Finally, it is obvious that our views of basal ganglia functions are strongly biased by the fact that movements are easier to examine than cognition or emotion. Given the anatomy of the basal ganglia \200\223 thalamocortical system, it is likely that some of the modulatory func- tions of the basal ganglia functions described above for behavior also apply to non- motor domains, and there is growing recognition that the cognitive and emotional abnormalit ies in ADHD, obsessive \200\223 compulsive disorder, and other conditions involve the basal ganglia. Th e possibility that the basal ganglia may not only refl ect primary cortical ch anges but also play a more active role in cognition and emo- tion has become apparent from changes in these domains observed with DBS surgery and other functional surgical interventi ons. While such changes are currently most oft en seen as unwanted side eff ects of DBS tre atments for movement disorders, it may become possible to harness our understanding of non- motor functions in the future to treat conditions such as obsessive \200\223compulsive diso rder, ADHD, or even depression, with targeted neurosurgical interventions. However, a few generalizations can be made. One is that, although the basal ganglia are imp ortant for the planning and on-line control of movement, as proposed by the focusing, scali ng, and response inhibition models described above, it is probably too simple to conclude t hat this is their \200\230function \200\231, because lesions of the basal ganglia output n uclei have little or no eff ect on most movements in normal animals or humans (168). Indeed , patients undergoing pallidotomy, an obviously major interruption of the motor circuit, ha ve no perceived complaints or clearly observable disturbances of voluntary movement, and ex perimental inactivation of the palli- dum in monkeys results in slowing, but no obvious dis inhibitory phenomena (154, 155). Acknowledgements Th e preparation of this article was supported through grants from the NIH /NINDS (R01-NS054976, R01-NS071074 and P50-NS071669 (TW)), and by NIH/NCRR grant RR-000165 (Yerkes National Primate Center). Another general observation is that the basal ganglia appear to have a predominantly inhibi tory role in the modulation of behav- iour. By virtue of their tonic inhibitory output to t he thalamus, they may serve to limit cortical activation. As mentioned before, this CHAPTER 4 Functional Aspects of the Basal Ganglia 27 References 1. Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL . Parallel organization of func- tionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. 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