Un recorrido por los edificios más altos del mundo - NAN Arquitectura
Contenido · 1. Burj Khalifa, Dubái – 828 metros · 2. Merdeka 118, Kuala Lumpur – 678 metros · 3. Shanghai Tower, Shanghái – 632 metros · 4.
appers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future
En su estudio titulado « [Skyscr](Skyscrappers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future) <anchor>appers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future</anchor>«, Ray Pinak y Roy Subham, académicos de la Jadavpur University, delinean la evolución de los rascacielos. Según estos expertos, «la evolución contemporánea de los rascacielos se fundamenta en siete innovaciones esenciales que han transformado la ingeniería de estos edificios a lo largo de los años: movilidad, selección de materiales, gestión térmica, ritmo de edificación, capacidad de resistencia a vientos y terremotos, y sistemas de evacuación eficientes».
(PDF) Skyscrapers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future
(PDF) Skyscrapers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future

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# Skyscrapers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future

- June 2019
- Journal on Today s Ideas-Tomorrow s Technologies 6(1)

- 6(1)

DOI: [10.15415/jotitt.2018.61001](http://dx.doi.org/10.15415/jotitt.2018.61001)

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[![Pinak Ray at Jadavpur University](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](profile/Pinak-Ray-2)

[Pinak Ray](profile/Pinak-Ray-2)

- [Jadavpur University](https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Jadavpur-University)

[![Subham Roy](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](scientific-contributions/Subham-Roy-2158847444)

[Subham Roy](scientific-contributions/Subham-Roy-2158847444)

[Subham Roy](scientific-contributions/Subham-Roy-2158847444)

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## Abstract and Figures

From humble cottages to super tall structures, human beings have
progressively developed the living and working space with time.
This paper describes the origin and growth of modern skyscrapers,
the subsequent challenges faced, and the way it was outdone.
Research papers and case studies have been thoroughly studied
and important excerpts from them have been explained to show
how the modern structures have been evolved. The sources and
causes of evolution is debatable among researchers, this paper has
taken into account 7 most vital milestones in the growth of current
generation skyscrapers and their contribution to the construction
industry and concludes with the ideas and scopes where growth is
still possible and challenges need to be solved.

[![United nations headquarters (168 meters) with its glass facades [Image courtesy: ny.curbed.com] From 1947 to 2017, glass as a construction material has improved dramatically. Glass and steel construction have become the face of development in many countries. In 1947](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/United-nations-headquarters-168-meters-with-its-glass-facades-Image-courtesy_fig1_333894369 "Figure 4: United nations headquarters (168 meters) with its glass...")

[United nations headquarters (168 meters) with its glass facades \[Image courtesy: ny.curbed.com\] From 1947 to 2017, glass as a construction material has improved dramatically. Glass and steel construction have become the face of development in many countries. In 1947\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/United-nations-headquarters-168-meters-with-its-glass-facades-Image-courtesy_fig1_333894369)

[![Construction of erstwhile world trade center using four Kangaroo cranes [Image courtesy: raredelights.com]](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Construction-of-erstwhile-world-trade-center-using-four-Kangaroo-cranes-Image-courtesy_fig2_333894369 "Figure 5: Construction of erstwhile world trade center using four...")

[Construction of erstwhile world trade center using four Kangaroo cranes \[Image courtesy: raredelights.com\]\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Construction-of-erstwhile-world-trade-center-using-four-Kangaroo-cranes-Image-courtesy_fig2_333894369)

[![Erstwhile world trade center nearing completion [Image courtesy: fineartstorehouse. com]](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Erstwhile-world-trade-center-nearing-completion-Image-courtesy-fineartstorehouse-com_fig3_333894369 "Figure 6: Erstwhile world trade center nearing completion [Image...")

[Erstwhile world trade center nearing completion \[Image courtesy: fineartstorehouse. com\]\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Erstwhile-world-trade-center-nearing-completion-Image-courtesy-fineartstorehouse-com_fig3_333894369)

[![Sears tower exoskeleton [Image courtesy: som.com]](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Sears-tower-exoskeleton-Image-courtesy-somcom_fig4_333894369 "Figure 7: Sears tower exoskeleton [Image courtesy: som.com]")

[Sears tower exoskeleton \[Image courtesy: som.com\]\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Sears-tower-exoskeleton-Image-courtesy-somcom_fig4_333894369)

[![Completed sears tower with its aerodynamic design [Image courtesy: som.com]](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)\
\
+1](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Completed-sears-tower-with-its-aerodynamic-design-Image-courtesy-somcom_fig5_333894369 "Figure 8: Completed sears tower with its aerodynamic design [Image...")

[Completed sears tower with its aerodynamic design \[Image courtesy: som.com\]\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Completed-sears-tower-with-its-aerodynamic-design-Image-courtesy-somcom_fig5_333894369)

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Skyscrapers: Origin, History, Evolution and Future

From humble cottages to super tall structures, human beings have

progressively developed the living and working space with time.

This paper describes the origin and growth of modern skyscrapers,

the subsequent challenges faced, and the way it was outdone.

Research papers and case studies have been thoroughly studied

and important excerpts from them have been explained to show

how the modern structures have been evolved. The sources and

causes of evolution is debatable among researchers, this paper has

taken into account 7 most vital milestones in the growth of current

generation skyscrapers and their contribution to the construction

industry and concludes with the ideas and scopes where growth is

still possible and challenges need to be solved.

Pinak Ray1, Subham Roy2

1Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.

2University of Engineering and Management, Kolkata, India.

1Email: pinak.ray@uem.edu.in

1\. Introduction

With the advent of 21st century, the world

has witnessed an overwhelming growth in the

dynamics of building construction that was

not thought of earlier. The very limits of the

maximum height, width, nature and capacity of

buildings have been stretched. Governments

and private sectors with enough money and

economy are constantly planning buildings

that would be unique of its kind. Architects are

being asked to design such marvelous escapades

that would attract the attention of all humans.

In turn the engineers involved are constantly

facing challenges to bring such masterpieces to

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technol., Vol. 6, No. 1, June, 2018, pp. 9-20

Journal on Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s

Technologies

Journal homepage: https://jotitt.chitkara.edu.in/

Keywords: Earthquake,

evacuation, safety elevator, green

building, Kangaroo cranes

ARTICLE INFORMATIONABSTRACT

The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access at www.chitkara.edu.in/publications. https://doi.org//10.15415/

jotitt.2018.61001 \| ISSN No.: 2321-3906 (Print) ISSN No.: 2321-7146 (Online) Registration No. : CHAENG/2013/51235

Periodicity: Bi-Annually

DOI: 10.15415/jotitt.2018.61001

life. This unique construction boom has not only

led to the creation of cities in the skies, it has

compelled the engineers to keep updating their

construction methodologies \[1\]. As the Jeddah

Tower rises from the sands of the Arabian Desert

and promises to be the tallest structure man has

ever made, this paper discusses about the origin

of skyscrapers, their evolution and the future.

2\. The key to modern skyscrapers

The modern skyscrapers owe their present status

to seven key inventions that has revolutionized

skyscraper engineering over time. They are

mobility material, heat, speed, wind, earthquake

and evacuation. The modernization of skyscrapers

pp. 10

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Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Equitable life insurance company headquarter (a) Old (b) New \[image courtesy:

us.axa.com\]

has been discussed by analyzing these seven

key factors supported by seven case studies

where they were first applied. These seven

landmark buildings are the historic giants of

the skyscrapers world, at the heart of each

one lies a major technological invention that

allowed engineers to reach taller height.

2.1 Key 1: Mobility

The first breakthrough in the skyscraper

world first happened in the 19thcentury. By

then the engineers were already looking up to

utilize the parameter which is called height.

The buildings of that time were utmost 3 to

4 stories tall and the only means to reach the

upper floors was stairs. An average human

being could think of no more than 4 floors

because his physical limitations wouldn’t allow

to climb more by foot. The builders realized

that in order to make buildings taller they have

to find a way to make people climb higher. The

solution to the problem was elevator. However

the elevator of that time had a very fatal

disadvantage, it was carried up by ropes and

when the ropes broke nothing could stop it.

The solution to this problem came from

a young mechanic in Vermont Mr. Elisha G.

Otis. He invented a device that could instantly

stop a falling elevator. In 1854 he demonstrated

his invention at the world’s fair in New York.

The device was a simple and very clever

invention. The critical rope was secured by a

powerful wagon spring mounted on top of the

elevator. This spring was connected to a set

of metal prongon either side of the elevator,

they ran along guiderails with teeth’s along

the side of the elevator, when the rope broke,

the spring relaxed and forced the prongs into

the teeth, locking the elevator in place.

With the challenge solved, the world

witnessed the formation of the first tall building

in downtown New York; the Equitable Life

Insurance Company Headquarter (1870) (Fig.

1). This was a building of great significance as

it was the first office building with an elevator.

It was 43 meters tall with 7 and half floors.

Before this building was constructed the lower

floors were the costliest and the most desirable,

however this building revolutionized the

economics of real estate. The people became

more interested in upper floors which received

light, air and was away from the noise of the

traffic, thus the invention of elevator completely

changed the idea of the urban landscape.

This idea of high cost of higher floors is still

applicable today which was invented during the

infant years of skyscrapers.

The building is considered by some to be

the world’s first skyscraper and the elevators

used were based on hydraulic principle.

pp. 11

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J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

building materials to create taller building.

It was 1893 when Monadnock building

of Chicago (Fig. 2) began to sink into the

ground under its own weight \[3\]. What

happened was - when it was inaugurated

in 1893, it became the world’s largest

office building. It had very thick walls of

2 meters thick to bear the weight of the

16 stories of Monadnock. The structure

was so heavy that the bearing capacity of

the soft Chicago soil under it failed and it

began to sink. About half a meter of rock

wall was disappeared into the ground and

showed the engineers that rock were not a

skyscraper material.

It was the architect of the

Monadnock, Mr. Daniel Burnham who

found the solution. He was asked to plan

a tall building within a typical triangular

land area. He fell in great dilemma while

planning the Fuller Building in New

York; the extremely narrow plot had to

accommodate a 22 floored skyscraper.

Stone was not an option; they would

have been so thick that the ground floor

would not have any space left for use. To

make his design viable Burnham decided

to use steel. He made the skeleton of the

building by interlocking steel beams and

columns. Steel is stronger than stone which

ensured that the skeleton n would be light

and thin and able to carry the whole load.

Then as a finishing act he simply covered

the whole building in thin masonry curtain

which gave it a stone like look.

Steel constructions opened new

horizons for the skyscraper world and the

first building to use this technology was

Fuller Flatiron Building (1902), height

87meters (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).

Subsequent inventions followed that

led to better elevators. Schuyler Wheeler

invented the electric elevator and patented

it in 1883. In 1874, J.W Meaker patented a

method which permitted elevator doors to

open and close safely. American inventor,

Alexander Miles patented the elevator

with automatic doors in 1887. In 2000

the first vacuum elevator was available

commercially.

World’s fastest elevator travels at a

speed of 73.8km/hr, was installed on July

7, 2016 in The Shanghai Tower.

Otis’ invention would have remained

an object of curiosity if some other trends

didn’t chance upon at the right time.

2.2 Key 2: Materials

The last decade of 19th Century saw

a huge demand for land. As economy

rose, people wanted more private spaces

for themselves which began to push the

city outwards and led to high price of

downtown lands of cities like New York

and Chicago. This pressurized the real

estate developers to provide more volume

for the same amount of land. The only

way to provide such service was to build

taller buildings. The idea that a single

foundation can be shared by multiple

living spaces by utilizing the vertical

space was already being looked upon as a

lucrative option \[2\].

The safety elevator allowed the

builders to go above 5 stories barrier, and

made tall buildings a booming business.

However the height was limited to 80

meters, beyond which the traditional

building materials began to fail.

An incident alarmed the engineers of

the impending danger of using traditional

pp. 12

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Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

Figure 3: Fuller flatiron building skeleton construction \[Image courtesy: nygeschichte.blogspot.

com\]

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: (a) Monadnock Chicago \[image courtesy: pinterest.co.uk\], (b) &

(c) Fuller Flatiron building \[image courtesy: vintag.es.nycvintageimages\]

In 1853, Francois Coignet a French

industrialist had already introduced the

capability of reinforced concrete by creating

the first iron-reinforced concrete 4 storied

building.

By the 1900s, the culmination of these

four factors, high land price, the safety

elevator and the introduction of steel and

concrete as construction material started

a national boom to construct tall buildings.

This marks the beginning of the age of

skyscrapers.

In 1913 for the first time Woolworth

building reached 55 stories, with a height of

pp. 13

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J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

241 meters.18 years later the Empire State

Building reached 102 stories, height 381

meters.

In modern days reinforced concrete

has been enhanced and new techniques like

prestressed, poststressed concrete has been

introduced, steel has been modified to provide

better yield strength.

2.3 Key 3: Heat

As steel began to carry weight instead of

walls, the height of the buildings began to

soar high. Glass was used to let in light in

these buildings, however it came with a

problem: heat.

In 1947 the United Nations decided to

design their 39 storied headquarters. They

wanted it to be covered in glass to allow

maximum light to enter and brighten the

interiors. The idea was good yet had a great

disadvantage; such a glass covered building

would act as greenhouse. The glass wall

would allow the heat radiation to enter which

would in turn heat up the entire building, and

the heat wouldn’t escape. The only solution

was artificial cooling \[4\].

An American Engineer Willis Carrier

invented a machine that would cool hot

moist air by making it wet. It used mist

of cold water to absorb the hot soggy air

which in turn cooled the air. This was the

perfect solution to the heat problem. The air

conditioning system not only allowed the

buildings to rise higher, they could be built

even in hot places anywhere in the world.

Thus the United Nations Headquarters (168

meters) (Fig. 4) was built.

Figure 4: United nations headquarters (168 meters) with its glass facades \[Image courtesy:

ny.curbed.com\]

From 1947 to 2017, glass as a construction

material has improved dramatically. Glass

and steel construction have become the face

of development in many countries. In 1947

glass presented the problem of heating effect

and paved the path for the invention of air

conditioning system as a necessity of the

time, however in 2010, the glass itself was

pp. 14

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Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

used in advanced form in Burj Khalifa to

filter the heat radiation and air conditioning

became a luxury.

In Burj Khalifa the glass has an outer

coating and inside coating. The outside coating

reflects the solar radiation coming directly

from the sun. The inside coating reflects the

infrared radiation from the hot desert sand.

The world has moved from single

air conditioning systems to central air

conditioning system.

2.4 Key 4: Speed

As the buildings became more grand and

high, the construction time began to increase.

More time taken meant more money to

be invested which became problem for the

builders. Apart from that as the time to

build increased it caused road blockages and

harassment to the public. The builders had

to find way to minimize the required time to

absolute minimum. They found the solution

by pre fabricating parts in workshops and

installing them on site \[5\].

A great example of the use of this

technology is the erstwhile Twin Towers

of New York (Fig 6). The builders built pre

fabricated parts of the tower and assembled

them as giant jigsaw puzzle. Each piece

consisted of three columns, three stories tall,

connected by spandrel plates. The sections

were fabricated away from the city and

brought them to the site when needed \[6\].

They faced another problem, how to lift such

heavy sections in less time? The team searched

and found answer in Australia, a revolutionary

crane that could lift upto 50 tones. The special

feature of these cranes was they could shift up

their base; hence they were called Kangaroo

cranes (Fig 5).

Four such cranes were set up which could

access all corners of the towers and after

assembling 3 floors they jumped up higher.

With the help of the pre-fabricated sections

and Kangaroo Cranes the Twin Towers were

built at a whooping speed of 2 floors per week.

It was completed in 1970 and became the tallest

building in the world with a height of 417

meters.

Kangaroo cranes are still used for high

rise building. However the basis of increasing

speed has shifted from cranes to formwork.

In current scenario the way of shuttering

is one of the prime factors to reduce the

construction time on site. One of these is

Slip Form Shuttering which can be moved by

means of hydraulic jacks from lower to upper

floors. Metal formwork has replaced wood

form work for internal shuttering.

Figure 5: Construction of erstwhile world trade center using four Kangaroo cranes \[Image

courtesy: raredelights.com\]

pp. 15

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J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

Figure 6: Erstwhile world trade center nearing completion \[Image courtesy: fineartstorehouse.

com\]

2.5 Key 5: Wind

Tall and slim building slowly became

a prominent solution to accommodate

increasing density of population in

major cities. However as the materials

became light the buildings became

prone to vibrations, which becomes both

discomforting to the users as well as cause

structural failure.

These tall buildings need to withstand

various external forces such as earthquakes

and strong winds \[7\]. Thus motion control

of buildings was given due consideration

taking into account both static and dynamic

loads. Two solutions were thought of, first to

increase the structural stiffness and second to

damp the external vibrations while keeping

the material quantity minimum.

As the buildings became taller they got

exposed to a formidable enemy that exploited

all of their weaknesses. In 1970 while the

architects designed the 442 meters tall Sears

tower in Chicago (Fig. 7) they faced a great

challenge. The windy city ensured a huge wind

load on the 100 stories tall planned tower.

Traditional steel skeletons failed at this

height as such wind force would cause them to

pp. 16

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Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

bend and sway. Such movements would cause

sea sickness like physical problems and dread

among the people. The architects of the Sears

Towers invented the technology to beat the

wind. They shifted the internal skeletal frame

and merged them with the external frame

which formed an exoskeleton. This framework

was very hard for the wind to bend \[8\].

The Sears Tower was built by interlocking

such 9 exoskeletons which made it wind proof.

Thus the concept of exoskeleton was invented

which is still the best way to minimize wind sway.

Besides the problem of bend and sway,

the shape of the building also plays a critical

factor in determining the impact of the wind

load on the structure. As the path of the wind

is obstructed by a building it goes around

and flows again in its normal path creating

suction in the leeward direction. Thus the

total wind load becomes the summation of

windward pressure and leeward suction.

Present day modification includes testing

of prototypes in wind tunnels, and use of

aero dynamic designs (Fig. 8) to reduce this

suction effect of wind.

Another development that went on

parallel was the research on dampers and

there probable use in infrastructure. Damping

systems were initially used by the mechanical

industry and experimentation with damping

in construction industry started in 1950s.

The first application of damping

system in tall buildings was in 1969 with the

erstwhile World Trade Centre, New York.

Then the use of damping systems increased

extensively in 1980s as part of retrofits in

old buildings.

Currently available damping systems can be

divided into two broad categories: passive system

and active system. Passive system is recognized

by fixed properties while the property of active

systems change based on the load demand, and is

activated by an external source of energy.

Figure 7: Sears tower exoskeleton \[Image courtesy: som.com\]

pp. 17

ISSN No.: 2321-3906 (Print) ISSN No.: 2321-7146 (Online) Registration No.: CHAENG/2013/51235

Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

Figure 8: Completed sears tower with its aerodynamic design \[Image courtesy: som.com\]

2.6 Key 6: Earthquake

With such developments in the tall

structures, Asian countries began to desire

them. However Asia experienced a natural

disaster that European skyscrapers didn’t

face before – Earthquakes.

With the knowledge of earthquake

and their impact on buildings, earthquake

resistant structures were designed which

depended on wind bracings. Tests and

calculations showed that they were able to

resist the jerking effect of earthquakes.

In 1999, the architects were designing

Taipei 101 in Taiwan (Fig. 9) faced the

problem of earthquakes. Taiwan is located

near the Pacific Ring of Fire and experiences

an average of 2 earthquakes every year. They

had to find way to prevent the earthquake

waves from shaking the building. Engineers

found out that the building had to be elastic

enough to absorb the energy from the

earthquakes.

The engineers of Taipei 101 planned an

ingenious way to create an earthquake proof

structure \[9\]. The whole building was made

around 36 rigid steel tube columns filled with

concrete to provided strength. The rest of the

structures were made elastic such that they

would flex and move with the waves. Halfway

during construction the building was hit by an

earthquake and the design proved to be true to

its needs. It is built to withstand the typhoon

winds and earthquake tremors common to the

region. The unique design makes the building

both flexible to prevent structural damage and

structurally resistant which ensures comfort for

the occupants.

The Taipei 101 was finally completed in

2004 and has a height of 509 meters.

Earthquake engineering is one of the most

significant research areas that the scientists are

pp. 18

ISSN No.: 2321-3906 (Print) ISSN No.: 2321-7146 (Online) Registration No.: CHAENG/2013/51235

Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

working on. No building can be made earthquake

proof however we can reduce its effect by using

Figure 9: Frame of taipei 101 with its interlocked steel tubes \[Image courtesy: pinterest.co.uk\]

materials and foundations that can absorb shocks

from seismic waves \[10\].

2.7 Key 7: Evacuation

As the building rose higher it became

increasingly difficult to evacuate the residents

during disasters. People are not allowed to use

elevators during fire or other such emergencies.

As the buildings shelter huge number of people,

in case of emergencies the rush might cause

further casualties. The final problem faced by

the engineers was evacuation.

After the attacks of 9/11, it was high

time for the engineers to find a solution.

Burj Dubai’s design uses one of the

prominent solutions; it has built in fire

protection. Evacuating huge number of

people takes long time and involves a huge

risk, so architects of Burj, Dubai decided

to create fail safe within the building the

itself. The building has 9 very special

pp. 19

ISSN No.: 2321-3906 (Print) ISSN No.: 2321-7146 (Online) Registration No.: CHAENG/2013/51235

Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

refuge rooms made from reinforced concrete

layers and fire proof sheeting; these rooms

withstand fire for 2 hours. They have special

supply of air from fire resistant pipes and

sealed fire proof doors to prevent smoke.

There’s 1 room in every 30 floors to shelter

people in terms of need until emergency

services come for rescue.

In order to prevent smoke from

blocking the vision, a set of high powered

fans are fitted on the stairways. In case of

fire they get triggered and force in fresh

air through ducts into the building. The air

pushes the smoke away from the stairs and

keeps it clear.

Completed in 2008 BurjKhalifa

currently holds the record of being world’s

tallest building with a height of 828 meters.

3\. Future of skyscrapers

As architects continue to design

skyscrapers, the goals has changed, height

is not the most important thing at present.

Designing the skyscraper of the future is

about making its space more efficient than

ever. The sought after things include: added

comfort, green building for better energy

conservation, more control for building

tenants etc. The real limit to skyscraper

technology still remains to be the limits of

the elevator. The steel cords can hold only

so much weight before the load becomes too

heavy to carry.

Energy efficiency is one of the prime

driving forces behind designing skyscraper

of the future. Today energy efficiency

determines the economic value of the

building not height. One of main ways to

do so is harnessing energy from renewable

energy sources such as solar energy, or

saving resources such as water from rain.

Skyscrapers of the future will not

only grow upward, they will integrate

themselves with smart technology and

become multifunctional.

Current tall structure researches involve

these 11 fields: \[11\].

1\. Urban Design, City Planning and Social

Issues.

2\. Architecture and interior design.

3\. Economics and Cost.

4\. Structural Performance, Multi-Hazard

Design and Geotechnics.

5\. Circulation: Vertical Transportation and

Evacuation.

6\. Fire and Life Safety.

7\. Cladding and Skin.

8\. Building materials and Products.

9\. Sustainable Design, Construction and

Operation.

10\. Construction and Project Management.

11\. Energy: Performance, Metrics and

Generation.

The Jeddah Tower when completed will

be the world’s tallest tower with height of

1000m vertically.

4\. Conclusion

In 2018, the world population is 7.2 billion

and is projected to be 9.6 billion by 2050,

which can only be properly sheltered by ad-

equately utilizing land. In order to provide

shelter to such huge population it is essential

for the engineers to keep on building more

innovative mega tall skyscrapers.

References

\[1\] Criteria for the Defining And

Measuring of Tall Buildings,

CTBUH, Chicago, I, 2014.

\[2\] D. Friedman, Historical Building

Construction: Design, Materials, and

Technology, 2nd Edition. New York:

W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.

pp. 20

ISSN No.: 2321-3906 (Print) ISSN No.: 2321-7146 (Online) Registration No.: CHAENG/2013/51235

Periodicity: Bi-Annually

J. Today’s Ideas - Tomorrow’s Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, June. 2018

\[3\] T. Leslie, “The Monadnock build-

ing, technically reconsidered”, CT-

BUH Journal, no. 4, pp. 26-31, 2013.

\[4\] J. J. Tomlinson, Heat Recovery

from Wastewater Using a Gravity-

Film Heat Exchanger, Rev.Federal

Energy Management Program,

Oak Ridge NationalLaboratory,

2001\. \[Online\] Available:

https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/

Record/4471856.

\[5\] S. Giedion, “Space, Time, and

Architecture: The Growth of

a New Tradition” (5th Edition).

Cambridge: Harvard University

Press: 382, 1997.

\[6\] J. Klerks, “Planning the world trade

center: 40 Years Apart”, CTBUH

Journal, no. 3, pp. 26-29, 2011.

\[7\] H. H. Quimby, Wind Bracing in

High Buildings, The Engineering

Record, November, pp. 394-395,

1892.

\[8\] The Wind Bracing of Buildings,

CONDIT,C. Scientific American,

vol. 230, no. 2, 98,1974.

\[9\] D. Poon, et al. “Structural design

of taipei 101, the world’s tallest

building”, CTBUH 2004, October

10-13, Seoul, Korea, 2004, pp, 271-

278.

\[10\] D. N. M. Lee, “Application of tuned

liquid dampers for the efficient

structural design of slender tall

buildings”, CTBUH Journal Issue,

vol. 4, pp. 30-36, 2010.

\[11\] P. Oldfield, D. Trabuccoand A.

Wood, “Roadmap on the Future

Research Needs of Tall Buildings”,

Council on Tall Buildings and

Urban Habitat: Chicago, 2014.

## Citations (3)

## References (9)

... In the 19th century, the invention of the elevator based on hydraulic principles caused engineers to construct tall buildings (Ray & Roy, 2018). The development of highly advanced technology in the engineering field also forced to build the high skyscrapers. ...

[Construction of Skyscrapers: Boon or Bane from an Economic Perspective](publication/378616335_Construction_of_Skyscrapers_Boon_or_Bane_from_an_Economic_Perspective)

Article

Full-text available

- Feb 2024

- [Nitya Chaudhary](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Nitya-Chaudhary-2275175143)

The main objective of this paper is to explore the influence of the construction of skyscrapers on a nation's economy. It explores how skyscrapers influence the economic status of the nation worldwide. Drawing from an extensive literature review and the researcher's insights, the article underscores the growth of Asian and Western skyscrapers and their influence on the nation's economic status. It places equal emphasis on the historical aspects, with a vital role regarding the nation's economy and the economic crisis due to the construction of skyscrapers. Thematically, the researcher analyzed the literature regarding the construction of skyscrapers and its impacts and challenges. Firstly, the role of skyscrapers on the economic growth of a nation is described in detail, and the data related to Asian and Western high-rise buildings is reviewed. It shows that skyscrapers play a vital role in developing the economic condition of some nations. Secondly, the influence of the construction of tall buildings is also reviewed deeply, as well as the challenges and opportunities faced by the people and nation, like the economic crisis due to significant investments in skyscrapers. Overall, the high skyscrapers are the glory and identity of the nation. It enhances the nation's economic progress rather than being a burden.

[View](publication/378616335_Construction_of_Skyscrapers_Boon_or_Bane_from_an_Economic_Perspective)

Show abstract

[PRINT in PRINT: A Nested Robotic Fabrication Strategy for 3D Printing Dissolvable Formwork of a Stackable Column](publication/359458458_PRINT_in_PRINT_A_Nested_Robotic_Fabrication_Strategy_for_3D_Printing_Dissolvable_Formwork_of_a_Stackable_Column)

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Full-text available

- Mar 2022

- [![Mehdi Farahbakhsh](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Mehdi Farahbakhsh](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mehdi-Farahbakhsh-2)
- [Alireza Borhani](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Alireza-Borhani-2206623079)
- [![Negar Kalantar](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Negar Kalantar](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Negar-Kalantar)
- [![Zofia K Rybkowski](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Zofia K Rybkowski](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zofia-Rybkowski)

In this paper, the fundamentals of a 3D nested construction method for 3D-printing stackable tower-like structures are explained, taking into consideration the transportation, storage, assembly, and even disassembly of building components. The proposed method is called “PRINT in PRINT.” This paper also documents the authors’ experience of and findings from designing and printing a column erected out of a series of 3D printed components in a short stack. Employing the design principles of 3D printing in a nested fashion, the authors showcase the main parameters involved in dividing the column’s global geometry into stackable components. By converting formal, technical, and material restrictions of a robotic-assisted 3D printing process into geometric constraints, the paper describes how the column components are divided, namely that one component shapes the adjacent one.

[View](publication/359458458_PRINT_in_PRINT_A_Nested_Robotic_Fabrication_Strategy_for_3D_Printing_Dissolvable_Formwork_of_a_Stackable_Column)

Show abstract

[Quantifying Differences Between Architects’ and Non-architects’ Visual Perception of Originality of Tower Typology Using Deep Learning](publication/359456451_Quantifying_Differences_Between_Architects'_and_Non-architects'_Visual_Perception_of_Originality_of_Tower_Typology_Using_Deep_Learning)

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- Mar 2022

- [![Joy Mondal](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Joy Mondal](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joy-Mondal-9)

The paper presents a computational methodology to quantify the differences in visual perception of originality of the rotating tower typology between architects and non-architects. A parametric definition of the Absolute Tower Building D with twelve variables is used to generate 250 design variants. Subsequently, sixty architects and sixty non-architects were asked to rate the design variants, in comparison to the original design, on a Likert scale of ‘Plagiarised’ to ‘Original’. With the crowd-sourced evaluation data, two neural networks - one each for architects and non-architects - were trained to predict the originality score of 15,000 design variants. The results indicate that architects are more lenient at seeing design variants as original. The average originality score by architects is 27.74% higher than the average originality score by non-architects. Compared to a non-architect, an architect is 1.93 times likelier to see a design variant as original. In 92.01% of the cases, architects’ originality score is higher than non-architects’. The methodology can be used to quantify and predict any subjective opinion.

[View](publication/359456451_Quantifying_Differences_Between_Architects'_and_Non-architects'_Visual_Perception_of_Originality_of_Tower_Typology_Using_Deep_Learning)

Show abstract

[The monadnock building, technically reconsidered](publication/291930979_The_monadnock_building_technically_reconsidered)

Article

Full-text available

- Jan 2013

- [![Thomas Leslie](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Thomas Leslie](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Leslie-4)

[View](publication/291930979_The_monadnock_building_technically_reconsidered)

[Historical Building Construction: Design, Materials and Technology](publication/324385774_Historical_Building_Construction_Design_Materials_and_Technology)

Article

- Jan 1996

- [Daniel F. MacGilvray](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Daniel-F-MacGilvray-2141096425)
- [![Donald Friedman](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Donald Friedman](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Donald-Friedman)

[View](publication/324385774_Historical_Building_Construction_Design_Materials_and_Technology)

[Planning the world trade center: 40 years apart](publication/298139558_Planning_the_world_trade_center_40_years_apart)

Article

- Jan 2011

- [J. Klerks](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/J-Klerks-2103605041)

[View](publication/298139558_Planning_the_world_trade_center_40_years_apart)

[Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition](publication/269559021_Space_Time_and_Architecture_The_Growth_of_a_New_Tradition)

Article

- Jan 1947

- [Kenneth John Conant](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Kenneth-John-Conant-2060521409)
- [Siegfried Giedion](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Siegfried-Giedion-2060536025)

[View](publication/269559021_Space_Time_and_Architecture_The_Growth_of_a_New_Tradition)

Heat Recovery from Wastewater Using a Gravity-Film Heat Exchanger

- Jan 2001

- J J Tomlinson

J. J. Tomlinson, Heat Recovery
from Wastewater Using a Gravity-Film Heat Exchanger, Rev. Federal
Energy Management Program,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
2001\.
\[Online\]
Available:

- Nov 1892
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- H H Quimby

H. H. Quimby, Wind Bracing in
High Buildings, The Engineering
Record, November, pp. 394-395,
1892.

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The Wind Bracing of Buildings,
CONDIT,C. Scientific American,
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Structural design of taipei 101, the world's tallest building

- Oct 2004
- 271-278

- D Poon

D. Poon, et al. "Structural design
of taipei 101, the world's tallest
building", CTBUH 2004, October
10-13, Seoul, Korea, 2004, pp, 271-278.

Application of tuned liquid dampers for the efficient structural design of slender tall buildings

- Jan 2010
- 30-36

- D N M Lee

D. N. M. Lee, "Application of tuned
liquid dampers for the efficient
structural design of slender tall
buildings", CTBUH Journal Issue,
vol. 4, pp. 30-36, 2010.

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