The problem seems to be isolated to building my own containers. If a cuda image is pulled from the official nvidia docker repository, everything will work.
docker run --runtime=nvidia --rm -it nvidia/cuda:10.0-cudnn7-devel-ubuntu18.04
`apt-get update && apt-get install -y cuda-samples-10-0`
cd /usr/local/cuda-10.0/samples/1_Utilities/deviceQuery
make
./deviceQuery

does infact work.
If anyone wants to recreate my problem:
docker run --runtime=nvidia -e NVIDIA_VISIBILE_DEVICES=all --rm -it ubuntu
apt update; apt install openssh-client
scp <username@ipaddress:/path/to/cuda10.0.deb/> .
dpkg -i <cuda10.0.deb>
apt install gnupg
apt-key add /var/<cuda10.0/key.pub>
apt update
apt install cuda
cd /usr/local/cuda-10.0/samples/1_Utilities/deviceQuery
make
./deviceQuery

Any filenames/text  should be replaced with your own filenames, etc for that stuff.
I used scp because I had the cuda deb file saved on a remote machine and didn’t want to add volumes here.