a typical tomboy who enjoys playing soccer with her brothers. Her love for soccer helped he r to secure a position as the team captain of the girls \200\231 soccer team in her middle school. Around thanksgiving holiday, BJ started complaining of headaches that eventually in creased in frequency and intensity. Currently, BJ suff ers numerous headaches per month and rates them as 7 or 8 on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 is no pain and 10 is pain as bad as it can be. Over-the-counter (OTC) pain medications do not abate her frequent headaches. Her m other feels frustrated because of loss of work days when BJ is sent home from school or she needs to take BJ to the ED, which is now increasing in frequency. She asked BJ \200\231s d octors why nothing much is done to help BJ. She learned that her public health insurance do es not provide coverage for a wide range of eff ective interventions. BJ \200\231s prescrip tions for pain medications consist of only OTC and weak opioids such as codeine. Th ese pai n medications are not strong enough to relieve the severe headaches that BJ oft en suff ers and treatments options other than medication are not available for her. Consequently, BJ s uff ered in pain, became depressed, and dropped out of school and the soccer team she loved . BJ was beside herself in anger and frustration aft er a visit from her friend, KC, a 14-y ear-old Caucasian boy. KC told BJ how well triptans and biofeedback were able to reduce his migraines. His father gave him strong opioid pain medica- tion that greatly relieved his p ain. BJ wonders if the poor pain management she receives was because she is a poor African American girl who lives in a poor housing unit and her mother cannot aff ord better pain ma nagement resources. She thought it was unfair but at the same time feels helpless to change her situation. Our fi ndings have education, research, and policy implications. In order to improve pediat ric pain management, there needs to be more education and training for health professionals who care for children and adolescents in pain. Provider training could focus on how to inc orporate pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions and on the invaluable skills of assessing the eff ective- ness of the intervention to improve pain management in childr en. Researchers should develop interventions that focus on eliminat- ing sociodemographic d isparities in pediatric pain management. Research that examine patient-provider variables s uch as commu- nication skills, racial or sex concordance, and trust that could be barriers to adequate pain treatment are desperately needed. Th ese patient-provider factors could mo derate the relationship between sociodemographic variables and pain outcomes in this popula tion. Finally, engaging policymakers during several aspects of research in pediatric pain m anagement has a merit. 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Core outcome domains and measures for pediatric acute and chronic/recurrent pai n clinical trials: PedIMMPACT recommendations. J Pain , 9 (9), 771 \200\223783 . Zuppa, A. F., Adamson, P. C., Mondick, J. T., Davis, L. A., Maka, D. A., Narayan, M., et al . (2005). Drug utilization in the pediatric intensive care unit: monitoring prescribing tr ends and establishing prioritization of pharmacotherapeutic evaluation of critically ill ch ildren. J Clin Pharmacol , 45 (11), 1305 \200\2231312 . McNeill, J. A., Sherwood, G. D., and Starck, P. L. (2004). Th e hidden error of mismanaged pain: a systems approach. J Pain Symptom Manage , 28 (1), 47 \200\22358 . Meghani, S. H., Byun, E., and Gallagher, R. M. (2012). Time to take stock: a meta-analysis and systematic review of analgesic treatment disparities for pain in the United States. Pai n Med , 13 (2), 150 \200\223174 . Index amantidine 165 amethocaine gel 488 amitriptyline 222, 292, 303 neonatal use 276 NSAID interaction 445 pharmacodynamics 436 pharmacokinetics 438 postoperat ive pain management 272 \200\2233 trauma management 175 A ABC Scale 356 abdominal cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome (ACNES) 302 topical 491 amputation 161 \200\2232 abdominal pain see also phantom limb pain assessment 259 \200\22360, 291 \200\2232 biological factors 290 \200\2231 case example 294 \200\2235 emergency department management anesthesia acquired immunodefi ciency syndrome (AIDS) complications 6 general 195 history 4 \200\2236 spinal 5 see also local anesthetics; topica l see human immunodefi ciency virus (HIV) acupuncture 624 \200\2235 cancer pain 166 342 epidemiology 15, 289 gastrointestinal conditions presenting acute otitis externa (AOE) 330 acute otitis media (AOM) 330 acute pain 12, 86, 354 anesthetics with 259, 290 constipation 264 infl ammatory bowel disease 260 motility disorders 264 \200 \2235, 290 pancreatitis 262 \200\2234 analgesia communicative context 106 family context 111 \200\22313 hypnotherapy 562 \200\2233 models 8 7 \200\22393 multidisciplinary pain management administration routes 271 \200\2232 emergency department 338 \200\2239 metabolic considerat ions 433 multimodal approach 272 neonates 275 \200\2236 neuraxial analgesics 275, 476 \200 \2239, 480 nurse-controlled (NCA) 176, 274 outpatient setting 329 \200\22330 patient-contro lled (PCA) 176, 274 pre-emptive 45 regional 177, 274 \200\2235 see also adjuvant analgesics ; specifi c conditions history 289 psychological factors 291 recurrent (RAP) 42 \200\2234, 289 \200\22395, 537 soc ial factors 291 treatment 292 \200\2234 approach 642 \200\2234 postoperative pain 269 \200\22377 preoperative preparation 645 preva lence 12 \200\22313 prevention 40, 44 prolonged 12 services 644 \200\2235, 646 see also pro cedural pain collaboration with ancillary services 293 \200\2234 complementary medicines 616 \200\22317 education 292 hypnotherapy 563 \200\2234 intensive o utpatient/inpatient and drugs addiction 461 adjuvant analgesics 160, 161, 164 \200\2236 animal-assisted therapy 627 animal models rehabilitation 294 arthritis 222 bone pain 165 \200\2236 bowel obstruction pain 166 musculoskeletal pain 166 n europathic pain 165 persisting pain with medical illness 320 postoperative pain 275 age at time of injury 21 extrapolation across species 20 \200\2231 handling and maternal se paration medication 292 \200\2233 psychological treatments 293, 537 school accommodation 293 eff ects 23 see also gastrointestinal tract; visceral pain pharmacological interventions 22 time interval before evaluation 21 \200\2232 tissue analys is and mechanisms 22 see also long-term eff ects of early pain academic accommodations 124 academic achievement 122 \200\2233 acceptance and commitment th erapy Adult Responses to Children \200\231s Symptoms (ACT) 527 questionnaire 114 anticipatory guidance 328 anticonvulsants 152 sickle cell disease pain 250 Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) 173 A-fi bres 54 \200\2235 age-related disparities in p ain management 669 \200\22373 acetaminophen (paracetamol) 436 \200\2239 cancer pain management 165 neuropathic pain management 503 antiretroviral therapy (ART) 320 , 322 anxiety adverse eff ects 438 \200\2239 case example 445 analgesia 437 arthritis management 220 cancer pain management 163 dosing 439, 440 emergency department use 339 mechanism of action 436 alpha 2 agonists cancer pain 164 trauma 177 chronic pain and 231 management 234 alpha-2-delta ligands, neuropathic pain arachnoiditis 160 aromatherapy 627 management 498 index 678 bladder pain syndrome 301 \200\2232 blood oxygen level-dependent imaging Cardiac Analgesic Assessment Scale arthritis (CAAS) 357 case example 224 classifi cation 219 clinical presentation 217 diagnosis 219 juvenile idiop athic arthritis (JIA) 16, 237, (BOLD) 403, 412 neonatal pain assessment 403 Carnett \200\231s sign 302 L-carnitine 618 catastrophizing pain 95 \200\2239, 112, 114, 217 catecholamine-O-methyltransferase (COMT) bone marrow infi ltration 158 bone pain 158, 282 \200\2233 adjuvant analgesics 165 \200\2236 palliative care 282 \200\2233 gene 396 cauterization 333 central neuropathic pain 284 \200\2235 238, 241 juvenile rheumatoid arthritis 16 outcomes 223 pain management 219 \200\22323 bowel obstruction, adjuvant analgesics 166 brachial plexus injury case example 284 management 285 during childhood 208 \200\2239 obstetric (OBPI) 208 non-pharmacological interventions 222 \200\2233 pharmacotherapy 220 \200\2232 surgical inte rventions 222 central pain pathways 74 \200\22380 brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 69 brain development 33 ascending spinal projection pathways 75 \200\2236 descending modulation development 78 \200 \2239 developmental anatomy 75 \200\2237 developmental plasticity 79 \200\22380 pain mechanisms 215 \200\22317 pain variables 217 \200\22319 physical function assessment 4 20 Arthritis Impact Measurement Scales pain and 32 \200\2234 long-term eff ects of early pain 32 preterm infants 32 \200\2234 central sensitization 229 cerebral irritability 283 \200\2235 brainstem, opioid receptors 452 \200\2233 brain tumors 314 breakthrough pain 281 breastfeed ing 189, 600 (AIMS) 420 management 285 art therapy 628 asthma 197 cerebral palsy 150, 325 \200\2236 pain treatment 152 physical therapy 586 \200\2237 cerumen impaction 332 \200\2233 C-fi bres 54 \200\2235 NSAID adverse eff ects 445 opioids in breast milk 460, 461 attachment theory of chronic pain 41, 42 autonomic dysregulation 231 avascular necrosis (AV N) 162 aversive conditioning 533 avoidance learning 532, 533 breathing techniques 522, 547 Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) 593 bupivacaine 176 buprenorphine 462 burns 171 \200\22380 sensitization 56 chamomile 616, 618 \200\22319 chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy assessment 175 case example 171, 175, 178 distraction therapy 555 \200\2236 emergency depar tment care 173 \200\2236 long-term eff ects of pain 31 operant conditioning during wound (CIN) 162 B back pain 237, 240 Bath Adolescent Pain Questionnaire Child Activity Limitations Interview (CALI) 40, 418, 420 Child Adult Medical Procedure Interaction Scale (CAMPIS) 105, 385 \200\2236 (BAPQ) 243, 420 Behavioral Indicators of Infant Pain (BIIP) 356, Child Facial Coding System (CFCS) 384 Child Health Assessment Questionnaire 592 care 533 \200\2234 behavioral coaching, abdominal pain 293 behavioral measures 379 \200\22388 pre-hospital care 171 \200\2232 ward management 176 \200\22380 (CHAQ) 420 Child Health Questionnaire (CHQ) 418 \200\22319 child life interventions 543 \200\22351 case example 387 \200\2238 characteristics of 379 \200\22380 cultural considerations 387 in tellectual disabilities and 386 modifi cation of scales 387 pain versus distress 387 postop erative pain 384 procedural or brief pain episodes 380 \200\2234 procedural distress and in teractions 384 \200\2236 pruritis 178 see also trauma assessment 544 breathing 547 care plan 544 \200\2235 case examples 545 \200\2236 distractio n 547, 548 \200\2239 evidence for 550 historical context 543 memory change 550 modeling and rehearsal 549 positioning for comfort 549 positive reinforcement 547 \200\2239 preparation for procedures 546 \200\2237 technology use 550 \200\2231 therapeutic play 549 thought-sto pping 550 butterbur 615 C calcitonin 165 Canadian Model of Occupational Performance and Engagement (CMOP-E) 591 Can adian Occupational Performance Measure behavioral therapy, headaches 311 \200\22313 benzodiazepines (BDZs) 176, 180 Bernese Pain S cale for Neonates 356 beta-endorphin (BE) 395, 450 biofeedback 523, 625 \200\2236 biomarker s of pain 391 \200\2238 case example 397 \200\2238 characteristics of 392 \200\2233 cortiso l 355, 361 \200\2232, 394 \200\2235 defi nition 391 \200\2232 endogenous opioids 395 geneti c markers 396 heart rate/heart rate variability 355, 362, 394 infl ammatory markers 395 \200\2236 intellectual disabilities and 397 neonates 355, 361 \200\2232 neuroimaging 396 op ioid eff ects 396 premature infants 396 \200\2237 response patterns 393 \200\2234 skin cond uctance 395 (COPM) 593 cancer pain 16, 157 \200\22366 aetiologies 158 bone pain 158, 282 case example 157 CNS tumors 159 complementary and altern ative therapies 166 neuraxial blockade 476 \200\2237 neuropathic pain 158 \200\2239, 209 Children \200\231s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Pain Scale (CHEOPS) 373, 380 Children \200\231s and Infants \200\231 Postoperative Pain Scale cancer treatment-related 209 (CHIPPS) 356 pain syndromes 161 \200\2232 palliative care 283 pharmacotherapy 162 \200\2236 Child Sex Role Inventory (CSRI) 129 chiropractic 626 chloral hydrate 198 chloroform 4, 6 ch olecalciferol 615, 617 \200\22318 chronic pain 12, 39, 86, 319 \200\22326, 354 adjuvant analgesics 164 \200\2236 non-opioid analgesics 163 opioid analgesics 163 \200\2234 procedure-related 161 anxiety and depression management 234 case example 234 \200\2235 chronic disease-related 16 , 319 \200\22326 communicative context 106 contextual factors 15 co-occurrence of chronic p ain distraction therapy 556 treatment-related 158, 159 \200\22361, 162 visceral pain 159 biopsychosocial models 41, 42, 86 \200\22393 cannabinoids, neuropathic pain management 502 acute pain 87 \200\22393 chronic pain 41, 42, 86 critical review 92 \200\2233 bisphosphonat es 165, 282 capnography 198 capsaicin 491 problems 228 \200\2239 correlates 41 \200\2232 neuropathic pain management 499 index 679 infl ammatory bowel disease management 260 developmental considerations 525 \200\2236 family role 115 \200\22316, 525 group therapy 52 7 physical therapy and 587 preparation for CBT 524 \200\2235 relapse prevention 526 sickle cell disease pain management 250 sleep problems and 138 techniques 520 \200\2234 epidemiology 13 \200\22314, 228 \200\2239 children and adolescents 13 \200\22314 neonates and infants 13 corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) 291 cortisol biomarker 394 \200\2235 neonates 355, 3 61 \200\2232 family context 113 \200\22316 family distress 232 genetic contribution 230 management 232 \200\2234, 526, 645 \200\2238 counter irritants 491 COX-2 inhibitors 439 arthritis management 220 cancer pain management 163 trauma management 176, 177 biofeedback 523 cognitive reframing/positive self- acceptance and commitment therapy 527 biofeedback 523 cognitive reframing/positive self- statements 521 \200\2232 Crying Requires oxygen Increased vital signs distraction 521 exposure and psychological Expression Sleep (CRIES) Scale 357 Critical Care Pain Observation Tool statements 521 \200\2232 contextual CBT 527 distraction 521, 533 \200\2237 exposure and psy chological desensitization 522 feedback to families 233 hypnotherapy 563 \200\2234 Internet-based inte rventions 571 \200\2232 multicomponent approaches 524 multidisciplinary pain management (CPPOT) 175 Crohn \200\231s disease (CD) 260 cultural context 103 \200\2237, 664 \200\2235 behavioral m easures 387 observational studies 104 \200\2235 pain perception 103 self-report studies 104 , 375 \200\2236 understanding of pain 103 \200\2234 desensitization 522 modeling and rehearsal 521 multicomponent approaches 523 \200\2234 preparation for procedur al pain 520 psychoeducation for chronic pain 520 relaxation techniques 522 \200\2233 approach 642 \200\22351 operant treatment 538 \200\22340 physical activity 234 provider communication 234 psychoedu cation 520 recommendations for parents 116 relaxation techniques 522 school reintegration 2 33 self-management 569 \200\22370 sleep 233 \200\2234 WHO recommendations 320 culture 102 \200\2233 see also cultural context web-based treatment 527 cognitive reframing 521, 550 CX3CR1 receptor 69 cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2) 68 see also COX-2 inhibitors chronic pain 521 \200\2232 evidence base 522 procedural pain 521 cyproheptadine 293 cystic fi brosis 323 \200\2234 colic 331 colitis 260 Comfort Ability program 527 \200\2238 comfort-function goals 374 Comf ort scale 357, 592 communicative context 106 physical therapy 586 cystitis 301 \200\2232 cytochrome P450 (CYP) family 430, 431, 432, 459 cytokines 68 models 40 \200\2231, 42, 86 \200\2237 specifi city 41 neurophysiological evaluation 413 \200\22314 persisting pain with medical illness 319 \200 \22326 predictors 41, 43 \200\2234 prevention 40, 45 \200\2237 prognostic factors 41 \200 \2232 school impact 232 sex diff erences 230 shared features 229 \200\22332 biomarkers 395 \200\2236 case example 107 \200\2238 see also social communication model D damage-associated molecular patterns complementary and alternative (DAMPs) 66 therapies 613 \200\22320, 623 \200\22330 day surgery 275 dental pain 14 dependence 461 depression abdominal pain 616 \200\22317 acupuncture 166, 624 \200\2235 aromatherapy 627 art therapy 6 28 biofeedback 523, 625 \200\2236 cancer pain 166 case example 620, 629 chiropractic 626 do sages 614 fi bromyalgia 617 \200\22318 headaches 613 \200\22316 massage 166, 223, 251, 584, 627 \200\2238 music therapy 628 \200\2239 pet therapy 627 sleep disorders 618 \200\22319 y oga 626 adverse life events 230 \200\2231 mood and aff ect disorders 231 orthostatic intolerance 23 1 response to centrally-acting therapies 231 sleep dysfunction 232 temperament/personality 231 chronic pain and 231 management 234 developmental disability 148 see also intellectual or developmental sickle cell disease 252 social support 572 \200\2233 see also musculoskeletal pain; specifi c disabilities (I/DD) dexamethasone cancer pain management 164 topical 491 conditions circumcision 332 dexmedetomidine 164, 177 long-term eff ects of pain 30 intravenous 199 clinical decision support systems (CDSSs) 573 clonidine dextroamphetamine 165 dextromethorphan 165 diamorphine 463 Development of Infant Acute Pain Responding cancer pain 164 trauma 177 CNS tumors 159 cocaine, spinal anesthesia 5 codeine 432, 462 complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) 237 \200\2238, 239 \200\22340 case examples 99 \200\223100, 587 interventional pain management 475 \200\22380 see also chronic pain; musculoskeletal pain (DIAPR) model 91 \200\2232 diathesis-stress model 41, 42 diethyl ether 4 diff use idiopathi c musculoskeletal pain drug metabolizing enzyme polymorphism 432 conceptual framework 634 constipation 264 (DIP) 237, 238 \200\2239 see also musculoskeletal pain diff usion of innovations 634 \200 \2235 diff usion tensor imaging (DTI) 404 digestive enzyme therapy 617 disability 16, 582 \200\2233, 645 coeliac plexus blockade 479 \200\22380 coenzyme Q10 311, 616, 618 cognitive-behavioral ther apy (CBT) 99, 244, opioid eff ects 467 contextual cognitive-behavioral therapy 527 contextual variables 107 coping self-statements 550 cortical indicators 355 \200\22362 cortical pain processing 75 \200\2236 519 \200\22328 abdominal pain management 537 arthritis management 222 barriers to provision 570 cancer pai n management 166 case example 527 \200\2238 combination with operant treatment 536 \200\223 7 see also intellectual or developmental disabilities (I/DD) disparities in pain management see development 77 corticosteroids sociodemographic disparities in pain management arthritis management 220 cancer pain management 164 index 680 feedback to families 233 femoral nerve block 176 fentanyl 199 \200\223200, 463 \200\2234 venous access 340 distraction 188, 520, 548 \200\2239, 595 trauma 173 \200\2235 chronic pain 521 evidence base 521 mechanisms 554 procedural pain 521, 547, 553 \200\2237 b urn debridement 555 \200\2236 cancer treatments 556 case example 557 eff ectiveness 554 \200\2236 needle procedures 188, 555 EMLA Cream 487 \200\2238, 563 endogenous opioids see opioid peptides endometriosis 299 \200\223301 cancer pain management 163 drug interactions 463 \200\2234 emergency department use 339 tra uma management 177 intranasal (INF) 172 patches 178 pre-hospital use 172 gastrointestinal symptoms 300 treatment 301 energy conservation 595 enkephalin 450 enteric nervous system 257 \200\2238 ephrins 55 epid ural steroid injection (ESI) 480 \200\2231 epilepsy 152 episodic pain 281 \200\2232 feverfew 615 \200\22316 fi bromyalgia, complementary distress, versus pain 387 dorsal horn, changing output 75 medicines 617 \200\22318 foreign body removal 333 formalin injection, long-term eff ects 25 fractalkine 69 friendships 119 \200\22320 see also superfi cial dorsal horn (SDH) dorsal root ganglion (DRG) 54 breakthrough pain 281 incident pain 281 muscle spasm 281 \200\2232 neuroimmune interactions 67 neuronal phenotype 55 Douleur Aigue de Nouveau-ne (DAN) 357 Down syndrome 149 dressings, burns 175 drug metabolis m 430 \200\2231 see also specifi c drugs clinical recommendations 123 \200\2234 research recommendations 124 Epiture Easytouch \204 System 489 erythromelalgia 211 ethical aspects of pain control 661 \200\2237 balancing harm and benefi t 662 \200\2234 case example 667 research issues 665 \200\2236 socioeconomic and cultural issues 664 \200\2235 Functional Disability Inventory (FDI) 40, 418, 420 functional gastrointestinal disorders duloxetine 498 dysmenorrhea 298 \200\2239 dyspepsia 290 (FGIDs) 289 \200\22390 see also gastrointestinal tract functional magnetic resonance imaging ethnicity 103 (fMRI) 403, 412 E ear wax removal 332 \200\2233 Echelle Douleur Inconfort Nouveau-n disparities in pain management 673 \200\2234 neonatal pain assessment 403 EVENDOL scale 358 event-related potentials (ERPs) 402 \200\2233, 412 Evidence-Based Practic e for Improving fundoplication 262 (EDIN) 357 G gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 59 Quality(EPIQ) 638 educational interventions 653 \200\2239 exercise programs see physical exercise exposure techniques 522 abdominal pain 292 body mechanics instruction 595 children \200\231s knowledge about pain 6 53 distraction techniques 547 headaches 311 \200\22312 health care professional education 6 57 \200\2239 educational outreach visits (EOVs) 658 individual feedback 658 knowledge about pain 655 \200\2237 strategies 657 web-based interventions 658 \200\2239 agonists 323 gabapentin F Fabry \200\231s disease 209 \200\22310 Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability scale neurogenic itch management 178 \200\2239 neuropathic pain management 165, 498 ganglion impar blockade 480 gastrointestinal tract constipation 264 endometriosis symptoms 300 functional gastrointestinal disorders (FLACC) 357, 380 \200\2234, 592 revised FLACC scale (FLACC \200\223R) 386 Faceless Acute Neonatal Pain Scale (FANS) 358 faces scales 372 facet joint pain 481 facilit ated tucking 603 \200\2234 family issues 111 \200\22316 acute pain 111 \200\22313 (FGIDs) 289 \200\22390 musculoskeletal pain 244 pain education 585 \200\2236 gastro-oesophageal refl ux disease (GORD) 261 \200\2232 HIV-related pain 321 infl ammatory bowel disease 260 innervation 257 \200\2238 neural pathways for pain 258 \200\2239 neuromuscular motility disorders 264 \200 \2235, child 654 \200\2235 parents 293, 655 web-based interventions 654 \200\2235 parents \200\231 knowledge about pain 653 \200\2234 self-mastery promotion 329 case example 111 parental assessment of pain 111 \200\22312 parental behavior infl uence 11 2 \200\22313 parents \200\231 pain management roles 113 role of fathers 113 chronic pain 11 3 \200\22316 case example 113 child pain impact on family 114 family functioning infl uence 115 family role in interventions 115 \200\22316, 329 pain aggregation in families 114 pare ntal impact on child pain 114 \200\22315, 538 parent \200\223child relationship role 115 electroencephalography (EEG) 363, 396, 412 290 chronic pain assessment 413 neonatal pain assessment 402 \200\2233 pancreatitis 262 \200\2234 see also abdominal pain; visceral pain electromyography (EMG) 363 gate control theory 6, 85 \200\2236, 582 gender diff erences 104, 113 animal models 21 neonatal pain assessment 401 \200\2232 see also biofeedback adult pain 127 case examples 131 child and adolescent pain 129 \200\22330 electronic medical records (EMR) 376 emboli 313 emergency department (ED) care 338 \200\223 45 contributing factors 130 family centered care 544 multidisciplinary pain management clinical implications 131 research recommendations 131 see also sex diff erences general an esthesia 195 genetic markers 395 \200\2236 ginger 616 gingivostomatitis 331 glucocorticoste roids 475 glycine 59 graded motor imagery (GMI) 584 greater occipital nerve blockade 482 gr oup therapy 527 growing pain 14, 241, 332 analgesics 173 \200\2234, 338 \200\2239 burns 173 \200\2236 pain management for procedures 339 \200\22344 expectations 648 \200\2239 parental education 293, 655 parents \200\231 knowledge about pai n 653 \200\2234 see also maternal care abdominal pain 342 case example 345 headache 342 \200\2233 lacerations 340 \200\2231 lumbar puncture 341 nasogastric intubation 342 procedural sedation and analgesia fathers 113 see also family issues fear-avoidance beliefs 40 \200\2231, 42, 96 \200\2239 children 40 \200\2231, 42, 96 \200\2237 clinical implications 99 interpersonal fear avoidan ce model 98 \200\2239 parents 97 \200\2238 (PSA) 343 \200\2234 urethral catheterization 341 \200\2232 index 681 social support 572 \200\2233 see also information and communications headache management 311, 312 \200\22313, 343 see also non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory guided imagery 522 Guillain \200\223Barr syndrome 325 technology (ICT) drugs (NSAIDs) interpersonal fear avoidance model 98 \200\2239 interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/ iliohypogastric nerve blockade 482 ilioinguinal nerve blockade 482 immune challenge, long-t erm eff ects 26 \200\2237 immune system activation 67 \200\22370 H handicap 645 Hartwig Score 358 headaches 307 \200\22314 BPS) 301 \200\2232 interventional pain management techniques 474 \200\2235 cancer-related pain 476 \200\2239 c omplex regional pain syndrome long-term priming 69 \200\22370 postnatal diff erences 69 \200\22370 complementary medicines 613 \200\22316 emergency department management 342 \200\2233 epidem iology 15 migraine 307 \200\22312, 613 \200\22316 primary 307 \200\22313 secondary 313 \200 \22314 HIV-related 322 infections 314 medical-systemic causes 313 neoplasms 314 substance-i nduced 314 vascular disorders 313 tension-type 312 \200\22313, 613 \200\22316 immunizations 555 (CRPS) 475 \200\2236 distraction therapy 555 see also needle procedures correct placement aids 475 epidural steroid injection (ESI) 480 \200\2231 facet joint pain 481 neuraxial blockade 275, 476 \200\2239, 480 peripheral nerve blockade 481 \200\2232 plex us blockade 479 \200\22380 sacroiliac joint injection 481 impairment 645 incident pain 281 indeterminate colitis (IC) 260 infant pain see neonatal pa in; pediatric pain infection, cancer pain and 160 infl ammation 56 \200\2237 joints 215 \200\22316 intestinal pseudo-obstruction 264 \200\2235 intra-articular facet blockade 481 intranasal f entanyl (INF) 172 intubation 342 irritable bowel syndrome 290 see also arthritis long-term eff ects of early pain 23 \200\2235 neonatal superfi cial dorsal horn responses 6 0 head injury 310 health insurance 674 health-related quality of life (HRQOL) 417 infl ammatory bowel disease 260 pain management 260 \200\2231 evaluation 418 \200\22322 complementary medicines 616 \200\22317 J joint hypermobility see hypermobility Juvenile Arthritis Function Assessment Report case example 422 \200\2233 clinical interview 418 guidance 421 \200\2232 HRQOL questionnair es 418 \200\22320 outcomes measurement 421 painful conditions and 417 \200\22318 infl iximab 260 information and communications technology (ICT) 569 \200\22374 (JAFAR) 420 child education about pain 654 \200\2235 in child life interventions 550 \200\2231 future d irections 574 ICT-based self-management programs 570 \200\2231 Juvenile Arthritis Quality of Life Questionnaire (JAQQ) 420 juvenile fi bromyalgia see diff use idiopathic musculoskeletal pain (DIP) heart rate (HR) biomarker 394 heart rate variability (HRV) biomarker 394 juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) see arthritis juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (RA) see ar thritis neonates 355, 362 herpes simplex infection 331 high-threshold mechanoreceptors (HTMs) 56 history Internet-based interventions 571 \200\2232 mobile device applications 573 \200\2234 in self -report 376 social networking 572 \200\2233 telemedicine/telehealth 574 K kangaroo mother care 189, 601, 602 \200\2233 anesthesia 4 \200\2236 ancient times to mid-19th century 3 \200\2234 teething pain treatmen ts 4 see also maternal care ketamine 165, 176, 200 Initiative on Methods, Measurement and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT) 370 \200\2231 continuous infusion 176, 177 emergency department 344 neuropathic pain management 502 pre-h ospital use 172 topical 491 use for ward procedures 180 5-HTP 619 human immunodefi ciency virus (HIV) 320 \200\2233 case example 323 causes of pain 321 gastrointestinal pain 321 headache 322 musculoskeletal pain 322 neuropathic pain 321 \200\2232 pain management 322 \200\2233 pain prevalence 320 \200\2231 procedural pain 322 injection pain 5, 14 cancer treatment and 160 see also needle procedures insomnia 138 ketorolac 177, 339, 343 adverse eff ects 442 \200\2235 see also non-steroidal anti-infl amm atory see also sleep problems intellectual or developmental disabilities (I/ DD) 147 \200\22354 biomarkers of pain 397 case example 153 \200\2234 defi nitions 148 histo rical perspectives on pain and I/DD 149 issues created by the defi nition of pain 148 \200 \2239 pain assessment 150, 151 drugs (NSAIDs) Knowledge to Action (KTA) framework Huntington \200\231s chorea case example 284 hydrocodone 464 hydromorphone 163, 464 hyoscin e butylbromide 260 \200\2231 hyperalgesia 467 636 \200\2237 knowledge translation 633 \200\2234 behavior change promotion 639 case example 638 context of practice 639 diff usion of innova tions 634 \200\2235 evidence-based strategies 638 \200\2239 Knowledge to Action (KTA) frame work 636 \200\2237 behavioral measures 386 opioid-induced (OIH) 283, 467 \200\2238 visceral hypersensitivity 285, 290, 301 pain epidemiology 147 \200\2238, 149 \200\22350 pain treatment 150 \200\2232 hypermobility 231 \200\2232, 237, 241 \200\2232 hyperthermia 6 hypnotherapy 560 \200\2235 Interactional Mixed Model of Learning 535 \200\2236 interactive video games (IVGs) 180 inte rcostal nerve blockade 482 interdisciplinary behavioral rehabilitation Ottawa Model of Research Use acute pain management 562 \200\2233 analgesic mechanisms 561 \200\2232 case example 565 chr onic pain management 563 \200\2234 (OMRU) 637 \200\2238 model 538 \200\22360 interleukins (IL) 67 \200\2238, 395 \200\2236 International Classifi c ation Framework for Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (PARiHS) framework 635 \200\2236 theory-informed approach 634 \200\2239 theory of planned behavior 635 hypothermia 6 Children and Youth (ICF-CY) 582 \200\2233 International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) 421 I ibuprofen Internet-based interventions 571 L lacerations 340 \200\2231 language issues 329 child education about pain 654 \200\2235 health care professional education 658 \200\2239 adverse eff ects 442 \200\2235 emergency department use 339 index 682 trauma management 176, 177 breastfeeding 189, 600 eff ectiveness 605 lateral femoral cutaneous neuropathy pre-hospital use 172 (LFCN) 482 Lawson, Jeff rey 7 \200\2238 laxative treatment 264, 265 lemon balm 619 leukaemi as 158 lidocaine 488 \200\22390 mucositis 159 Multidimensional Assessment of Pain Scale mechanisms 605 facilitated tucking 603 \200\2234 feasibility 606 maternal \200\223infant interactions 604 olfactory eff ects 601 \200\2233 other providers 604 recommendations 605 \200\2236 sensoria l saturation 604 skin-to-skin contact 189, 601, 602 \200\2233 see also family issues mechan oreceptors 56 medial branch nerve blockade (MBB) 481 medication overuse headache (MOH) 314 melatonin 619 memory change 550 meperidine 464 meralgia paraesthetica 482 methadone 165, 46 4 (MAPS) 358 Multidimensional Measure for Recurrent Abdominal Pain (MM-RAP) 259 \200\22360 multidimensional pain 354 multidisciplinary pain management approach emergency department use 339 iontophoresis 489 liposomal 488 neuropathic pain management 16 5, 498, (MPMA) 642 \200\2234 acute care services 644 \200\2235, 646 chronic pain management 645 \200\2238 502 \200\2233 patient fl ow 649 \200\22351 staff communication 647 \200\2238 staff positions 647 lidocaine and prilocaine cream 487 \200\2238 lidocaine/tetracaine topical patch 489 limited attentional capacity theory (LCT) 554 Liverpool Infant Distress Scale (LIDS) 358 Liverpool technique 5 local anesthetics information management systems 649 parental expectations 648 \200\2239 multimodal distraction (MMD) 180 multiple attentional resource theory (MRT) 554 multiple sc lerosis (MS) 210 muscle relaxants 166 muscle relaxation techniques 522 \200\2233 muscle spa sm 281 \200\2232 musculoskeletal pain 215, 237 \200\22345