French Revolution | History, Summary, Timeline, Causes, & Facts
The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the ...
Europe
The French Revolution had general causes common to all the revolutions of the West at the end of the 18th century and particular causes that explain why it was by far the most violent and the most universally significant of these revolutions. The first of the general causes was the social structure of the West. The feudal regime had been weakened step-by-step and had already disappeared in parts of <anchor>Europe</anchor>. The increasingly numerous and prosperous elite of wealthy commoners—merchants, manufacturers, and professionals, often called the bourgeoisie—aspired to political power in those countries where it did not already possess it. The peasants, many of whom owned land, had attained an improved standard of living and education and wanted to get rid of the last vestiges of feudalism so as to acquire the full rights of landowners and to be free to increase their holdings. Furthermore, from about 1730, higher standards of living had reduced the mortality rate among adults considerably. This, together with other factors, had led to an increase in the population of Europe unprecedented for several centuries: it doubled between 1715 and 1800. For France, which with 26 million inhabitants in 1789 was the most populated country of Europe, the problem was most acute.
Europe | History, Countries, Map, & Facts | Britannica
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[Europe](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe)

Table of Contents


- [Introduction](/place/Europe)

- [Geologic history](/place/Europe/Geologic-history)



- [General considerations](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34517)

  - [Tectonic framework](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34518)

  - [Chronological summary](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34519)

- [Stratigraphy and structure](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34520)

  - [Precambrian](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34521)

  - [Paleozoic Era](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34522)

    - [Caledonian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Geologic-history#ref34523)

    - [Hercynian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt)

    - [Uralian orogenic belt](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34525)

  - [Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34526)

    - [North European and Russian platforms](/place/Europe/Hercynian-orogenic-belt#ref34527)

    - [Cenozoic igneous provinces](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces)

    - [Iceland](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34529)

    - [Pleistocene glaciation](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34530)

    - [Modern geologic framework](/place/Europe/Cenozoic-igneous-provinces#ref34531)

- [Land](/place/Europe/Land)



- [Relief](/place/Europe/Land#ref34533)

  - [Elevations](/place/Europe/Land#ref34534)

  - [Physiographic units](/place/Europe/Land#ref34535)

    - [Coastal and interior lowlands](/place/Europe/Land#ref34536)

    - [Central uplands and plateaus](/place/Europe/Land#ref34537)

    - [Northwestern highlands](/place/Europe/Land#ref34538)

    - [Southern Europe](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe)

- [Drainage](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34540)

  - [Topographic influences](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34541)

  - [Hydrology](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34542)

  - [Lake systems and marshes](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34543)

- [Soils](/place/Europe/Southern-Europe#ref34544)

- [Climate](/place/Europe/Climate)

  - [Air pressure belts](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34548)

  - [Climatic regions](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34549)

    - [Maritime climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34550)

    - [Central European climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34551)

    - [Continental climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34552)

    - [Mediterranean climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34553)

  - [The effects of climate](/place/Europe/Climate#ref34554)

- [Plant life](/place/Europe/Plant-life)

  - [Major vegetation zones](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34556)

  - [Shaping of vegetation zones](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34562)

    - [Climatic change](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34563)

    - [Role of humans](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref34564)

  - [Plant imports](/place/Europe/Plant-life#ref280621)

- [Animal life](/place/Europe/Animal-life)

  - [Patterns of distribution](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref34568)

    - [Wild animals](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref280622)

    - [Domesticated animals](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref280623)

  - [Conservation](/place/Europe/Animal-life#ref34573)

- [People](/place/Europe/People)



- [Cultural patterns](/place/Europe/People#ref34575)

  - [Culture groups](/place/Europe/People#ref34576)

  - [Languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34577)

    - [Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34578)

    - [Other languages](/place/Europe/People#ref34579)

  - [Religions](/place/Europe/Religions)

    - [Christianity](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34581)

    - [Judaism and Islam](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34582)

- [Demographic patterns](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34583)

  - [Overall densities](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34584)

  - [Urban and rural settlement](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34585)

  - [Population trends](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34586)

  - [Migration](/place/Europe/Religions#ref34587)

- [Economy](/place/Europe/Economy)



- [Agriculture, forestry, and fishing](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34601)

  - [Agricultural distribution](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34602)

  - [Agricultural organization](/place/Europe/Economy#ref34603)

  - [Forestry and fishing](/place/Europe/Economy#ref280617)

- [Resources and power](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power)

  - [Mineral resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34590)

    - [Coal](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34591)

    - [Petroleum and natural gas](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34592)

    - [Uranium](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34593)

    - [Iron ores](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34594)

    - [Ferroalloy metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34595)

    - [Nonferrous base metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34596)

    - [Precious metals](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34597)

  - [Nonmetallic deposits](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34598)

  - [Water resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34599)

  - [Biological resources](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34600)

  - [Power](/place/Europe/Resources-and-power#ref34610)

- [Manufacturing](/place/Europe/Manufacturing)

  - [Heavy industry](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34606)

  - [Chemical industries](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34607)

  - [Light industry and handicrafts](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34608)

- [Trade](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34613)

  - [Trade within Europe](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34614)

  - [External trade](/place/Europe/Manufacturing#ref34615)

- [Tourism](/place/Europe/Tourism)

- [Transportation](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34616)

  - [Roads](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34617)

  - [Railways](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34618)

  - [Waterways and pipelines](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34619)

  - [Airways](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref34620)

  - [Animal transport](/place/Europe/Tourism#ref280619)

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Europe)

[Images & Videos](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/images-videos)

[![Europe](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/367-004-7DADF3BA/Europe-political-boundaries-continent.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/367-050-CCA16287/Europe-political-boundaries-continent.jpg)[![Norway](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-004-2A57E023/Noresund.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/100564-050-62B93A38/Noresund.jpg)[![Sveti Stefan](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-004-7EE5F7DF/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/141562-050-720299C4/Sveti-Stefan-Montenegro.jpg)[![Faroe Islands: Tórshavn](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-004-FB669326/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/189146-050-78A3FE99/Harbour-capital-Torshavn-Denmark-Faroe-Islands.jpg)[![Athens: Acropolis](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-004-65D274D5/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/102266-050-FBDEFCA1/acropolis-city-state-Greece-Athens.jpg)[![Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-004-C898B6B4/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/112156-050-E0CDD0A3/aqueduct-Pont-du-Gard-Roman-France-Nimes.jpg)[![La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-004-E31F7E26/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/88/146688-050-2E1DB64A/La-Palma-Canary-Islands-Spain.jpg)[![European Parliament](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-004-C9CA9737/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/99/124899-050-AE4B657A/European-Parliament-building-Strasbourg-France.jpg)[![geologic time](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/73167-004-106002DC/chart.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/73167-050-C66534D1/chart.jpg)[![structural features of Europe](https://cdn.britannica.com/80/380-004-46869B76/features-Europe.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/80/380-004-46869B76/features-Europe.jpg)

For Students


[![](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-124/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.124.78)](/summary/Europe)

[Europe summary](/summary/Europe)

Quizzes


[![The flag of the European Union](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/96866-131-9185DF09/Flag-European-Union.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/passport-to-europe)

[Passport to Europe](/quiz/passport-to-europe)

[![Euro dollars. Monetary unit and currency of the European Union.  (European money; monetary unit)](https://cdn.britannica.com/01/170801-131-AAC56BFD/Euro-currency-unit-European-Union.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/travelers-guide-to-europe)

[Traveler’s Guide to Europe](/quiz/travelers-guide-to-europe)

[![Front of a bullet train in the station in Zurich, Switzerland. High speed train. Hompepage blog 2009, geography and travel, science and technology passenger train transportation railroad](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/129522-131-07EA6EB9/bullet-train-Front-station-High-speed-Switzerland-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/a-visit-to-europe)

[A Visit to Europe](/quiz/a-visit-to-europe)

[![Map showing the distribution of European ethnic culture areas. Thematic map.](https://cdn.britannica.com/69/369-131-D42B3F86/Map-culture-areas-groups-distribution-similarity-Europe.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/european-atlas)

[European Atlas](/quiz/european-atlas)

[![Top of Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, Germany](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/94531-131-A6E89842/Brandenburg-Gate-Berlin.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/quiz/uncover-europe)

[Uncover Europe](/quiz/uncover-europe)

Read Next


[![Union Jack flag of Great Britain, united kingdom](https://cdn.britannica.com/43/193443-131-17ABE1C9/Union-Jack-flag-Great-Britain-united-kingdom.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom)

[What’s the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom?](/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom)

[![Map view of Europe on a geographical globe.](https://cdn.britannica.com/24/199024-131-FFEE0BC4/Map-view-globe-Europe.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/where-does-the-name-europe-come-from)

[Where Does the Name _Europe_ Come From?](/story/where-does-the-name-europe-come-from)

[![Lead image for "10 Infographics that Explain the Normandy Invasion During World War II" list](https://cdn.britannica.com/33/218633-131-5FD231D0/Ten-Infographics-Normandy-Invasion-World-War-II.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/10-infographics-that-explain-the-normandy-invasion-during-world-war-ii)

[10 Infographics that Explain the Normandy Invasion During World War II](/list/10-infographics-that-explain-the-normandy-invasion-during-world-war-ii)

Discover


[![President Kennedy address on Test Ban Treaty, White House, Oval Office, July 26, 1963. President John F. Kennedy, President Kennedy](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/146446-131-83C57663/John-F-Kennedy-Test-Ban-Treaty-Oval-July-26-1963.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/11-memorable-quotes-from-us-presidential-debates)

[11 Memorable Quotes from U.S. Presidential Debates](/list/11-memorable-quotes-from-us-presidential-debates)

[![Encyclopaedia Britannica First Edition: Volume 1, Plate XLIII, Figure 1, Astronomy, Solar System, Equation of Time, Precession of Equinoxes, Earth, orbit, ecliptic, apogee, perigee, line of apsides, mean anomaly, tropical year, Sydereal, Julian](https://cdn.britannica.com/30/119830-131-D828BB6C/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-First-Edition-Volume-1-Figure.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/story/first-day-of-fall)

[First Day of Fall](/story/first-day-of-fall)

[![Close-up of ostriches (Struthio camelus) necks and heads; location unknown.](https://cdn.britannica.com/58/152058-131-0EB52C8F/Ostriches.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/6-of-the-worlds-most-dangerous-birds)

[6 of the World's Most Dangerous Birds](/list/6-of-the-worlds-most-dangerous-birds)

[![Clouds of smoke rise from fires at the World Trade Center Towers as a result of terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. Photographed 9:54 am in Lower Manhattan.](https://cdn.britannica.com/24/199824-131-8B2223A9/smoke-rise-Clouds-fires-result-terrorist-attack-September-11-2001.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/timeline-of-the-september-11-attacks)

[Timeline of the September 11 Attacks](/list/timeline-of-the-september-11-attacks)

[![The Colosseum, Rome, Italy.  Giant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian emperors. (ancient architecture; architectural ruins)](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/162636-131-E4AA93A0/Colosseum-Rome-Italy.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/new-seven-wonders-of-the-world)

[New Seven Wonders of the World](/list/new-seven-wonders-of-the-world)

[![Andrew Jackson delivering a speech while on his way to Washington, D.C., for his inauguration in 1829. From Harper's Weekly, 1881.](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/182194-131-A1441287/Andrew-Jackson-town-supporters-inauguration-way-1829.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/5-remarkably-close-us-presidential-elections)

[5 Remarkably Close U.S. Presidential Elections](/list/5-remarkably-close-us-presidential-elections)

[![Ice Sledge Hockey, Hockey Canada Cup, USA (left) vs Canada,  2009. UBC Thunderbird Arena, Vancouver, BC, competition site for Olympic ice hockey and Paralympic ice sledge hockey. Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games, Vancouver Olympics](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/134913-131-D9520745/Ice-Sledge-Hockey-Canada-Cup-USA-ice-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](/list/10-best-hockey-players-of-all-time)

[10 Best Hockey Players of All Time](/list/10-best-hockey-players-of-all-time)


Contents


[Geography & Travel](/browse/Geography-Travel)[Physical Geography of Land](/browse/Physical-Geography-Land)

# Europe

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Written by


[William H. Berentsen\
\
Professor of Geography, University of Connecticut, Storrs. Editor of _Contemporary Europe: A Geographical Analysis_.](/contributor/William-H-Berentsen/4877)

William H. Berentsen,

[Thomas M. Poulsen\
\
Emeritus Professor of Geography, Portland State University, Oregon. Author of _Nations and States: A Geographic Background to World Affairs._](/contributor/Thomas-M-Poulsen/3609)

Thomas M. Poulsen• [All](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info#contributors)

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Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated:

Sep 13, 2024
• [Article History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/additional-info#history)


Table of Contents


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**Europe**, second smallest of the world’s continents, composed of the westward-projecting peninsulas of Eurasia (the great landmass that it shares with Asia) and occupying nearly one-fifteenth of the world’s total land area. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south (west to east) by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Kuma-Manych Depression, and the Caspian Sea. The continent’s eastern boundary (north to south) runs along the Ural Mountains and then roughly southwest along the Emba (Zhem) River, terminating at the northern Caspian coast. Europe’s largest islands ...(100 of 20355 words)

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