 immune compromised people \200 Immunizing an d treating livestock \200 Good occupational hygiene practices (Table 3.4). Table 3.4 Good occupational hygiene practices in agriculture and meat processing Avoid tools that cause cuts and injuries \200 Safe use and disposal of sharps used to Safe working practices immunize/test animals Avoid mouth-to-mouth resuscitation on newborn animals Avoid handling birth \202 uids or placentae \200 Control or eliminate rats \200 Do no t touch dead rats with unprotected skin \200 Essential for birthing, handling infected st ock, mouth or rectal examinations: gauntlets/ gloves, apron, boots Personal protective equipment (PPE) Use face protection (mask and goggles) if there is a risk of splashing Use respirator if risk of exposure to aerosols (hosing down) or organic dust Good washing facilities, separate eating areas \200 Wash hands and arms before eating or Personal hygiene smoking Cover wounds with waterproof dressing \200 Work wear should be retained and washed at the place of work (not taken home) Relevant legislation Brucellosis, anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, and bovine spongiform encep ha- lopathy (BSE) in animals are noti \201 able to the Divisional Veterinary Manager of th e Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Further information and guidance HSE Zoonoses M http://www.hse.gov.uk/biosafety/diseases/zo onoses.htm Health protection agency. Zoonoses (infections acquired from animals) . M http:/ /www.hpa.org.uk/ Topics/InfectiousDiseases/InfectionsAZ/Zoonoses/ HSE Common zoonoses in agriculture , Agriculture information sheet No. 2 (revised) M HSE ht tp:// www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/ais2.pdf HSE/ACDP (1997). Working Safely with Research Animals . Available at: M http://www.hse.gov. uk/ pubns/priced/animal-research.pdf 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 113 1/2/2013 1:25:35 PM CHAPTER 3 Biological hazards 114 Organic dusts and mists These are a group of biological agents that have the potential to c ause occupational disease, and are widespread in the workplace They are mainly high molecul ar weight proteins from plant and animal material and micro-organisms. Common sources Organic dusts \200 Animal proteins: urine and dander from farm or laboratory animals (e.g. cows, rats) Plant proteins: natural rubber latex \200 grain dust \200 \202 our dust \200 wood dusts \200 colo phony Microbial: molds and spores that grow in vegetable matter (e.g. hay, mushroom compost) enzymes. Organic mists \200 Proteinaceous mists from washing \201 sh products, and surfaces or equipment contaminated with \201 sh/animal proteins Bacterially infected metalworking \202 uids. Speci \201 c industries \200 Health care industry \200 Rubber manufacturing \200 Lab oratories and animal houses/care facilities \200 Farming \200 Baking and \202 our mil ling \200 Biological detergent manufacture \200 Fish processing \200 Engineering. Health effects \200 Type I allergy (IgE-mediated): \200 occupational asthma \200 alle rgic rhinitis \200 contact urticaria \200 anaphylaxis Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 114 1/2/2013 1:25:35 PM ORGANIC DUSTS AND MISTS 115 Factors affecting the risk assessment \200 Exposure \200 Potency of the speci \201 c a llergen \200 Individual susceptibility (e.g. atopy, previous sensitization, cross-reactivity to similar allergens). Risk controls \200 Minimize exposure: generic principles good animal husbandry, including avoidance of overcrowding \200 good hygiene \200\224reg ular cleaning of animal cages and housing, wood workshops, bakeries general and local ventilation \200 dust abatement techniques: avoid dry sweeping or compr essed air lines for cleaning; instead use an industrial vacuum cleaner or wet clean Detailed guidance on the following speci \201 c biological allergens is available at M http://www.hse.gov.uk/asthma/index.htm \200 \202 our dust \200 grain d ust \200 laboratory animals \200 natural rubber latex \200 wood dust. Use of PPE: can be used if a signi \201 cant risk exists after appropriate efforts at exposure control, e.g. for intermittent dusty tasks. (cid:2) Some advocate the use of respiratory protective equipment (RPE) as a last resort in sensitized workers whose livelihood depends on working in \200\230at-risk \200\231 situat ions (e.g. farmers). If this approach is advised, it must be with extreme caution, and then only after all possible efforts have been made to reduce exposure. The individual must be monitored closely (health surveillance) for signs of deterioration. Health surveillance All those who are exposed to a signi \201 cant risk of allergic diseas e must have health surveillance as required by the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. \200 Regular symptoms questionnaire and lung function \200 Follow-up posit ive symptoms with further investigation: serial peak \202 ow tests \200 skin prick tests \200 skin patch tests \200 total Ig E and speci \201 c IgE for suspect agent (e.g. latex). Exclude if exposure cannot be controlled adequately, or use PPE and monitor extremely closely. Further information and guidance Medical Aspects of Occupational Asthma . MS25, HSE ISBN 07 17615472. HSE (1994). Preventing asthma at work: how to control respiratory sensitisers . I SBN 0717606619. HSE (1996). Controlling grain dust on farms , Agricultural information shee t No. 3. Available at: M http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/ais3.pdf 03_Smedley_Chap03.indd 115 1/2/2013 1:25:35 PM This page intentionally left blank 117 Chapter 4 Mechanical and ergonomics hazards Ergonomics hazards: overview 118 Lifting and handling 120 Posture 124 Repetitive work 128 M echanical hazards 130 04_Smedley_Chap04.indd 117 12/31/2012 8:47:06 PM CHAPTER 4 Mechanical and ergonomics hazards 118 Ergonomics hazards: overview De \201 nitions Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scienti \201 c discipline concerned with the understa nding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to design in order to optimize human wellbein g and overall system performance. International Ergonomics Association Human factors refer to environmental, organizational and job factors, and human and individ ual characteristics, which in \202 uence behavior at work in a way which can affect health and safety. HSE Industries Ergonomics hazards to employees are ubiquitous, affecting almost every type of w ork. Ergonomics issues can also affect service users, the general public, and the environme nt. They are most important in safety-critical industries, e.g. transportation and nuclear industries, and in the health services. Speci \201 c ergonomics factors The most important of these are covered separately in this chapter. However, ergonomics hazards often occur i n combination with each other, and are commonly addressed together in designing risk contro ls. This list is not exhaustive. Task-related (physical or cognitive) \200 Loading (lifting and handling) \200 Poor post ure \200 Repetition, particularly at high speed \200 High forces \200 Poor equipment and workplace design \200 Task overload/under load \200 Mental workload \200 Poor sys tem reliability \200 Poor design of information, displays, controls. Individual factors \200 Anthropometry \200 Social support \200 Personality \200 Attitude and behavior \200 Risk perception \200 Human error. Organizational factors \200 Long working hours \200 Shift work \200 Short deadlines \200 Poor staf \201 ng levels \200 Lack of wo rker involvement in system design \200 Control over work. 04_Smedley_Chap04.indd 118 12/31/2012 8:47:06 PM ERGONOMICS HAZARDS: OVERVIEW 119 Adverse effects of poor ergonomics design (including health effects) \200 Accidents \200 Injuries \200 Musculoskeletal disease (back, neck, and upper limb pain) \200 Psycholo gical morbidity (including stress) \200 Critical incidents (including environmental disas ters) \200 Decreased ef \201 ciency, poor productivity \200 Failure of complex systems \200 Job dissatisfaction \200 Low staff morale \200 High job turnover. Ergonomics risk management Speci \201 c aspects of risk assessment and control are covered under each ergonomics hazard (see b p. 120, Lifting and handling, b p. 124, Posture, and b p. 128, Repetitive work, and also b p. 776, Carry out an ergonom- ics assessment and b p. 780, Carry out a display screen assessment). Relevant legislation There is no speci \201 c legislation on ergonomics hazards, but some statutory instruments contain direction on erg onomics issues: \200 Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999 (COMAH) \200 Ra ilways (Safety Critical Work) Regulations 1994 \200 The Manual Handling Operations Regula tions 1992 (as amended) \200 The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 \200 Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER) \200 The Workin g Time Regulations. Further information International Ergonomics Association. Available at: M http://www.iea.cc/ Ergonomics society. Available at: M http://www.ergonomics.org.uk/ Eur opean Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Available at: M http://osha.europa.eu/en/ front-page Health and Safety Executive: human factors guidance. Available at: M http://hse.gov.uk/huma nfac- tors/index.htm 04_Smedley_Chap04.indd 119 12/31/2012 8:47:06 PM CHAPTER 4 Mechanical and ergonomics hazards 120 Lifting and handling Manual lifting or handling of loads constitutes one of the most common and important ergonomics hazards. De \201 nitions The term manual handling comprises any non-mechanized (or incompletely mec hanized) manipulation of a load, including lifting, pushing, pulling, slid- ing, or carryin g. Loads may be inanimate or living (people and animals). Speci \201 c industries Manual h andling is a ubiquitous exposure, which is common in a wide range of industries. However, o f particular note are: \200 Construction \200 Warehousing and logistics \200 Heavy en gineering \200 Airport baggage handling \200 Agriculture \200 Health care (patient-ha ndling). Risk assessment See Table 4.1. Risk controls The following list is not exhaustive, but incl udes the most common examples of risk controls. Extensive guidance on risk controls (includ ing industry-speci \201 c guidance) is readily available (references under Further informa tion and guidance on p. 122). \200 Divide load into smaller units, or scale loads up, and switch to bulk handling systems Ensure load is easy to grip and stable \200 Arrange lifting environment free from obstacl es and on level surface \200 Address extremes of height, e.g. restrict transfers to level s below elbow and above knee height. Avoid lifting from the \202 oor \200 Mechanical lifting ai ds appropriate to the task. There are many examples for different purposes. More common examples include: \200 hoists, cranes, and v ehicles \200 powered and non-powered trucks and trolleys \200 scissor lifts or other he ight-adjustable surfaces \200 tracks, conveyors, chutes, and rollers \200 specialized e quipment for \200\230live \200\231 loads (patients), e.g. slide sheets. Health effects \200 Low back pain \200 Neck/shoulder pain \200 Osteoarthritis of the hip. 04_Smedley_Chap04.indd 120 12/31/2012 8:47:06 PM LIFTING AND HANDLING 121 Table 4.1 Manual handling risk assessment i Risk d Risk Factor Load: weight shape stability others 15 kg or more Awkward shape, large size, poor grip Liable to shift or move Sharp edges, hea vier thananticipated by the handler Center of gravity of load eccentric <15 kg Small, easy to grip Stable, predictable Lever (distance from employee \200\231s center of gravity) Load held away from body Load close to body, with arms vertical and parallel to trunk Vertical distance (height) Lifts above elbow height Transfer at trunk height Lifts below knee height Posture Bent or twisted trunk Straight trunk Constrained posture Task Long carrying distances (>4m = moderate risk) Short distance Short duration Frequent or repetitive lifting Prolonged lifting High effort (resistance) Environment Limited space Level non-slip surface Steep slopes Comfortable temperature Slip or trip hazards Poor visibility