Environmental impact of transport - Wikipedia
Transport is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates.
sulfate
Emissions from ships have much more significant environmental effects; many ships go internationally from port to port and are not seen for weeks, contributing to air and water pollution on its voyage. Emission of greenhouse gases displaces the amount of gas that allows for UV-rays through the ozone. Sulfur and nitrogen compounds emitted from ship will oxidize in the atmosphere to form sulfate and nitrate. Emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds (VOC) will lead to enhanced surface ozone formation and methane oxidation, depleting the ozone. The effect of the international ship emission on the distribution of chemical compounds such as NO_x_, CO, O3, •OH, SO2, HNO3, and <anchor>sulfate</anchor> is studied using a global chemical transport model (CTM), the Oslo CTM2. In particular, the large-scale distribution and diurnal variation of the oxidants and sulfur compounds are studied interactively. Meteorological data (winds, temperature, precipitation, clouds, etc.) used as input for the CTM calculations are provided by a weather prediction model.[33]
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## Contents

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- (Top)

- [1Spelling](#Spelling)
- [2Structure](#Structure)
- [3Bonding](#Bonding)
- [4Preparation](#Preparation)
- [5Properties](#Properties)
- [6Uses and occurrence](#Uses_and_occurrence)Toggle Uses and occurrence subsection  - [6.1Commercial applications](#Commercial_applications)
  - [6.2Occurrence in nature](#Occurrence_in_nature)
- [7History](#History)
- [8Environmental effects](#Environmental_effects)Toggle Environmental effects subsection  - [8.1Main effects on climate](#Main_effects_on_climate)    - [8.1.1Reversal and accelerated warming](#Reversal_and_accelerated_warming)
    - [8.1.2Hydrological cycle](#Hydrological_cycle)
    - [8.1.3Solar geoengineering](#Solar_geoengineering)
- [9Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)](#Hydrogensulfate_(bisulfate))
- [10Other sulfur oxyanions](#Other_sulfur_oxyanions)
- [11See also](#See_also)
- [12Notes](#Notes)
- [13References](#References)
- [14External links](#External_links)

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# Sulfate

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Oxyanion with a central atom of sulfur surrounded by 4 oxygen atoms

This article is about the inorganic ion. For sulfate esters (commonly used in shampoo and personal care products), see [Organosulfate](/wiki/Organosulfate "Organosulfate").

Sulfate
[![The structure and bonding of the sulfate ion. The distance between the sulfur atom and an oxygen atom is 149 picometers.](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg/170px-Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg)[![Ball-and-stick model of the sulfate anion](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Sulfate-3D-vdW.png/110px-Sulfate-3D-vdW.png)](/wiki/File:Sulfate-3D-vdW.png)[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sulfate-3D-balls.png/110px-Sulfate-3D-balls.png)](/wiki/File:Sulfate-3D-balls.png)Names
[IUPAC name](/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature "Chemical nomenclature")

Sulfate

Other names

Tetraoxosulfate(VI)

Tetraoxidosulfate(VI)

Identifiers

[CAS Number](/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number "CAS Registry Number")

- [14808-79-8](https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=14808-79-8)![check](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png)Y

3D model ( [JSmol](/wiki/JSmol "JSmol"))

- [Interactive image](https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=S%28%3DO%29%28%3DO%29%28%5BO-%5D%29%5BO-%5D)

[ChEBI](/wiki/ChEBI "ChEBI")

- [CHEBI:16189](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=16189)

[ChemSpider](/wiki/ChemSpider "ChemSpider")

- [1085](https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.1085.html)

[ECHA InfoCard](/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard "ECHA InfoCard")[100.108.048](https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.108.048)[![Edit this at Wikidata](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P2566 "Edit this at Wikidata")[EC Number](/wiki/European_Community_number "European Community number")

- 233-334-2

[PubChem](/wiki/PubChem "PubChem") CID

- [1117](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1117)

[UNII](/wiki/Unique_Ingredient_Identifier "Unique Ingredient Identifier")

- [7IS9N8KPMG](https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/7IS9N8KPMG)![check](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png)Y

[CompTox Dashboard](/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard "CompTox Chemicals Dashboard")(EPA)

- [DTXSID3042425](https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID3042425)[![Edit this at Wikidata](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P3117 "Edit this at Wikidata")

[InChI](/wiki/International_Chemical_Identifier "International Chemical Identifier")

- InChI=1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2



Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-L

- InChI=1/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2



Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-NUQVWONBAM


[SMILES](/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system "Simplified molecular-input line-entry system")

- S(=O)(=O)(\[O-\])\[O-\]


Properties

[Chemical formula](/wiki/Chemical_formula "Chemical formula")

SO2−4[Molar mass](/wiki/Molar_mass "Molar mass")96.06 g·mol−1[Conjugate acid](/wiki/Conjugate_acid "Conjugate acid")[Hydrogensulfate](/wiki/Hydrogensulfate "Hydrogensulfate")

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their [standard state](/wiki/Standard_state "Standard state") (at 25 °C \[77 °F\], 100 kPa).

[Infobox references](/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References "Wikipedia:Chemical infobox")

Chemical compound

The **sulfate** or **sulphate** ion is a [polyatomic anion](/wiki/Polyatomic_ion "Polyatomic ion") with the [empirical formula](/wiki/Empirical_formula "Empirical formula") SO2−4. Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are [salts](/wiki/Salt_(chemistry) "Salt (chemistry)") of [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid") and many are prepared from that acid.

## Spelling

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: Spelling")\]

Further information: [American and British English spelling differences](/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences "American and British English spelling differences")

"Sulfate" is the spelling recommended by [IUPAC](/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry"), but "sulphate" was traditionally used in [British English](/wiki/British_English "British English").

## Structure

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=2 "Edit section: Structure")\]

The sulfate anion consists of a central [sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur "Sulfur") atom surrounded by four equivalent [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen") atoms in a [tetrahedral](/wiki/Tetrahedron "Tetrahedron") arrangement. The symmetry of the isolated anion is the same as that of methane. The sulfur atom is in the +6 [oxidation state](/wiki/Oxidation_state "Oxidation state") while the four oxygen atoms are each in the −2 state. The sulfate ion carries an overall [charge](/wiki/Charge_(physics) "Charge (physics)") of −2 and it is the [conjugate base](/wiki/Conjugate_acid "Conjugate acid") of the **bisulfate** (or hydrogensulfate) ion, HSO−4, which is in turn the conjugate base of H2SO4, [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid"). Organic [sulfate esters](/wiki/Sulfate_ester "Sulfate ester"), such as [dimethyl sulfate](/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfate "Dimethyl sulfate"), are covalent compounds and [esters](/wiki/Ester "Ester") of sulfuric acid. The [tetrahedral molecular geometry](/wiki/Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry "Tetrahedral molecular geometry") of the sulfate ion is as predicted by [VSEPR theory](/wiki/VSEPR_theory "VSEPR theory").

## Bonding

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=3 "Edit section: Bonding")\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg/220px-Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg) Two models of the sulfate ion.

**1** with [polar covalent](/wiki/Chemical_polarity#polar_molecules "Chemical polarity") bonds only; **2** with an [ionic bond](/wiki/Ionic_bond "Ionic bond")[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Sulfate-resonance-2D.png/220px-Sulfate-resonance-2D.png)](/wiki/File:Sulfate-resonance-2D.png) Six resonances

The first description of the bonding in modern terms was by [Gilbert Lewis](/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis "Gilbert N. Lewis") in his groundbreaking paper of 1916 where he described the bonding in terms of electron octets around each atom, that is no double bonds and a [formal charge](/wiki/Formal_charge "Formal charge") of +2 on the sulfur atom and -1 on each oxygen atom.[\[1\]](#cite_note-1)[\[a\]](#cite_note-formal_charge-2)

Later, [Linus Pauling](/wiki/Linus_Pauling "Linus Pauling") used [valence bond theory](/wiki/Valence_bond_theory "Valence bond theory") to propose that the most significant [resonance canonicals](/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry) "Resonance (chemistry)") had two [pi bonds](/wiki/Pi_bond "Pi bond") involving d orbitals. His reasoning was that the charge on sulfur was thus reduced, in accordance with his [principle of electroneutrality](/wiki/Pauling%27s_principle_of_electroneutrality "Pauling's principle of electroneutrality").[\[2\]](#cite_note-3) The S−O bond length of 149 pm is shorter than the bond lengths in [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid") of 157 pm for S−OH. The double bonding was taken by Pauling to account for the shortness of the S−O bond.

Pauling's use of d orbitals provoked a debate on the relative importance of [pi bonding](/wiki/Pi_bond "Pi bond") and bond polarity ( [electrostatic attraction](/wiki/Electrostatic_attraction "Electrostatic attraction")) in causing the shortening of the S−O bond. The outcome was a broad consensus that d orbitals play a role, but are not as significant as Pauling had believed.[\[3\]](#cite_note-4)[\[4\]](#cite_note-5)

A widely accepted description involving pπ – dπ bonding was initially proposed by [Durward William John Cruickshank](/wiki/Durward_William_John_Cruickshank "Durward William John Cruickshank"). In this model, fully occupied p orbitals on oxygen overlap with empty sulfur d orbitals (principally the d_z_ 2 and d_x_ 2– _y_ 2).[\[5\]](#cite_note-cotton-6) However, in this description, despite there being some π character to the S−O bonds, the bond has significant ionic character. For sulfuric acid, computational analysis (with [natural bond orbitals](/wiki/Natural_bond_orbital "Natural bond orbital")) confirms a clear positive charge on sulfur (theoretically +2.45) and a low 3d occupancy. Therefore, the representation with four single bonds is the optimal Lewis structure rather than the one with two double bonds (thus the Lewis model, not the Pauling model).[\[6\]](#cite_note-Stefan-7)

In this model, the structure obeys the [octet rule](/wiki/Octet_rule "Octet rule") and the charge distribution is in agreement with the [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity "Electronegativity") of the atoms. The discrepancy between the S−O bond length in the sulfate ion and the S−OH bond length in sulfuric acid is explained by donation of p-orbital electrons from the terminal S=O bonds in sulfuric acid into the antibonding S−OH orbitals, weakening them resulting in the longer bond length of the latter.

However, Pauling's representation for sulfate and other main group compounds with oxygen is still a common way of representing the bonding in many textbooks.[\[5\]](#cite_note-cotton-6)[\[7\]](#cite_note-greenwood-8) The apparent contradiction can be clarified if one realizes that the [covalent](/wiki/Covalent_bond "Covalent bond") double bonds in the Lewis structure actually represent bonds that are strongly polarized by more than 90% towards the oxygen atom. On the other hand, in the structure with a [dipolar bond](/wiki/Dipolar_bond "Dipolar bond"), the charge is localized as a [lone pair](/wiki/Lone_pair "Lone pair") on the oxygen.[\[6\]](#cite_note-Stefan-7)

## Preparation

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Preparation")\]

Typically [metal sulfates](/wiki/Metal_sulfate "Metal sulfate") are prepared by treating metal oxides, metal carbonates, or the metal itself with [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid"):[\[7\]](#cite_note-greenwood-8)

Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 \+ H2Cu(OH)2 \+ H2SO4 → CuSO4 \+ 2 H2OCdCO3 \+ H2SO4 → CdSO4 \+ H2O + CO2

Although written with simple anhydrous formulas, these conversions generally are conducted in the presence of water. Consequently the product sulfates are [hydrated](/wiki/Water_of_crystallization "Water of crystallization"), corresponding to [zinc sulfate](/wiki/Zinc_sulfate "Zinc sulfate") ZnSO4·7H2O, [copper(II) sulfate](/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate "Copper(II) sulfate") CuSO4·5H2O, and [cadmium sulfate](/wiki/Cadmium_sulfate "Cadmium sulfate") CdSO4·H2O.

Some metal [sulfides](/wiki/Sulfide "Sulfide") can be oxidized to give metal sulfates.

## Properties

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=5 "Edit section: Properties")\]

There are numerous examples of ionic sulfates, many of which are highly [soluble](/wiki/Solubility "Solubility") in [water](/wiki/Water "Water"). Exceptions include [calcium sulfate](/wiki/Calcium_sulfate "Calcium sulfate"), [strontium sulfate](/wiki/Strontium_sulfate "Strontium sulfate"), [lead(II) sulfate](/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate "Lead(II) sulfate"), [barium sulfate](/wiki/Barium_sulfate "Barium sulfate"), [silver sulfate](/wiki/Silver_sulfate "Silver sulfate"), and [mercury sulfate](/wiki/Mercury_sulfate "Mercury sulfate"), which are poorly soluble. [Radium sulfate](/wiki/Radium_sulfate "Radium sulfate") is the most insoluble sulfate known. The barium derivative is useful in the [gravimetric analysis](/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis "Gravimetric analysis") of sulfate: if one adds a solution of most barium salts, for instance [barium chloride](/wiki/Barium_chloride "Barium chloride"), to a solution containing sulfate ions, barium sulfate will precipitate out of solution as a whitish powder. This is a common laboratory test to determine if sulfate anions are present.

The sulfate ion can act as a ligand attaching either by one oxygen (monodentate) or by two oxygens as either a [chelate](/wiki/Chelate "Chelate") or a bridge.[\[7\]](#cite_note-greenwood-8) An example is the complex [Co](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt")( [en](/wiki/Ethylenediamine "Ethylenediamine"))2(SO4)\]+Br−[\[7\]](#cite_note-greenwood-8) or the neutral metal complex [Pt](/wiki/Platinum "Platinum") SO4( [PPh3](/wiki/Triphenylphosphine "Triphenylphosphine"))2\] where the sulfate ion is acting as a [bidentate](/wiki/Denticity "Denticity") ligand. The metal–oxygen bonds in sulfate complexes can have significant covalent character.

## Uses and occurrence

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Uses and occurrence")\]

### Commercial applications

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Commercial applications")\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg/170px-Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg)](/wiki/File:Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_(27190138015).jpg) Knapsack sprayer used to apply sulfate to vegetables. [Valencian Museum of Ethnology](/wiki/Valencian_Museum_of_Ethnology "Valencian Museum of Ethnology").

Sulfates are widely used industrially. Major compounds include:

- [Gypsum](/wiki/Gypsum "Gypsum"), the natural mineral form of hydrated [calcium sulfate](/wiki/Calcium_sulfate "Calcium sulfate"), is used to produce [plaster](/wiki/Plaster "Plaster"). About 100 million tonnes per year are used by the construction industry.
- [Copper sulfate](/wiki/Copper_sulfate "Copper sulfate"), a common [algaecide](/wiki/Algaecide "Algaecide"), the more stable form ( [CuSO4](/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate "Copper(II) sulfate")) is used for galvanic cells as electrolyte
- [Iron(II) sulfate](/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate "Iron(II) sulfate"), a common form of iron in mineral supplements for humans, animals, and soil for plants
- [Magnesium sulfate](/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate "Magnesium sulfate") (commonly known as [Epsom salts](/wiki/Epsom_salts "Epsom salts")), used in therapeutic baths
- [Lead(II) sulfate](/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate "Lead(II) sulfate"), produced on both plates during the discharge of a [lead–acid battery](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery "Lead–acid battery")
- [Sodium laureth sulfate](/wiki/Sodium_laureth_sulfate "Sodium laureth sulfate"), or SLES, a common [detergent](/wiki/Detergent "Detergent") in shampoo formulations
- [Polyhalite](/wiki/Polyhalite "Polyhalite"), K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4·2H2O, used as [fertiliser](/wiki/Fertiliser "Fertiliser").

### Occurrence in nature

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=8 "Edit section: Occurrence in nature")\]

[Sulfate-reducing bacteria](/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria "Sulfate-reducing bacteria"), some anaerobic microorganisms, such as those living in sediment or near deep sea thermal vents, use the reduction of sulfates coupled with the oxidation of organic compounds or hydrogen as an energy source for chemosynthesis.

## History

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=9 "Edit section: History")\]

Some sulfates were known to alchemists. The vitriol salts, from the Latin _vitreolum_, glassy, were so-called because they were some of the first transparent crystals known.[\[8\]](#cite_note-9) [Green vitriol](/wiki/Green_vitriol "Green vitriol") is [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron")(II) sulfate heptahydrate, FeSO4·7H2O; [blue vitriol](/wiki/Blue_vitriol "Blue vitriol") is [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper")(II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4·5H2O and [white vitriol](/wiki/White_vitriol "White vitriol") is zinc sulfate heptahydrate, ZnSO4·7H2O. [Alum](/wiki/Alum "Alum"), a double sulfate of [potassium](/wiki/Potassium "Potassium") and [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium") with the formula K2Al2(SO4)4·24H2O, figured in the development of the chemical industry.

## Environmental effects

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: Environmental effects")\]

Sulfates occur as microscopic particles ( [aerosols](/wiki/Particulate "Particulate")) resulting from [fossil fuel](/wiki/Fossil_fuel "Fossil fuel") and [biomass](/wiki/Biomass "Biomass") combustion. They increase the acidity of the [atmosphere](/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere "Earth's atmosphere") and form [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain "Acid rain"). The [anaerobic](/wiki/Anaerobic_organism "Anaerobic organism") [sulfate-reducing bacteria](/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria "Sulfate-reducing bacteria") _[Desulfovibrio](/wiki/Desulfovibrio "Desulfovibrio") desulfuricans_ and _[D. vulgaris](/wiki/Desulfovibrio_vulgaris "Desulfovibrio vulgaris")_ can remove the black [sulfate crust](/wiki/Sulfate_crust "Sulfate crust") that often tarnishes buildings.[\[9\]](#cite_note-10)

### Main effects on climate

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=11 "Edit section: Main effects on climate")\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Climate_Change_Attribution.png/250px-Climate_Change_Attribution.png)](/wiki/File:Climate_Change_Attribution.png) This figure shows the level of agreement between a [climate model](/wiki/Climate_model "Climate model") driven by five factors and the [historical temperature record](/wiki/Historical_temperature_record "Historical temperature record"). The negative component identified as "sulfate" is associated with the aerosol emissions blamed for global dimming.

This section is an excerpt from [Global dimming § History](/wiki/Global_dimming#History "Global dimming").\[ [edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#History)\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg/260px-Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg)](/wiki/File:Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg) The observed trends of global dimming and brightening in four major geographic regions. The dimming was greater on the average cloud-free days (red line) than on the average of all days (purple line), strongly suggesting that sulfate aerosols were the cause.[\[10\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022-11)
Subsequent research estimated an average reduction in sunlight striking the terrestrial surface of around 4–5% per decade over the late 1950s–1980s, and 2–3% per decade when 1990s were included.[\[11\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Stanhill1992-12)[\[12\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Gilgen1998-13)[\[13\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Stanhill2001-14)[\[14\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Liepert2002-15) Notably, solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere did not vary by more than 0.1-0.3% in all that time, strongly suggesting that the reasons for the dimming were on Earth.[\[15\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Eddy1982-16)[\[16\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_AGU2021-17) Additionally, only visible light and [infrared](/wiki/Infrared "Infrared") radiation were dimmed, rather than the [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet "Ultraviolet") part of the spectrum.[\[17\]](#cite_note-18) Further, the dimming had occurred even when the skies were clear, and it was in fact stronger than during the cloudy days, proving that it was not caused by changes in cloud cover alone.[\[18\]](#cite_note-19)[\[16\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_AGU2021-17)[\[10\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022-11)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/SulufrDioxide2017.png/220px-SulufrDioxide2017.png)](/wiki/File:SulufrDioxide2017.png) Sulfur dioxide in the world on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary day to day with weather patterns and seasonality.

#### Reversal and accelerated warming

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=12 "Edit section: Reversal and accelerated warming")\]

This section is an excerpt from [Global dimming § Reversal](/wiki/Global_dimming#Reversal "Global dimming").\[ [edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#Reversal)\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerosol_dimming.jpg/220px-Aerosol_dimming.jpg)](/wiki/File:Aerosol_dimming.jpg) Sun-blocking [aerosols](/wiki/Aerosols "Aerosols") around the world steadily declined (red line) since the 1991 eruption of [Mount Pinatubo](/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo "Mount Pinatubo"), according to satellite estimates.

After 1990, the global dimming trend had clearly switched to global brightening.[\[19\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_LightensUp-20)[\[20\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Wild2005-21)[\[21\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Pinker2005-22)[\[22\]](#cite_note-23)[\[23\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_NASA2007-24) This followed measures taken to combat air pollution by the [developed nations](/wiki/Developed_nations "Developed nations"), typically through [flue-gas desulfurization](/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization "Flue-gas desulfurization") installations at [thermal power plants](/wiki/Thermal_power_plant "Thermal power plant"), such as [wet scrubbers](/wiki/Wet_scrubber "Wet scrubber") or [fluidized bed combustion](/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion "Fluidized bed combustion").[\[24\]](#cite_note-25)[\[25\]](#cite_note-26)[\[26\]](#cite_note-27) In the United States, sulfate aerosols have declined significantly since 1970 with the passage of the [Clean Air Act](/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States) "Clean Air Act (United States)"), which was strengthened in 1977 and 1990. According to the [EPA](/wiki/EPA "EPA"), from 1970 to 2005, total emissions of the six principal air pollutants, including sulfates, dropped by 53% in the US.[\[27\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28) By 2010, this reduction in sulfate pollution led to estimated healthcare cost savings valued at $50 billion annually.[\[28\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPAHealth-29) Similar measures were taken in Europe,[\[27\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28) such as the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions under the [Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution](/wiki/Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution "Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution"), and with similar improvements.[\[29\]](#cite_note-30)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pollution_over_east_China.jpg/220px-Pollution_over_east_China.jpg)](/wiki/File:Pollution_over_east_China.jpg) Satellite photo showing a thick pall of smoke and haze from [forest fires](/wiki/Forest_fire "Forest fire") in [Eastern China](/wiki/East_China "East China"). Such smoke is full of black carbon, which contributes to dimming trends but has an overall warming effect.

At the peak of global dimming, it was able to counteract the warming trend completely. By 1975, the continually increasing concentrations of [greenhouse gases](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas") have overcome the masking effect and dominated ever since.[\[27\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28) Even then, regions with high concentrations of [sulfate aerosols](/wiki/Sulfate_aerosol "Sulfate aerosol") due to air pollution had initially experienced cooling, in contradiction to the overall warming trend.[\[30\]](#cite_note-31) The eastern United States was a prominent example: the temperatures there declined by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1970 and 1980, and by up to 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas") and [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri").[\[31\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_:0-32)

Since changes in aerosol concentrations already have an impact on the global climate, they would necessarily influence future projections as well. In fact, it is impossible to fully estimate the warming impact of all [greenhouse gases](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas") without accounting for the counteracting cooling from aerosols.[\[32\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018-33)[\[33\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Bellouin2019-34)

Regardless of the current strength of aerosol cooling, all future [climate change scenarios](/wiki/Climate_change_scenario "Climate change scenario") project decreases in particulates and this includes the scenarios where 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 2 °C (3.6 °F) targets are met: their specific emission reduction targets assume the need to make up for lower dimming.[\[34\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_IPCC_WGI_SPM-35) Since models estimate that the cooling caused by sulfates is largely equivalent to the warming caused by [atmospheric methane](/wiki/Atmospheric_methane "Atmospheric methane") (and since methane is a relatively short-lived greenhouse gas), it is believed that simultaneous reductions in both would effectively cancel each other out.[\[35\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_CB2021-36)

[\[36\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Hassan2022-37) Yet, in the recent years, methane concentrations had been increasing at rates exceeding their previous period of peak growth in the 1980s,[\[37\]](#cite_note-38)[\[38\]](#cite_note-39) with [wetland methane emissions](/wiki/Wetland_methane_emissions "Wetland methane emissions") driving much of the recent growth,[\[39\]](#cite_note-40)[\[40\]](#cite_note-41) while air pollution is getting cleaned up aggressively.[\[41\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Quaas2022-42) These trends are some of the main reasons why 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming is now expected around 2030, as opposed to the mid-2010s estimates where it would not occur until 2040.[\[32\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018-33)

#### Hydrological cycle

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=13 "Edit section: Hydrological cycle")\]

This section is an excerpt from [Global dimming § Relationship with water cycle](/wiki/Global_dimming#Relationship_with_water_cycle "Global dimming").\[ [edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#Relationship_with_water_cycle)\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png/220px-Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png)](/wiki/File:Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png) Sulfate aerosols have decreased precipitation over most of Asia (red), but increased it over some parts of Central Asia (blue).[\[42\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Xie2022-43)

On regional and global scale, air pollution can affect the [water cycle](/wiki/Water_cycle "Water cycle"), in a manner similar to some natural processes. One example is the impact of [Sahara](/wiki/Sahara "Sahara") [dust](/wiki/Dust "Dust") on [hurricane](/wiki/Hurricane "Hurricane") formation: air laden with sand and mineral particles moves over the Atlantic Ocean, where they block some of the sunlight from reaching the water surface, slightly cooling it and dampening the development of hurricanes.[\[43\]](#cite_note-44) Likewise, it has been suggested since the early 2000s that since aerosols decrease [solar radiation](/wiki/Solar_radiation "Solar radiation") over the ocean and hence reduce evaporation from it, they would be "spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet."[\[44\]](#cite_note-45)[\[45\]](#cite_note-46)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png/220px-Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png)](/wiki/File:Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png) In the United States, aerosols generally reduce both mean and extreme precipitation across all four seasons, which has cancelled out the increases caused by greenhouse gas warming[\[46\]](#cite_note-Global_dimming_Risser2024-47)

#### Solar geoengineering

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=14 "Edit section: Solar geoengineering")\]

[![refer to caption and image description](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/330px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg)](/wiki/File:SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg) Proposed tethered balloon to inject [aerosols](/wiki/Aerosols "Aerosols") into the stratosphere.

This section is an excerpt from [Stratospheric aerosol injection § Pollution controls and the discovery of radiative effects](/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection#Pollution_controls_and_the_discovery_of_radiative_effects "Stratospheric aerosol injection").\[ [edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratospheric_aerosol_injection&action=edit#Pollution_controls_and_the_discovery_of_radiative_effects)\]

As the real world had shown the importance of sulfate aerosol concentrations to the global climate, research into the subject accelerated. Formation of the aerosols and their effects on the atmosphere can be studied in the lab, with methods like [ion-chromatography](/wiki/Ion_chromatography "Ion chromatography") and [mass spectrometry](/wiki/Mass_spectrometry "Mass spectrometry")[\[47\]](#cite_note-48) Samples of actual particles can be recovered from the [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere "Stratosphere") using balloons or aircraft,[\[48\]](#cite_note-49) and remote [satellites](/wiki/Satellite "Satellite") were also used for observation.[\[49\]](#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_:32-50) This data is fed into the [climate models](/wiki/Climate_model "Climate model"),[\[50\]](#cite_note-51) as the necessity of accounting for aerosol cooling to truly understand the rate and evolution of warming had long been apparent, with the [IPCC Second Assessment Report](/wiki/IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report "IPCC Second Assessment Report") being the first to include an estimate of their impact on climate, and every major model able to simulate them by the time [IPCC Fourth Assessment Report](/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report") was published in 2007.[\[51\]](#cite_note-52) Many scientists also see the other side of this research, which is learning how to cause the same effect artificially.[\[52\]](#cite_note-53) While discussed around the 1990s, if not earlier,[\[53\]](#cite_note-54) stratospheric aerosol injection as a [solar geoengineering](/wiki/Solar_geoengineering "Solar geoengineering") method is best associated with [Paul Crutzen](/wiki/Paul_Crutzen "Paul Crutzen")'s detailed 2006 proposal.[\[54\]](#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Crutzen062-55) Deploying in the stratosphere ensures that the aerosols are at their most effective, and that the progress of clean air measures would not be reversed: more recent research estimated that even under the highest-emission scenario [RCP 8.5](/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway "Representative Concentration Pathway"), the addition of stratospheric sulfur required to avoid 4 °C (7.2 °F) relative to now (and 5 °C (9.0 °F) relative to the preindustrial) would be effectively offset by the future controls on tropospheric sulfate pollution, and the amount required would be even less for less drastic warming scenarios.[\[55\]](#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Visioni2020-56) This spurred a detailed look at its costs and benefits,[\[56\]](#cite_note-57) but even with hundreds of studies into the subject completed by the early 2020s, some notable uncertainties remain.[\[57\]](#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_IPCC_WGI_SRM-58)

## Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=15 "Edit section: Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)")\]

Hydrogensulfate
[![Hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate)](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hydrogen_sulfate.svg/120px-Hydrogen_sulfate.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Hydrogen_sulfate.svg)Names
[IUPAC name](/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature "Chemical nomenclature")

Hydrogensulfate[\[58\]](#cite_note-59)

Other names

Bisulfate

Identifiers

[CAS Number](/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number "CAS Registry Number")

- [14996-02-2](https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=14996-02-2)

3D model ( [JSmol](/wiki/JSmol "JSmol"))

- [Interactive image](https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=O%5BS%5D%28%3DO%29%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D)

[ChEBI](/wiki/ChEBI "ChEBI")

- [CHEBI:45696](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=45696)

[ChemSpider](/wiki/ChemSpider "ChemSpider")

- [55666](https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.55666.html)

[ECHA InfoCard](/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard "ECHA InfoCard")[100.108.048](https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.108.048)[![Edit this at Wikidata](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P2566 "Edit this at Wikidata")

[Gmelin Reference](/wiki/Gmelin_database "Gmelin database")

2121

[PubChem](/wiki/PubChem "PubChem") CID

- [61778](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/61778)

[CompTox Dashboard](/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard "CompTox Chemicals Dashboard")(EPA)

- [DTXSID3042425](https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID3042425)[![Edit this at Wikidata](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P3117 "Edit this at Wikidata")

[InChI](/wiki/International_Chemical_Identifier "International Chemical Identifier")

- InChI=1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-1



Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-M


[SMILES](/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system "Simplified molecular-input line-entry system")

- O\[S\](=O)(=O)\[O-\]


Properties

[Chemical formula](/wiki/Chemical_formula "Chemical formula")

HSO−4[Molar mass](/wiki/Molar_mass "Molar mass")97.071 g/mol
[Conjugate acid](/wiki/Conjugate_acid "Conjugate acid")[Sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid")[Conjugate base](/wiki/Conjugate_base "Conjugate base")Sulfate

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their [standard state](/wiki/Standard_state "Standard state") (at 25 °C \[77 °F\], 100 kPa).

[Infobox references](/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References "Wikipedia:Chemical infobox")

Chemical compound

The **hydrogensulfate** ion (HSO−4), also called the **bisulfate** ion, is the [conjugate base](/wiki/Conjugate_(acid-base_theory) "Conjugate (acid-base theory)") of [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid") (H2SO4).[\[59\]](#cite_note-60)[\[b\]](#cite_note-61) Sulfuric acid is classified as a strong acid; in aqueous solutions it ionizes completely to form [hydronium](/wiki/Hydronium "Hydronium") (H3O+) and hydrogensulfate (HSO−4) ions. In other words, the sulfuric acid behaves as a [Brønsted–Lowry acid](/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theory "Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory") and is [deprotonated](/wiki/Deprotonation "Deprotonation") to form hydrogensulfate ion. Hydrogensulfate has a [valency](/wiki/Valence_(chemistry) "Valence (chemistry)") of 1. An example of a salt containing the HSO−4 ion is [sodium bisulfate](/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate "Sodium bisulfate"), NaHSO4. In dilute solutions the hydrogensulfate ions also dissociate, forming more hydronium ions and sulfate ions (SO2−4).

## Other sulfur oxyanions

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=16 "Edit section: Other sulfur oxyanions")\]

Sulfur oxyanions
Molecular formula
Name
SO2−5[Peroxomonosulfate](/wiki/Peroxomonosulfate "Peroxomonosulfate")SO2−4Sulfate
SO2−3[Sulfite](/wiki/Sulfite "Sulfite")S2O2−8[Peroxydisulfate](/wiki/Peroxydisulfate "Peroxydisulfate")S2O2−7[Pyrosulfate](/wiki/Pyrosulfate "Pyrosulfate")S2O2−6[Dithionate](/wiki/Dithionate "Dithionate")S2O2−5[Metabisulfite](/wiki/Metabisulfite "Metabisulfite")S2O2−4[Dithionite](/wiki/Dithionite "Dithionite")S2O2−3[Thiosulfate](/wiki/Thiosulfate "Thiosulfate")S3O2−6[Trithionate](/wiki/Trithionate "Trithionate")S4O2−6[Tetrathionate](/wiki/Tetrathionate "Tetrathionate")

## See also

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=17 "Edit section: See also")\]

- [Sulfonate](/wiki/Sulfonate "Sulfonate")
- [Sulfation and desulfation of lead–acid batteries](/wiki/Lead-acid_battery#Sulfation_and_desulfation "Lead-acid battery")
- [Sulfate-reducing microorganism](/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_microorganism "Sulfate-reducing microorganism")

## Notes

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=18 "Edit section: Notes")\]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-formal_charge_2-0)**Lewis assigned to sulfur a negative charge of two, starting from six own valence electrons and ending up with eight electrons shared with the oxygen atoms. In fact, sulfur donates two electrons to the oxygen atoms.
2. **[^](#cite_ref-61)**The prefix "bi" in "bisulfate" comes from an outdated naming system and is based on the observation that there is twice as much sulfate (SO2−4) in [sodium bisulfate](/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate "Sodium bisulfate") (NaHSO4) and other bisulfates as in [sodium sulfate](/wiki/Sodium_sulfate "Sodium sulfate") (Na2SO4) and other sulfates. See also [bicarbonate](/wiki/Bicarbonate "Bicarbonate").

## References

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=19 "Edit section: References")\]

01. **[^](#cite_ref-1)**[Lewis, Gilbert N.](/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis "Gilbert N. Lewis") (1916). ["The Atom and the Molecule"](http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/papers/corr216.3-lewispub-19160400-18-large.html). _[J. Am. Chem. Soc.](/wiki/J._Am._Chem._Soc. "J. Am. Chem. Soc.")_ **38** (4): 762–785. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1021/ja02261a002](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [95865413](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95865413). (See page 778.)
02. **[^](#cite_ref-3)**[Pauling, Linus](/wiki/Linus_Pauling "Linus Pauling") (1948). ["The modern theory of valency"](https://authors.library.caltech.edu/59671/). _[J. Chem. Soc.](/wiki/J._Chem._Soc. "J. Chem. Soc.")_ **17**: 1461–1467. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1039/JR9480001461](https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR9480001461). [PMID](/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [18893624](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18893624).
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46. **[^](#cite_ref-Global_dimming_Risser2024_47-0)**Risser, Mark D.; Collins, William D.; Wehner, Michael F.; O'Brien, Travis A.; Huang, Huanping; Ullrich, Paul A. (22 February 2024). ["Anthropogenic aerosols mask increases in US rainfall by greenhouse gases"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10884021). _[Nature Communications](/wiki/Nature_Communications "Nature Communications")_. **15** (1): 1318. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2024NatCo..15.1318R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024NatCo..15.1318R). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1038/s41467-024-45504-8](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-024-45504-8). [PMC](/wiki/PMC_(identifier) "PMC (identifier)") [10884021](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10884021). [PMID](/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [38388495](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38388495).
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48. **[^](#cite_ref-49)**Palumbo, P.; A. Rotundi; V. Della Corte; A. Ciucci; L. Colangeli; F. Esposito; E. Mazzotta Epifani; V. Mennella; J.R. Brucato; F.J.M. Rietmeijer; G. J. Flynn; J.-B. Renard; J.R. Stephens; E. Zona. ["The DUSTER experiment: collection and analysis of aerosol in the high stratosphere"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234296252_DUSTER_Aerosol_collection_in_the_stratosphere). _Societa Astronomica Italiana_. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
49. **[^](#cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_:32_50-0)**Myhre, Gunnar; Stordal, Frode; Berglen, Tore F.; Sundet, Jostein K.; Isaksen, Ivar S. A. (2004-03-01). ["Uncertainties in the Radiative Forcing Due to Sulfate Aerosols"](https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%282004%29061%3C0485%3AUITRFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2). _Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences_. **61** (5): 485–498. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2004JAtS...61..485M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JAtS...61..485M). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0485:UITRFD>2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%282004%29061%3C0485%3AUITRFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [0022-4928](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4928). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [55623817](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55623817).
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51. **[^](#cite_ref-52)**["Aerosols and Incoming Sunlight (Direct Effects)"](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Aerosols/page3.php). [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA"). 2 November 2010.
52. **[^](#cite_ref-53)**["Stratospheric Injections Could Help Cool Earth, Computer Model Shows"](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060914182715.htm). ScienceDaily. 15 September 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
53. **[^](#cite_ref-54)**Launder B.; J.M.T. Thompson (1996). ["Global and Arctic climate engineering: numerical model studies"](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2008.0132). _Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A_. **366** (1882): 4039–56. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2008RSPTA.366.4039C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008RSPTA.366.4039C). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1098/rsta.2008.0132](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2008.0132). [PMID](/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [18757275](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18757275).
54. **[^](#cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Crutzen062_55-0)**Crutzen, P. J. (2006). ["Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?"](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y). _Climatic Change_. **77** (3–4): 211–220. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2006ClCh...77..211C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ClCh...77..211C). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y).
55. **[^](#cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Visioni2020_56-0)**Visioni, Daniele; Slessarev, Eric; MacMartin, Douglas G; Mahowald, Natalie M; Goodale, Christine L; Xia, Lili (1 September 2020). ["What goes up must come down: impacts of deposition in a sulfate geoengineering scenario"](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fab94eb). _Environmental Research Letters_. **15** (9): 094063. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2020ERL....15i4063V](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ERL....15i4063V). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1088/1748-9326/ab94eb](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fab94eb). [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [1748-9326](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1748-9326).
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[Authority control databases](/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control"): National [![Edit this at Wikidata](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata")

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  - [2](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1230283&CON_LNG=ENG)

- [v](/wiki/Template:Sulfates "Template:Sulfates")
- [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Sulfates "Template talk:Sulfates")
- [e](/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sulfates "Special:EditPage/Template:Sulfates")

Compounds containing the sulfate group (SO2−4)

[H2SO4](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid")He
[Li2SO4](/wiki/Lithium_sulfate "Lithium sulfate")[BeSO4](/wiki/Beryllium_sulfate "Beryllium sulfate")[B2S2O9](/wiki/Boron_sulfate "Boron sulfate")

[-BO3](/wiki/Borosulfate "Borosulfate")

[+BO3](/wiki/Borate_sulfate "Borate sulfate")esters

[ROSO−3](/wiki/Organosulfate "Organosulfate")

(RO)2SO2

[+CO3](/wiki/Sulfate_carbonate "Sulfate carbonate")

[+C2O4](/wiki/Oxalate_sulfate "Oxalate sulfate")[(NH4)2SO4](/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate "Ammonium sulfate")

[\[N2H5\]HSO4](/wiki/Hydrazine_sulfate "Hydrazine sulfate")

[(NH3OH)2SO4](/wiki/Hydroxylammonium_sulfate "Hydroxylammonium sulfate")

[NOHSO4](/wiki/Nitrosylsulfuric_acid "Nitrosylsulfuric acid")

[+NO3](/wiki/Sulfate_nitrates "Sulfate nitrates")[H2OSO4](/wiki/Peroxymonosulfuric_acid "Peroxymonosulfuric acid")[+F](/wiki/Sulfate_fluoride "Sulfate fluoride")Ne
[Na2SO4](/wiki/Sodium_sulfate "Sodium sulfate")

[NaHSO4](/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate "Sodium bisulfate")[MgSO4](/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate "Magnesium sulfate")[Al2(SO4)3](/wiki/Aluminium_sulfate "Aluminium sulfate")

[Al2SO4(OAc)4](/wiki/Aluminium_sulfacetate "Aluminium sulfacetate")Si
[+PO4](/wiki/Phosphate_sulfate "Phosphate sulfate")SO2−4

[HSO3HSO4](/wiki/Disulfuric_acid "Disulfuric acid")

[(HSO4)2](/wiki/Peroxydisulfuric_acid "Peroxydisulfuric acid")

[+SO3](/wiki/Sulfite_sulfate "Sulfite sulfate")[+Cl](/wiki/Sulfate_chloride "Sulfate chloride")Ar
[K2SO4](/wiki/Potassium_sulfate "Potassium sulfate")

[KHSO4](/wiki/Potassium_bisulfate "Potassium bisulfate")[CaSO4](/wiki/Calcium_sulfate "Calcium sulfate")[Sc2(SO4)3](/wiki/Scandium_sulfate "Scandium sulfate")[TiOSO4](/wiki/Titanyl_sulfate "Titanyl sulfate")[VSO4](/wiki/Vanadium(II)_sulfate "Vanadium(II) sulfate")

[V2(SO4)3](/wiki/Vanadium(III)_sulfate "Vanadium(III) sulfate")

[VOSO4](/wiki/Vanadyl_sulfate "Vanadyl sulfate")[CrSO4](/wiki/Chromium(II)_sulfate "Chromium(II) sulfate")

[Cr2(SO4)3](/wiki/Chromium(III)_sulfate "Chromium(III) sulfate")[MnSO4](/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfate "Manganese(II) sulfate")[FeSO4](/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate "Iron(II) sulfate")

[Fe2(SO4)3](/wiki/Iron(III)_sulfate "Iron(III) sulfate")[CoSO4](/wiki/Cobalt(II)_sulfate "Cobalt(II) sulfate")

[Co2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Cobalt(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Cobalt(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[NiSO4](/wiki/Nickel(II)_sulfate "Nickel(II) sulfate")

[Ni2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Nickel(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Nickel(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[CuSO4](/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate "Copper(II) sulfate")

[Cu2SO4](/wiki/Copper(I)_sulfate "Copper(I) sulfate")

[\[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)\]SO4](/wiki/Tetraamminecopper(II)_sulfate "Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate")[ZnSO4](/wiki/Zinc_sulfate "Zinc sulfate")[Ga2(SO4)3](/wiki/Gallium_sulfate "Gallium sulfate")Ge
As
[+SeO3](/wiki/Selenite_sulfate "Selenite sulfate")Br
Kr
[RbHSO4](/wiki/Rubidium_hydrogen_sulfate "Rubidium hydrogen sulfate")

[Rb2SO4](/wiki/Rubidium_sulfate "Rubidium sulfate")[SrSO4](/wiki/Strontium_sulfate "Strontium sulfate")[Y2(SO4)3](/wiki/Yttrium_sulfate "Yttrium sulfate")[Zr(SO4)2](/wiki/Zirconium(IV)_sulfate "Zirconium(IV) sulfate")[Nb2O2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Niobium_dioxide_trisulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Niobium dioxide trisulfate (page does not exist)")[MoO(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Molybdenum(VI)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Molybdenum(VI) oxysulfate (page does not exist)")

[MoO2(SO4)](/w/index.php?title=Molybdenum(VI)_dioxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Molybdenum(VI) dioxysulfate (page does not exist)")Tc
[Ru(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Ruthenium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ruthenium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Rh2(SO4)3](/wiki/Rhodium(III)_sulfate "Rhodium(III) sulfate")[PdSO4](/wiki/Palladium(II)_sulfate "Palladium(II) sulfate")[Ag2SO4](/wiki/Silver_sulfate "Silver sulfate")

[AgSO4](/wiki/Silver(II)_sulfate "Silver(II) sulfate")[CdSO4](/wiki/Cadmium_sulfate "Cadmium sulfate")[In2(SO4)3](/wiki/Indium(III)_sulfate "Indium(III) sulfate")[SnSO4](/wiki/Tin(II)_sulfate "Tin(II) sulfate")

[Sn(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Tin(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Tin(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Sb2(SO4)3](/wiki/Antimony_sulfate "Antimony sulfate")Te
[I2(SO4)3](/wiki/Iodine_sulfate "Iodine sulfate")

[(IO)2SO4](/wiki/Diiodosyl_sulfate "Diiodosyl sulfate")

[+IO3](/wiki/Iodate_sulfate "Iodate sulfate")Xe
[Cs2SO4](/wiki/Caesium_sulfate "Caesium sulfate")

[CsHSO4](/wiki/Caesium_hydrogen_sulfate "Caesium hydrogen sulfate")[BaSO4](/wiki/Barium_sulfate "Barium sulfate")\*
[Lu2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Lutetium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Lutetium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")Hf
Ta
[WO(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Tungsten(VI)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Tungsten(VI) oxysulfate (page does not exist)")[Re2O5(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Rhenium(VII)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Rhenium(VII) oxysulfate (page does not exist)")[OsSO4](/w/index.php?title=Osmium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Osmium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)")

[Os2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Osmium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Osmium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")

[Os(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Osmium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Osmium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[IrSO4](/w/index.php?title=Iridium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Iridium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)")

[Ir2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Iridium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Iridium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Pt2(SO4)54–](/w/index.php?title=Pentasulfatodiplatinate(III)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Pentasulfatodiplatinate(III) (page does not exist)")[AuSO4](/wiki/Gold(II)_sulfate "Gold(II) sulfate")

[Au2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Gold(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gold(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Hg2SO4](/wiki/Mercury(I)_sulfate "Mercury(I) sulfate")

[HgSO4](/wiki/Mercury(II)_sulfate "Mercury(II) sulfate")[Tl2SO4](/wiki/Thallium(I)_sulfate "Thallium(I) sulfate")

[Tl2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Thallium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Thallium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[PbSO4](/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate "Lead(II) sulfate")

[Pb(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Lead(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Lead(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Bi2(SO4)3](/wiki/Bismuth(III)_sulfate "Bismuth(III) sulfate")[PoSO4](/w/index.php?title=Polonium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Polonium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)")

[Po(SO4)2](/wiki/Polonium(IV)_sulfate "Polonium(IV) sulfate")At
Rn
Fr
[RaSO4](/wiki/Radium_sulfate "Radium sulfate")\*\*
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
\*
[La2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Lanthanum(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Lanthanum(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Ce2(SO4)3](/wiki/Cerium(III)_sulfate "Cerium(III) sulfate")

[Ce(SO4)2](/wiki/Cerium(IV)_sulfate "Cerium(IV) sulfate")[Pr2(SO4)3](/wiki/Praseodymium(III)_sulfate "Praseodymium(III) sulfate")[Nd2(SO4)3](/wiki/Neodymium(III)_sulfate "Neodymium(III) sulfate")[Pm2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Promethium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Promethium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Sm2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Samarium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Samarium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[EuSO4](/wiki/Europium(II)_sulfate "Europium(II) sulfate")

[Eu2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Europium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Europium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Gd2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Gadolinium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gadolinium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Tb2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Terbium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Terbium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Dy2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Dysprosium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Dysprosium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Ho2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Holmium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Holmium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Er2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Erbium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Erbium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Tm2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Thulium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Thulium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Yb2(SO4)3](/wiki/Ytterbium(III)_sulfate "Ytterbium(III) sulfate")\*\*
[Ac2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Actinium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Actinium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Th(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Thorium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")Pa
[U2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Uranium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Uranium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")

[U(SO4)2](/wiki/Uranium(IV)_sulfate "Uranium(IV) sulfate")

[UO2SO4](/wiki/Uranyl_sulfate "Uranyl sulfate")[Np(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Neptunium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Neptunium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Pu(SO4)2](/w/index.php?title=Plutonium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Plutonium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Am2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Americium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Americium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")[Cm2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Curium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Curium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")Bk
[Cf2(SO4)3](/w/index.php?title=Californium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1 "Californium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)")Es
Fm
Md
No

## External links

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=20 "Edit section: External links")\]

- [Current global map of aerosol optical thickness](https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=suexttau/winkel3)

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- [Sulfates](/wiki/Category:Sulfates "Category:Sulfates")
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