Horoskope – warum sie irgendwie immer zutreffen
In einer Studie konnten den Sternzeichen keine prägenden Charaktereigenschaften zugeordnet werden.
Studie
Zeitungshoroskope basieren häufig auch auf generalisierten Aussagen über Sternzeichen. So wird der Widder als dickköpfig beschrieben, Fische eher friedfertig und Wassermänner gelten als besonders zuverlässig. In einer <anchor>Studie</anchor> haben die Psychologen P. Hartmann und H. Nyborg von der Universität Aarhus gemeinsam mit M. Reuter von der Universität Gießen untersucht, ob sich einzelnen Sternzeichen kennzeichnende Charaktereigenschaften zuschreiben lassen. Dabei werteten die Wissenschaftler Daten von über 15.000 Studienteilnehmern aus.
(PDF) The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study
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# The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study

- May 2006
- Personality and Individual Differences 40(7):1349-1362

- 40(7):1349-1362

DOI: [10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017](http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017)

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[Martin Reuter](profile/Martin-Reuter-3)

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## Abstract and Figures

We investigated the relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence in two large samples. The first sample consisted of 4000+ middle-aged male subjects from the Vietnam Experience Study; personality was measured by the MMPI items converted to EPQ (scales) and a large battery of cognitive tests were factored to derive general intelligence, g. The second sample consisted of 11,000+ young adults from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth from 1979. g was extracted from the ten subtests of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery.In no cases did date of birth relate to individual differences in personality or general intelligence.A further goal was to test Eysenck’s notion of possible relationships between date of birth and the popular Sun Signs in astrology. No support could be found for such associations.We conclude that the present large-scale study provides no evidence for the existence of relevant relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence.

[![Predicting general intelligence g (PC1) from month of birth.](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Predicting-general-intelligence-g-PC1-from-month-of-birth_fig1_222414219 "Fig. 1. Predicting general intelligence g (PC1) from month of birth.  ")

[Predicting general intelligence g (PC1) from month of birth.\
\
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[![Translation of Sun Signs to Elements and gender Sun Sign From (dd-mm) To (dd-mm) Element Gender](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Translation-of-Sun-Signs-to-Elements-and-gender-Sun-Sign-From-dd-mm-To-dd-mm-Element_tbl1_222414219 "Translation of Sun Signs to Elements and gender Sun Sign From (dd-mm)...")

[Translation of Sun Signs to Elements and gender Sun Sign From (dd-mm) To (dd-mm) Element Gender\
\
…](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Translation-of-Sun-Signs-to-Elements-and-gender-Sun-Sign-From-dd-mm-To-dd-mm-Element_tbl1_222414219)

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Journal/book title VolumeIssuePage

Personality and Individual Differences

Volume 40, Issue 7, May 2006, Pages 1349-1362

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017

Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

The relationship between date of birth and individual

differences in personality and general intelligence: A

large-scale study

Peter Hartmanna, , , Martin Reuterb and Helmuth Nyborga

aIndividual Differences Research Unit (IDRU), University of Aarhus, Department of

Psychology, Jens Chr. Skous Vej 4, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark

bAbteilung für Diffentielle Psychologie, Justus Liebig University of Giessen,

Otto-Behagelstrasse 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany

Received 21 March 2005; revised 1 October 2005; accepted 1 November 2005.

Available online 19 January 2006\.

Abstract

We investigated the relationship between date of birth and individual differences

in personality and intelligence in two large samples. The first sample consisted of

4000+ middle-aged male subjects from the Vietnam Experience Study;

personality was measured by the MMPI items converted to EPQ (scales) and a

large battery of cognitive tests were factored to derive general intelligence, g.

The second sample consisted of 11,000+ young adults from the National

Longitudinal Study of Youth from 1979. gwas extracted from the ten subtests of

the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery.

In no cases did date of birth relate to individual differences in personality or

general intelligence.

A further goal was to test Eysenck’s notion of possible relationships between

date of birth and the popular Sun Signs in astrology. No support could be found for such

associations.

We conclude that the present large-scale study provides no evidence for the existence of

relevant relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general

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Keywords: Astrology; Intelligence; Personality; Date of birth; Seasonal variation

Article Outline

1\. Introduction

1.1. Intelligence

1.2. Personality

1.3. Astrology

2\. Methodology

2.1. Subjects

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. The VES study

2.2.1.1. Intelligence

2.2.1.2. Personality

2.2.1.3. Date of birth (VES)

2.2.2. The NLSY1979 study

2.2.2.1. Intelligence

2.2.2.2. Personality

2.2.2.3. Date of birth (NLSY1979)

2.3. Statistical evaluation

2.3.1. The VES study

2.3.2. The NLSY1979 study

3\. Results

3.1. The VES study

3.2. The NLSY1979 study

4\. Discussion

References

1\. Introduction

Several studies have investigated the relationship between date of birth and individual differences in

personality or general intelligence but, in general, these studies are based on small sample sizes. Only a

couple of newer studies by Chotai, Forsgren, Nilsson, and Adolfsson (2001)and by Chotai, Lundberg, and

Adolfsson (2003), operate with appropriate sample sizes (i.e. 2130 and 1145 subjects, respectively). The

present study circumvents the inherent problems with small samples by combining two unusually large

populations to a total of more than 15,000 subjects. To optimise the chances of finding even remote

relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further

applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g.

month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) conceptof

astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book “Astrology:

Science or superstition?” by Eysenck and Nias (1982).

A thorough review of the scientific literature is beyond the scope of this article since the voluminous

literature dates back to the forties, but it is worth noting that many relationships have been established

between date of birth and normal intelligence, personality, and also with psychiatric diseases and differences

in physical attributes (Chotai et al., 2001and Joinson and Nettle, 2005). This present study limits itself to

examining associations between date of birth, personality, and general intelligence.

1.1. Intelligence

A series of articles suggest that subjects born during spring or summer are significantly more intelligent than

subjects born during the rest of the year, though the differences are small (e.g. Bibby et al., 1996, Eysenck,

1995, Eysenck and Nias, 1982and Pintner and Forlano, 1943). We found no post-1996 studies suggesting

that date of birth is related to intelligence, but based on the early reports we expected to find a small but

significant difference in intelligence in favour of subjects born during the spring or summer time.

1.2. Personality

A complete review of this topic is also beyond the scope of the present report so, with one exception, we

emphasise studies from the past decade.

Forlano and Ehrlich (1941)studied the relationship between date of birth and personality and found that

subjects scoring high on Extraversion (E) and low on Neuroticism (N) were more prone to be born during the

colder months of the year. Gupta (1992)used the Hindi version of the EPI on 104 subjects (27–38 years of

age) and the I6reports that people born during the summer score higher on Neuroticism than subjects born

during winter or autumn, and lower on Impulsiveness than subjects born during spring and autumn. Moreover,

subjects born during summer and winter appeared more Venturesome than subjects born during spring or

autumn.

Chichilenko and Barbarash (2001)studied 154 male 17–20 year old young adults and found that those born

during winter, in general, scored significantly higher on Neuroticism N than those born during autumn, who

again scored significantly higher than those born during summer. The female subjects (N = 373) born during

winter or summer scored significantly higher on N than those born during spring. With respect to

Extraversion E, males and females born during autumn scored significantly higher than those born during

summer.

A series of more recent and large-scale studies (Chotai et al., 2001, Chotai et al., 2002and Chotai et al.,

2003) used the TCI to measure personality, in order to discover differences in Novelty Seeking (NS) as a

function of date of birth. These studies show that younger subjects (below the age of 25) born during winter

(October–January/March) are in general significantly more likely to score high on NS, than subjects born

during the rest of the year (Chotai et al., 2002and Chotai et al., 2003). However, for subjects above the age

of 25, the picture is reversed. In general, subjects born during winter show lower NS scores than subjects

born during the rest of the year or during spring only (February–April). (A certain overlap between some

winter and spring months could be noted only in this presentation of the literature and is due to the

summarizing nature of the present review) (Chotai et al., 2001and Chotai et al., 2003). However, the

inverted relationship was more pronounced in females. Furthermore, the three studies by Chotai and

colleagues found that older males born during winter scored significantly lower on Persistence (PS) than

others (Chotai et al., 2001); and that younger subjects born during spring scored significantly lower on Self

Directedness (SD) than others (Chotai et al., 2002); and lastly that subjects born during winter scored

significantly higher on Harm Avoidance (HA) than others (Chotai et al., 2003).

Joinson and Nettle (2005)tested 448 subjects with a measure related to NS, namely Zuckerman’s Sensation

Seeking (SS) scale, and found that subjects aged 20–45 born during October–March scored significantly

higher on SS than others, while subjects aged 46–69 and born during October–March scored lower than

subjects born during the rest of the year.

All together the results suggest that there are individual differences in NS or SS or E as a function of month

or season of birth, and that they vary as a function of age and gender. The present study operates with

Eysenckian personality dimensions (EPQ), and can therefore approach the alleged relationship using

alternative personality scales to test whether findings are valid across instruments. The EPQ factors have

been found to be related to the TCI and ZKPQ from the Zuckerman and Kuhlman’s Personality Questionnaire

(see Zuckerman & Cloninger, 1996). Based on the positive correlations between Novelty Seeking,

Psychoticism (P), and Extraversion (E) we expected to find differences in E and P as a function of date of

birth. Other TCI factors, which have also been found to be associated with date of birth, are also related to

the EPQ. For instance, Persistence is negatively related to Psychoticism; Self Directedness is related

negatively to Psychoticism and Neuroticism. Finally, Harm Avoidance is negatively related to Extraversion

and positively to Neuroticism (Zuckerman & Cloninger, 1996). Based on the previous findings and presuming

that the instruments applied relate to Eysenck’s factors, it seems reasonable to expect that the present

study will confirm a relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality.

1.3. Astrology

Several reviews of the literature on astrology (Dean et al., 1997and Eysenck and Nias, 1982) show, in

general, little support for any claim of an effect of astrology. As highlighted by Dean et al. (1997), the effect

sizes of astrologer’s judgment amount to no more than 0.05, indicating very little practical relevance of

astrology. When astrological effects are in fact observed, they usually can be explained better by

non-astrological factors like the Barnum effect (i.e. the “…tendency for people to identify with personality

descriptions of a general and vague nature…”) or by acquaintance with Sun Signs and so on (Eysenck &

Nias, 1982, p. 43). More recently, Clarke, Gabriels, and Barnes (1996)conducted a study on the effect of

astrology in a sample of 190 subjects, testing two hypotheses. First, subjects born with the sun,moon

and/or ascendant in positive signs (or the masculine gender) will be more extraverted than subjects born with

these planets in the negative signs (feminine gender). Second, subjects born with the three planets in water

signs will be more emotional than subjects born in non-water signs (confer with Table 1showing which Sun

Signs correspond to which Elements and astrological gender). Several t-tests indicated that subjects born

with the sun and the moon in positive signs (masculine gender) were in fact more extraverted than subjects

born with the sun and moon in negative signs. However, the significant p-values (about 0.03) would loose

their significance had the authors used the Bonferroni correction to compensate for multiple testing.

Table 1.

Translation of Sun Signs to Elements and gender

Sun SignFrom (dd-mm)To (dd-mm)ElementGender

Aries22-0318-04FireMasculine

Taurus22-0419-05EarthFeminine

Gemini23-0519-06AirMasculine

Cancer23-0620-07WaterFeminine

Leo24-0721-08FireMasculine

Virgo25-0821-09EarthFeminine

Libra25-0921-10AirMasculine

Scorpio25-1020-11WaterFeminine

Sagittarius24-1119-12FireMasculine

Capricorn23-1218-01EarthFeminine

Aquarious22-0117-02AirMasculine

Sun SignFrom (dd-mm)To (dd-mm)ElementGender

Pisces20-0218-03WaterFeminine

Based on these results we did not expect to find relevant relationships between astrology (Sun Signs,

Elements and astrological gender) and individual differences in general intelligence and personality.

2\. Methodology

2.1. Subjects

We drew subjects from two sources. First, archival data from the Vietnam Experience Study (VES) were

kindly provided by Centers for Disease Control, 1988and Centers for Disease Control, 1989. The purpose of

the VES study (to assess possible long term effect of military service for male veterans), the subjects

(N = 4462) and the test instruments used have been described in details elsewhere (Centers for Disease

Control, 1988, Centers for Disease Control, 1989, Nyborg and Jensen, 2000and Nyborg and Jensen, 2001).

The VES sample is fairly representative of the US male population with respect to education, income,

occupation, and race. However, subjects scoring below the 10th percentile in the pre-induction cognitive

aptitude test were excluded, in accordance with a US Congress mandate, and this obviously truncates the

lower-end tail of the ability distribution. For the present purpose we included a total of 4321 middle-aged male

subjects in the analysis of month of birth and season of birth (see below). The veterans were inducted during

1965–71 (mean age = 19.92; SD = 1.72) and re-tested in 1985–86 (at mean age = 38.35; SD = 2.52) with a

mean testing (span = 17.90; SD = 1.86). Intelligence was measured twice—at induction and during re-testing,

whereas personality was monitored only at retesting.

Second, further data was drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979 (NLSY1979; NLSY1979

User’s Guide, 2004). The purpose of this study, the subjects, and the instruments used have been

described elsewhere (Evans, 1999and Legree et al., 1996). The sample comprised of 11,448 young adult

subjects (male N = 5749, female N = 5699). Age ranged between 15 and 24 years (mean age = 19.6;

SD = 2.26).

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. The VES study

2.2.1.1. Intelligence

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted on 19 cognitive variables (Grooved Pegboard Test, left

and right hand; Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test; Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Drawing, direct copy,

immediate recall and delayed recall; Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised, general information and

block design; Word List Generation Test; Wisconsin Card Sort Test; Wide Range Achievement Test;

California Verbal Learning Test; Army Classification Battery, verbal and arithmetic reasoning, administrated

twice; Pattern Analysis Test; General Information Test; Armed Forces Qualification Test).

The First Principal Component (PC1) was extracted to reflect general intelligence, and the gfactor scores

were used to estimate individual ability level.

2.2.1.2. Personality

The VES database also contained clinical MMPI-II data. Following the guidelines by Gentry, Wakefield, and

Friedman (1985)we derived the four Eysenckian Personality dimensions: Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E),

Neuroticism (N), and Social Desirability (L: Lie scale). The reliabilities of the scales were: P (

α

= 0.74), E

(

α

= 0.60) and N (

α

= 0.92). These values are acceptable, but the L (

α

= 0.32) reliability was too low. Thus,

L scale results must be interpreted with caution.

2.2.1.3. Date of birth (VES)

Five different indicators of date of birth were computed based on the birth dates of the subjects:

(a) Month of Birth: The month during which the subject was born (January, February, etc.).

(b) Season of Birth: Seasons of birth was somewhat rather arbitrary defined as: Spring (March–May),

Summer (June–August), Fall (September–November) and Winter (December–February).

(c) Extended Winter vs. Summer: A cosinur analysis by Chotai et al., 2002and Chotai et al., 2003

investigated whether any systematic fluctuations could be fitted to a cosines curve (). The results

suggested systematic cosines fluctuations from “Extended Winter” (October–March) to “Extended Summer”

(April–September). Based on these findings it was decided to construct two groups (Extended

Winter/Summer) in order to investigate any seasonal differences based on this division of the year obtained

from Chotai et al., 2002and Chotai et al., 2003studies.

(d) Extended Spring vs. Fall: Chotai et al. (2003)further suggest that the months January–June (Extended

Spring) could be different from July–December (Extended Fall).

(e) Sun Sign: The astrological Sun Sign is the commonly known star sign based on the place of the sun in

relation to the date of birth of the subject. This Sun Sign is commonly associated with different attributes for

different signs (Eysenck & Nias, 1982, for details). Where one Sun Sign stops and another starts is not

completely agreed upon among astrologers, due to slightly different methods of estimating an individual Sun

Sign. This leads to minor differences in the dates used to incorporate people into certain Sun Signs, typically

diverging by 1 day across methods. In order not to risk inclusion of subjects in an incorrect Sun Sign group,

it was decided to exclude subjects born on the day, the day before, and the day after any of these division

points provided by the two methods. This resulted in a gap of ca. 2–3 days around a division point from

which subjects were excluded (see Table 1for illustration). This conservative categorisation reduced the

number of subjects for Sun Signs analysis from 4321 to 4054.

(f) Sun Sign associated with an Element (i.e. fire, water, air, and earth): Subjects assigned to a Sun Sign

group were also assigned to an Element group (see Table 1for details).

(g) Sun Sign associated with astrological gender (i.e. masculine/feminine): Subjects assigned to a sun sign

group were also assigned to a gender group (see Table 1for elaborations).

2.2.2. The NLSY1979 study

2.2.2.1. Intelligence

A Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) was conducted on the 10 subtests of the Armed Services Vocational

Aptitude Battery (ASVAB): (General Science; Arithmetic Reasoning; Word Knowledge; Paragraphs

Comprehension; Numerical Operations; Coding Speed; Automobile and Shop Information; Mathematics

Knowledge; Mechanical Comprehension; Electronics Information). The first Principal Axis Factor (PAF1) was

applied to derive general intelligence, g, and the gfactor scores were then used as an estimate of individual

g.

2.2.2.2. Personality

We did not have access to personality data for NLSY1979 subjects.

2.2.2.3. Date of birth (NLSY1979)

As NLSY1979 study only provides the month of birth of the subjects, we were restricted to perform analyses

based on month of birth, season of birth, Extended Spring vs. Fall, and Extended Winter vs. Summer.

2.3. Statistical evaluation

For all analyses the conventional alpha value of 0.05 (two tailed) was used.

2.3.1. The VES study

The four personality factors and the PC1 scores were entered one by one as the dependent variables in an

ANCOVA design, while controlling for the remaining four variables and the chronological age of the subjects.

The categorical predictor variables were the seven indicators of date of birth, namely month of birth (12

groups), season of birth (four groups), Extended Spring vs. Fall (two groups), Extended Summer vs. Winter

(two groups), Sun Sign (12 groups), Elements (four groups), and astrological gender (two groups). This

resulted in a total of seven times five ANCOVA’s.

2.3.2. The NLSY1979 study

Only four ANCOVA’s were performed with the PAF1 score as the dependent variable and month of birth,

season of birth, Extended Spring vs. Fall, Extended Summer vs. Winter served as categorical predictor

variables while controlling for age.

3\. Results

Due to the space limitation only figures for the relationship between the dependent variable (personality and

general intelligence) and month of birth are reported, since the other results are categorizations of these,

and can accordingly to some extent be derived from these. Furthermore, all significant relationships are also

reported.

3.1. The VES study

As can be seen from Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5and Fig. 6, out of 35 analyses only one reached the

specified level of significance (see Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5and Fig. 6). This was for Extended

Spring vs. Fall (Fig. 6), but the difference amounted to less than one IQ point in favour of subjects born in

the Extended Fall. No significant relationships could be observed between date of birth and personality. A

simple eye-ball inspection of the five graphs for month of birth did not suggest any systematic relationship

besides the ones already tested.

Display Full Size version of this image(14K)

Fig. 1. Predicting general intelligence g(PC1) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(48K)

Fig. 2. Predicting Psychoticism (P) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(52K)

Fig. 3. Predicting Extraversion (E) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(51K)

Fig. 4. Predicting Neuroticism (N) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(49K)

Fig. 5. Predicting Social Desirability (Lie score, L) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(40K)

Fig. 6. Predicting general intelligence g(PC1) from Extended Spring vs. Fall.

It was not possible to conduct separate analyses for sex as the VES database did not contain female data.

3.2. The NLSY1979 study

From the four analyses (see Fig. 7, Fig. 8and Fig. 9), the relationship between month of birth and PAF1

score came close to significance (p≈0.08), whereas the relationship between PAF1 score and season of

birth reached significance (p< 0.025) as well as for Extended Spring vs. Fall (p< 0.002). Fig. 8illustrates

that subjects born during spring obtained higher gthan subjects born during fall. Subjects born during winter

or summer seem to score closer too, but less than subjects born during spring. Fig. 8also shows that the

relationship is very modest (less than one IQ point) even if statistically significant. These results are

corroborated by the Extended Spring vs. Fall results, where subjects born during the Extended Spring score

somewhat higher g(but less than one IQ equivalent point). A simple eye-ball inspection of the graph for

month of birth did not suggest any systematic relationship besides the ones already seen.

Display Full Size version of this image(44K)

Fig. 7. Predicting general intelligence g(PAF1) from month of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(42K)

Fig. 8. Predicting general intelligence g(PAF1) from season of birth.

Display Full Size version of this image(35K)

Fig. 9. Predicting general intelligence g(PAF1) from Extended Spring vs. Fall.

Conducting the analyses separately for gender showed that the ANCOVA for month of birth and PAF1 was

significant for males (p< 0.05) but not for females (p\> 0.1). This pattern is also found when substituting

month of birth by season of birth. The ANCOVA reached significance (p< 0.001) for males but not for

females (p\> 0.1). The Extended Spring vs. Fall analysis showed the same pattern, where the relationship

was significant for males (p< 0.006) but not for females (p< 0.1). Apparently the overall relationship

between season of birth and Extended Spring vs. Fall is mediated by gender.

4\. Discussion

The large-scale analyses of the VES data show no relationships between date of birth and personality as

defined by the four Eysenckian personality dimensions. Given the rather liberal level of significance used in

relation to the numerous analyses performed, it is rather surprising not to find at least one spurious

relationship. Based on the research literature we expected to find at least some differences in personality as

a function of date of birth.

The reason for the discrepancy is unknown. The small effect sizes could be a factor, but the present

samples are large enough to trace even small effects. Another reason could be the age of our subjects.

Perhaps personality differs over time, and one could then argue that our middle-aged “personality” sample is

at a point where the differences in personality as a function of date of birth are shifting and therefore

differences will be minimal. However, there is consensus that personality tends to be stable over life-span;

but it cannot be excluded that a larger age span or different age categories than in the present study might

have provided different results. Moreover, as argued by a reviewer, it cannot be ruled out that the selection

bias inherent in this sample, i.e. all armed service veterans, could have modified the effect of date of birth.

However, multiple socio-economic indicators demonstrated that veterans who had served in Vietnam about

20 years later in general fared as well in society as those who did service elsewhere at the same time, and

that both groups distributed themselves socio-economically as expected for the general population (Centers

for Disease Control, 1988and Centers for Disease Control, 1989). Another argument was raised by a

reviewer: Perhaps years of military service and possible war experiences could affect the personality of the

subjects? Since the personality measures were collected during the re-testing phase in 1985/86 at

middle-age, one cannot rule out that an effect of date of birth has been eliminated on this account. In sum,

the selection bias of the present sample was probably lighter than that of most college samples typically

investigated, and no serious personality bias could be traced.

With respect to general intelligence we found evidence that subjects born during the Extended Fall from

June–December are slightly more intelligent (less one IQ point) than subjects born during the Extended

Spring. However, these results contrast the findings in NLSY1979 database, which showed approximately

the same difference but in the opposite direction. However, NLSY1979 findings dovetail with the research

literature and are therefore more likely to be correct. The question is, however, whether the findings are solid

and whether the relationship between date of birth and general intelligence may be mediated by theage of

the subjects as perhaps for personality. It is even possible both findings are artefacts of using rather liberal

p-values in the light of the number of analyses performed and the huge sample size. When the p-values are

subjected to the Bonferroni correction for 39 analyses, then no significant results survive. In any case, even

if the differences are, in fact, valid, the effect size is far too low to be of any practical relevance.

Our findings on astrology concord in general with the reviews of the research literature (Dean et al., 1997

and Eysenck and Nias, 1982). In fairness, the present study cannot falsify astrology at large since the

position of planets other than the sun might also have an effect. However, as pointed out by Eysenck and

Nias (1982, p. 31 and 49)if there is some truth to astrology then some general effects of prominent

astrological factors like Sun Signs should be detectable using large enough samples. The present

large-scale study certainly found no independent effects of Sun Signs, Elements, or gender, and thus yields

no support for the common claims of astrology.

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Corresponding author. Tel.: +45 29922400.

Personality and Individual Differences

Volume 40, Issue 7, May 2006, Pages 1349-1362

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## Citations (32)

## References (34)

... We coded each participant's age and astrological sign from his or her birthdate. Because astrologers do not agree on the beginning date and the end date of each astrological sign, there are minor disagreements in the categorization of astrological signs (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). For example, September 22 could be Virgo or Libra depending on the categorization method. ...

... The date range, astrological element, and astrological gender of each sign are also tabulated. The date range represents a conservative categorization of astrological signs, as there are minor disagreements among astrologers (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...

[Disentangling Stereotypes From Social Reality: Astrological Stereotypes and Discrimination in China](publication/339227776_Disentangling_Stereotypes_from_Social_Reality_Astrological_Stereotypes_and_Discrimination_in_China)

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- [Hui Liao](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Hui-Liao-2160741194)
- [Lei Wang](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Lei-Wang-2160758911)

Because stereotypes and social reality are mutually reinforcing, it is often unclear whether a given stereotype has emerged from pre-existing social reality, or has shaped social reality over time to resemble the stereotype (e.g., via discrimination). To address this chicken-or-egg problem, we advance an integrative model that captures not only endogenous stereotype formation from social reality, but also exogenous stereotype formation without social reality. When arbitrary social categories are introduced, the cultural meanings of category cues (e.g., semantic category names) can be exogenously projected as stereotypes onto those social categories. To illustrate exogenous stereotype formation, we examined a novel form of stereotyping and discrimination in China based on astrological signs, which were introduced into China from the West. Studies 1a, 1b, and 2 revealed that astrological stereotypes are salient in China (but not in the United States). These stereotypes were likely produced exogenously because of how the signs were translated into Chinese. In particular, Virgos are stereotyped as having disagreeable personalities, likely because of Virgo’s Chinese translation as “virgin” (Study 3). This translation-based stereotype led Chinese individuals to discriminate against Virgos in romantic dating (Study 4) and in simulated job recruitment (Studies 5 and 6). Studies 7 and 8 confirmed that astrological stereotypes are inaccurate and astrological discrimination is irrational: Astrological sign predicted neither personality (N = 173,709) nor job performance (N = 32,878). Overall, our research disentangles stereotypes from social reality by providing a real-world demonstration that stereotypes can form without pre-existing social reality, yet still produce discrimination that can then shape social reality.

[View](publication/339227776_Disentangling_Stereotypes_from_Social_Reality_Astrological_Stereotypes_and_Discrimination_in_China)

Show abstract

... We coded each participant's age and astrological sign from his or her birthdate. Because astrologers do not agree on the beginning date and the end date of each astrological sign, there are minor disagreements in the categorization of astrological signs (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). For example, September 22 could be Virgo or Libra depending on the categorization method. ...

... The date range, astrological element, and astrological gender of each sign are also tabulated. The date range represents a conservative categorization of astrological signs, as there are minor disagreements among astrologers (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...

[Astrological Stereotypes and Discrimination in China](publication/334855317_Astrological_Stereotypes_and_Discrimination_in_China)

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[View](publication/334855317_Astrological_Stereotypes_and_Discrimination_in_China)

... To do so, we examine how people's perception and trust in AI predictions may correlate with other irrational behaviors, such as belief in astrology. This research question is particularly timely and relevant given the recent surge in popularity of astrology, especially among Millennials and Gen Z \[24,25\], despite the lack of empirical evidence supporting its validity \[26,27\]. A recent consumer survey of over 2000 people in the US revealed that about a third of Millennials and a quarter of Gen Z have made financial decisions based on their horoscope \[28\]. ...

[Super-intelligence or Superstition? Exploring Psychological Factors Underlying Unwarranted Belief in AI Predictions](publication/383090925_Super-intelligence_or_Superstition_Exploring_Psychological_Factors_Underlying_Unwarranted_Belief_in_AI_Predictions)

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- [Judith Amores](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Judith-Amores-2289590831)
- [![Pattie Maes](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Pattie Maes](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pattie-Maes)

This study investigates psychological factors influencing belief in AI predictions about personal behavior, comparing it to belief in astrology and personality-based predictions. Through an experiment with 238 participants, we examined how cognitive style, paranormal beliefs, AI attitudes, personality traits, and other factors affect perceived validity, reliability, usefulness, and personalization of predictions from different sources. Our findings reveal that belief in AI predictions is positively correlated with belief in predictions based on astrology and personality psychology. Notably, paranormal beliefs and positive AI attitudes significantly increased perceived validity, reliability, usefulness, and personalization of AI predictions. Conscientiousness was negatively correlated with belief in predictions across all sources, and interest in the prediction topic increased believability across predictions. Surprisingly, cognitive style did not significantly influence belief in predictions. These results highlight the "rational superstition" phenomenon in AI, where belief is driven more by mental heuristics and intuition than critical evaluation. We discuss implications for designing AI systems and communication strategies that foster appropriate trust and skepticism. This research contributes to our understanding of the psychology of human-AI interaction and offers insights for the design and deployment of AI systems.

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This paper argues that the proponents of epistemological scientism must take some stand on scientific methodology. The supporters of scientism cannot simply defer to the social organisation of science because the social processes themselves must meet some methodological criteria. Among such criteria is epistemic evaluability, which demands intersubjective access to reasons. We derive twelve theses outlining some implications of epistemic evaluability. Evaluability can support weak and broad variants of epistemological scientism, which state that sciences, broadly construed, are the best sources of knowledge or some other epistemic goods. Since humanities and social sciences produce epistemically evaluable results, narrow types of scientism that take only natural sciences as sources of knowledge require additional argumentation in their support. Strong scientism, which takes sciences as the only source of knowledge, also needs to appeal to some further principles since evaluability is not an all-or-nothing affair.

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... It has been described as a pseudoscience, with little evidence for the existence of relevant relationships between zodiac sign and individual personality traits. 39 The occasional associations in personality between zodiac signs observed in studies 30,40 are thought likely to be accounted for by self-attributions, with individuals believing in astrology attributing personality traits consistent with their zodiac sign to themselves. 1 Nevertheless, there is no point carping about it, or perching on the fence, and having had the opportunity to mullet over the current study did reveal some significant findings, which cod be of importance to both physicians and sturgeons. ...

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Aim:
There are 12 signs of the zodiac, each attributed with its own specific personality traits, desires and attitudes. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of zodiac sign on patient-reported outcome measures (PROMS) following primary total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

Method:
Patients undergoing primary TKA during a 2-year period (January 2019 to December 2020) were identified retrospectively. Patient demographics, Oxford Knee Score (OKS), EuroQol 5-dimension (EQ-5D) (baseline, 1 and 2 years) and patient satisfaction scores (1 and 2 years) were collected. Each patient's zodiac sign was assigned from their date of birth.

Results:
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Conclusion:
Zodiac sign was associated with outcome following TKA. Pisceans had the best pre-operative EQ-5D scores, but the least improvement in the post-operative joint specific score (OKS) and were less likely to be satisfied, despite achieving an equal improvement in their health-related quality of life (EQ-5D). Aries started with the lowest pre-operative EQ-5D scores but achieved the best scores at 1 year. Our study shows that an individual's zodiac sign may serve as a useful predictive factor for functional outcomes and satisfaction following TKA. However, our findings are the result of multiple testing in a large dataset following a data trawl, and correlation does not necessarily equal causation even in a real-world registry.

[View](publication/369502964_Is_success_written_in_the_stars_The_effect_of_zodiac_sign_on_the_outcome_of_total_knee_arthroplasty)

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In diesem Open-Access-Buch geht es um Kompetenzerwartungen von Lernenden an Lehrpersonen und deren Bedeutung für die Lehr-Lern-Interaktion. Die Lehr-Lern-Interaktion ist ein aufeinander bezogenes Handeln von mindestens einer Lehrperson sowie einer lernenden Person und kann durch verschiedene Phänomene der sozialen Wahrnehmung und Kognition beeinflusst werden – beispielsweise durch Erwartungen. In einigen Untersuchungen zu interpersonalen Erwartungseffekten in der Lehr-Lern-Interaktion stehen die Lehrendenerwartungen an Lernende im Fokus, in anderen die Lernendenerwartungen an Lehrende – zumeist mit ihren Einflüssen auf das Erleben und Verhalten der Lernenden. Marcel Hackbart konzipiert auf Basis des transaktionalen Modells der Lehr-Lern-Interaktion vier aufeinander aufbauende Studien zu Kompetenzerwartungen von Lernenden an Lehrpersonen. Die Ergebnisse der Studien zeigen, dass die Lernendenkompetenzerwartungen an Lehrpersonen einen Einfluss auf die Interaktionsgestaltungen im Lehr-Lern-Kontext haben. Die Effekte auf die Lernenden selbst sind dabei, insbesondere auf Gruppenebene, größer als die Einflüsse auf das Erleben und Verhalten von Lehrpersonen.

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... Mustafa, Olgun & Taylan (2011) inspected the effect of astrology on young customer behaviours, the study was performed on 445 young consumers and concluded that positions of the different planets at the birth time may affect people's behaviour in particular market situation. Although, there were no afrmations found which validate the relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). Modern personality descriptions of odd-number astrological Sun Sign found to be more favourable than description of even-number Sun signs. ...

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[View](publication/360663819_DOES_ASTROLOGY_DETERMINE_CONSUMER_BUYING_BEHAVIOUR)

... \[8\] Exaggerated beliefs and ideas have found their place in people's communications and eventually turn into strong beliefs and can even affect health behaviors. \[9\] Researchers emphasize how beliefs become more important in times of illness than at any other point in life and contribute to the acceptance of the meaning of illness. \[10\] A study in 2009 showed that, in their experience of cancer, some of the participants did not believe in the abnormal division of cells or any scientific explanations and instead believed in the role of luck and superstitions. ...

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- Mar 2020

- [![Mohammad Taher](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Mohammad Taher](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammad-Taher-12)
- [![Sh Pashaeypoor](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Sh Pashaeypoor](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sh-Pashaeypoor-2)
- [MohammadAli Cheraghi](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/MohammadAli-Cheraghi-2172277373)
- [![Akram Hoseini](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Akram Hoseini](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Akram-Hoseini)

Concept exploration and development of superstition is the aim of this research. Superstition is a complex concept, needs to be clarity, removes it from its mundane state, and gives it a scientific richness. To use a list of questions extracted from a review of the literature to analyze, develop, and explore superstition. It was assessed according to studies conducted in three fields sociology, psychology, and nursing. The maturity of the concept was determined in four areas, epistemology, practicability, semantics, and deduction/logic. Nurses must discover people's beliefs and superstitions. Although the concept of superstition is commonly used, many of its features and aspects were still unclear.

[View](publication/340089754_Superstition_in_health_beliefs_Concept_exploration_and_development)

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[Superstitious Beliefs Unveiling Truth](publication/371110949_Superstitious_Beliefs_Unveiling_Truth)

Article

Full-text available

- May 2023

- [![Christian Gandeza](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Christian Gandeza](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christian-Gandeza-2)
- [![Claire Antonette Santisteban](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Claire Antonette Santisteban](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claire-Antonette-Santisteban)
- [V Santisteban](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/V-Santisteban-2252069108)
- [![Laxmi Tulasi Rao](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Laxmi Tulasi Rao](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laxmi-Rao-4)

This study aimed to discover and describe the truth behind superstitious beliefs. Also, to develop a boarder measure of belief that encompasses much wider, and much more diverse, forms of superstitions. There is a need for a more fine-grained understanding of the psychological functions of different superstition types, beginning with the fundamental positive versus negative distinction. It is an research used a qualitative inspired by an indigenous research methodology, pannakisarsarita. Based on the findings, the following conclusions are derived from this study. It has shown that despite a city's high level of urbanization, its citizens just cannot give up the long-standing customs they have acquired from their ancestors and forefathers. Some superstitious beliefs still exist. There are superstitious beliefs in the terms of the following: a. burial, b. healing c. harvesting d. planting and e. marriage. These beliefs guided their lives in ancient times and even today. While superstitious Beliefs of the participants affect them in terms of health, decision, and life It heals us if we believe: Parents 'decision, Grand-parents' decisions, Peers' decisions, and Faith Decisions. The Sta Cruz cultural esteem and high reverence for the deceased, marriage, planting and harvesting, and even faith healing are examples of these myths and practices. In light of the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are forwarded: The study suggests that faith healers can serve as excellent role models for secondary prevention, which involves early diagnosis and prompt treatment if properly advised to refer patients on time while maintaining their healing process, should only be non-harmful. Continue to carry out our traditions and custom regarding superstitious as part of our beliefs.

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[Grundlagen diagnostischer Verfahren](publication/357478703_Grundlagen_diagnostischer_Verfahren)

Chapter

- Jan 2021

- [![Stefan Krumm](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Stefan Krumm](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefan-Krumm-2)
- [![Lothar Schmidt-Atzert](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Lothar Schmidt-Atzert](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lothar-Schmidt-Atzert)
- [![Manfred Amelang](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Manfred Amelang](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Manfred-Amelang)

Dieses Kapitel befasst sich mit grundlegenden Anforderungen an diagnostische Instrumente. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf psychologischen Tests. Neben einer Definition und beispielhaften Darstellungen psychologischer Tests werden Kernannahmen des Messens sowie der Klassischen Testtheorie und von Item-Response-Theorien skizziert. Wesentliche Strategien und Schritte der Testkonstruktion werden eingeführt. Schließlich erfolgt eine Betrachtung wesentlicher Testgütekriterien.

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[Genius: The Natural History of Creativity](publication/344479634_Genius_The_Natural_History_of_Creativity)

Book

- May 1995

- [H. J. Eysenck](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/H-J-Eysenck-2181208418)

[View](publication/344479634_Genius_The_Natural_History_of_Creativity)

[On the asymmetry of g](publication/289963617_On_the_asymmetry_of_g)

Article

- Jan 1999

- [M G Evans](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/M-G-Evans-2093196467)

[View](publication/289963617_On_the_asymmetry_of_g)

[ON the asymmetry of g](publication/275877625_ON_the_asymmetry_of_g)

Article

- Dec 1999

- [![Martin Evans](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Martin Evans](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Martin-Evans-3)

In this paper the strength of general intelligence at different levels of g is explored. This represents a replication of 1996 work by Dreary, et al. using a very large sample of young persons. By examining differences in correlation between subscales and by undertaking a confirmatory factor analysis of a standard ability measure, the Armed Services Vocational Ability Battery, at high and low levels of g (n = c. 600 at each level), it is shown that at lower levels of g the factor structure is quite similar to, although not as well defined as, the factor structure for the complete sample, that is, a single general factor; however, at higher levels of g, the factor structure is not as clear-cut. The differences in mean correlations between the high and low intelligence groups ranged from .12 to .46 depending on the specific analysis. We established the level of g in three different ways using different indicators of g with different strengths and weaknesses. Results of all three analyses converged. The results imply that people with high intelligence demonstrate this in quite different ways, while those with low g have intellectual deficits in all domains of intelligence. The dominance of g in the factor structure reflects this similarity of scores at the low end of the set of abilities. The prevalence of specific abilities is due to the variety of ways in which people can demonstrate high ability. One can visualize this in three dimensions by imagining the various abilities as flowers arranged in a narrow vase - at the bottom they are bound together tightly, at the top they spread out broadly.

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[Astrology. Science or superstition?](publication/247151131_Astrology_Science_or_superstition)

Article

- Dec 1983
- PERS INDIV DIFFER

- [![Graham A. Tyson](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Graham A. Tyson](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Graham_Tyson)

[View](publication/247151131_Astrology_Science_or_superstition)

[Astrological Signs as Determinants of Extroversion and Emotionality: An Empirical Study](publication/239801062_Astrological_Signs_as_Determinants_of_Extroversion_and_Emotionality_An_Empirical_Study)

Article

- Mar 1996

- [Dave Clarke](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Dave-Clarke-2012501146)
- [![Toos Gabriels](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Toos Gabriels](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Toos-Gabriels)
- [Joan Barnes](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Joan-Barnes-2012383856)

Astrological theories assume a link between an individual's personality traits and the positions of the sun, moon, and planets in the zodiac at the moment of birth. Previous research has examined the relation of the sun sign to personality traits, but moon and ascendant signs have not been studied in relation to personality traits. The dominance effect of the sun on men and the moon on women has also not been empirically researched. Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) scores on extroversion and emotionality were obtained from 190 first-year university students. Date, time, and location of birth were requested, to establish the positions of the sun, moon, and ascendant in positive, negative, and water signs for each individual. Multiple t tests showed a significantly greater mean extroversion score for the group with both the sun and the moon in positive signs than for the group with both in negative signs. No other differences in means were significant. The findings generally did not support theories claiming that tendencies toward extroversion and emotionality are determined by astrological signs.

[View](publication/239801062_Astrological_Signs_as_Determinants_of_Extroversion_and_Emotionality_An_Empirical_Study)

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[The Scientific Study of Human Nature: Tribute to Hans J. Eysenck at eighty](publication/232513556_The_Scientific_Study_of_Human_Nature_Tribute_to_Hans_J_Eysenck_at_eighty)

Article

- Jan 1997
- PERS INDIV DIFFER

- [![Helmuth Nyborg](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Helmuth Nyborg](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmuth-Nyborg)

Each chapter of this tribute to H. J. Eysenck on the occasion of his 80th birthday describes first Eysenck's contribution to a particular topic then what research has developed from it, what kinds of amendments, modifications or additions to his work are appropriate, and finally thoughts about the future of the field.

This book intends to be of interest to a wide audience of researchers working in fields such as clinical, social, experimental, educational, medical, industrial and cognitive psychology. It will also be of relevance to psychiatrists, psychotherapists, social workers and counsellors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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[Month and season of birth in relation to intelligence, introversion-extraversion, and inferiority feelings.](publication/232490825_Month_and_season_of_birth_in_relation_to_intelligence_introversion-extraversion_and_inferiority_feelings)

Article

- Jan 1941

- [G. Forlano](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/G-Forlano-2042826714)
- [V. Z. Ehrlich](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/V-Z-Ehrlich-2001802025)

Results based on 7,897 adolescents suggest that those born in the spring were on the average brighter than those born in winter; those born during cold seasons seemed to be more extraverted and tended somewhat less to exhibit feelings of inferiority. Bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

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[Season of birth and mental differences](publication/232478014_Season_of_birth_and_mental_differences)

Article

- Jan 1943

- [R. Pintner](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-Pintner-2001706560)
- [G. Forlano](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/G-Forlano-2001753767)

This is a review of studies from 1929 to the present concerned with the relation of intelligence scores to season of birth. The studies are based on large numbers of subjects, usually in the thousands. The subjects in most studies are children, in one they are adult men, and in two college students. There is a strong suggestion of slightly lower mean intelligence for individuals born in the winter-autumn half of the year, the colder-darker months, than for individuals born in the spring-summer half of the year, the warmer-lighter months. While the difference is generally slight and in many cases well below the conventional limits of significance, it is in some cases well above these limits. Both exogenous and endogenous theories are suggested in explanation of the phenomenon. The phenomenon is seen as merely one aspect of the seasonal fluctuations of numerous physical, mental, and sociological factors. Suggestions are made for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

[View](publication/232478014_Season_of_birth_and_mental_differences)

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[Relationships between Cloninger's, Zuckerman's, and Eysenck's dimensions of personality](publication/232451575_Relationships_between_Cloninger's_Zuckerman's_and_Eysenck's_dimensions_of_personality)

Article

- Aug 1996
- PERS INDIV DIFFER

- [![Marvin Zuckerman](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Marvin Zuckerman](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marvin-Zuckerman)
- [![Robert Cloninger](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Robert Cloninger](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Cloninger)

Compared the direct equivalence of C. R. Cloninger's (see record
1988-01507-001) 7-factor and M. Zuckerman's (1991) 5-factor and H. J. Eysenck's (1967) 3-factor psychobiological models of personality. 207 college students were administered the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—Revised (EPQ-R), the Personality Questionnaire (PQ), and the 125 item Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Three of the scales in the TCI and PQ correlate at or above 0.60, indicating near-equivalence. Some of the other scales show secondary correlations with PQ scales, but at considerably lower convergent correlations than previously mentioned. In contrast to correlations between TCI and PQ, most of the TCI scale correlations were about the same for 2 of the 3 EPQ-R scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

[View](publication/232451575_Relationships_between_Cloninger's_Zuckerman's_and_Eysenck's_dimensions_of_personality)

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[Season of birth in relation to personality and blood groups](publication/232348520_Season_of_birth_in_relation_to_personality_and_blood_groups)

Article

- May 1992
- PERS INDIV DIFFER

- [![Sunita Gupta](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Sunita Gupta](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sunita-Gupta-13)

The present investigation was designed to study the relationship of season of birth and the personality dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, impulsiveness, venturesomeness, empathy and locus of control. One-way analysis of variance applied to the data clearly revealed that F-ratios for neuroticism, impulsiveness and venturesomeness were statistically reliable. In addition, a strong statistically significant association was found to exist between seasons of birth and blood groups as revealed by a chi-square test.

[View](publication/232348520_Season_of_birth_in_relation_to_personality_and_blood_groups)

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### [SAT and ACT predict college GPA after removing g](publication/242788087_SAT_and_ACT_predict_college_GPA_after_removing_g)

November 2008 · Intelligence

- ![Thomas R. Coyle](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Thomas R. Coyle](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Coyle-2)
- ![David Pillow](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[David Pillow](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Pillow)

This research examined whether the SAT and ACT would predict college grade point average (GPA) after removing g from the tests. SAT and ACT scores and freshman GPAs were obtained from a university sample (N=161) and the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N=8984). Structural equation modeling was used to examine relationships among g, GPA, and the SAT and ACT. The g factor was estimated ... \[Show full abstract\] from commercial cognitive tests (e.g., Wonderlic and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and the computer-adaptive Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. The unique variances of the SAT and ACT, obtained after removing g, were used to predict GPA. Results from both samples converged: While the SAT and ACT were highly g loaded, both tests generally predicted GPA after removing g. These results suggest that the SAT and ACT are strongly related to g, which is related to IQ and intelligence tests. They also suggest that the SAT and ACT predict GPA from non-g factors. Further research is needed to identify the non-g factors that contribute to the predictive validity of the SAT and ACT.

[Read more](publication/242788087_SAT_and_ACT_predict_college_GPA_after_removing_g)

Article

### [Spearman's ‘Law of Diminishing Returns’ tested with two methods](publication/232491774_Spearman's_'Law_of_Diminishing_Returns'_tested_with_two_methods)

January 1970 · Intelligence

- ![Martin Reuter](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Martin Reuter](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Martin-Reuter-3)
- [Peter Hartmann](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Peter-Hartmann-2031528925)

Spearman's "Law of Diminishing Returns" with regard to ability is tested in a dataset from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth. The dataset consisted of a sample of 6980 children aged 12-16 from the 1997 cohort. The subjects were tested with a computer administrated adaptive format of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery consisting of 12 subtests. Spearman's "Law of Diminishing ... \[Show full abstract\] Returns" was tested by two methods both dividing the sample into Low/High ability based either on the total score on the test or on the score one of the 12 subtests. Subsequently the ability groups were factor analysed separately. The eigenvalue of the first principal component and the first principal axis factor, and the average inter-correlation of the subtests were used as estimates of the
g saturation and compared across groups. The study could not confirm Spearman's "Law of Diminishing Returns" for any of the methods applied and did not find any relevant differences across methods applied. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

[Read more](publication/232491774_Spearman's_'Law_of_Diminishing_Returns'_tested_with_two_methods)

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### [Sex differences across different racial ability levels: Theories of origin and societal consequences](publication/281601876_Sex_differences_across_different_racial_ability_levels_Theories_of_origin_and_societal_consequences)

September 2015 · Intelligence

- ![Helmuth Nyborg](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Helmuth Nyborg](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmuth-Nyborg)

Jensen (1971) found that black girls score 3 IQ points higher than black boys, and white boys 1.5 IQ points higher than white girls. He, nevertheless, concluded that this did not support his Race. × Sex × Ability interaction theory. Jensen (1998) further analyzed data, some from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), and suggested that there is no sex difference in general ... \[Show full abstract\] intelligence, g. Other studies have questioned Jensen's null sex difference theory. The present study tested both theories with data from the ensuring NLSY97 survey, which represents the 15. + million 12-17. year old adolescents living in the US in 1997.Total sample analyses confirmed the existence of significant inverse white-black IQ sex differences, and disconfirmed the null sex difference theory.Separate race-age analyses demonstrated, however, that robust IQ sex differences materialize only after age 16, with no white-black interaction. At age 17, female IQ trails male by 3.6-7.03 points in three races, respectively.Classical IQ probability curves foretell that more males than females will enter the highest echelons of society, irrespective of race, and white Male/Female ratios at IQ 145 successfully predicted real-life sex differences in educational and occupational achievement. White males with IQ 55 can be expected to run a very high risk of encountering severe achievement problems, a risk shared to some extent with Hispanic male, but black females with this low IQ can be expected to perform worse than black males.The paper finally proposed models to account for the origin of sex and race differences in IQ and related educational and occupational differences, involving gene copy numbers, brain size, and steroid hormones. It was suggested that the evolutionary background and physiological nature of sex and race differences explain why social engineering fails to eradicate them.

[View full-text](publication/281601876_Sex_differences_across_different_racial_ability_levels_Theories_of_origin_and_societal_consequences)

Article

Full-text available

### [The stability of general intelligence from early adulthood to middle-age](publication/223655973_The_stability_of_general_intelligence_from_early_adulthood_to_middle-age)

February 2008 · Intelligence

- ![Helmuth Nyborg](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Helmuth Nyborg](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmuth-Nyborg)
- ![Lars Larsen](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Lars Larsen](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lars-Larsen-8)
- [Peter Hartmann](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Peter-Hartmann-15157137)

Early cross-sectional studies suggested that cognitive functions begin to decline in young adulthood, whereas the first longitudinal studies suggested that they are mainly stable in adulthood. A number of more contemporary longitudinal studies support the stability hypothesis. However, drop out effects have the consequence that most longitudinal studies end up with relatively few subjects.In the ... \[Show full abstract\] present study we determined absolute as well as differential stability in general intelligence g, and in verbal and arithmetic abilities, longitudinally for 4000+ adult male veterans drawn from the Vietnam Experience Study (VES). The subjects were given five cognitive tests in their early adulthood. Approximately 18 years later, 14 cognitive tests were administered. Two tests, one verbal and one arithmetic, were administered on both occasions. A Principal Axis Factor analysis was conducted separately on the tests from first and second testing in order to extract both a “gyoung” and a “gold” general intelligence factor. gyoung was then correlated with gold to determine the differential stability of g. The absolute scores from the recurrent tests were correlated to determine the differential stability and compared using an ordinary t-test in order to estimate the absolute stability.The differential stability coefficients were: 0.85 for g; 0.79 for arithmetic; and 0.82 for verbal ability. With respect to absolute stability of the specific tests, we found a significant increase in verbal score (mean scores; 107.16, 116.52), but no change in arithmetic score. Problems associated with different concepts of stability, level of analysis and potential practice effects were discussed.

[View full-text](publication/223655973_The_stability_of_general_intelligence_from_early_adulthood_to_middle-age)

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### [Spearman’s Hypothesis in the Vietnam Experience Study and National Longitudinal Survey of Youth ‘79](publication/351882210_Spearman's_Hypothesis_in_the_Vietnam_Experience_Study_and_National_Longitudinal_Survey_of_Youth_'79)

May 2021

- ![Helmuth Nyborg](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Helmuth Nyborg](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmuth-Nyborg)
- ![Jordan Lasker](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Jordan Lasker](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jordan-Lasker)
- ![Emil O. W. Kirkegaard](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Emil O. W. Kirkegaard](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emil-O-W-Kirkegaard)

There are few empirically derived theories explaining group differences in cognitive ability. Spearman's hypothesis is one such theory which holds that group differences are a function of a given test's relationship to general intelligence, g. Research into this hypothesis has generally been limited to the application of a single method lacking sensitivity, specificity, and the ability to assess ... \[Show full abstract\] test bias: Jensen’s method of correlated vectors. In order to overcome the resulting empirical gap, we applied three different psychometrically sound methods to examine the hypothesis among American blacks and whites in the Vietnam Experience Study (VES) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY ‘79). We first used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to assess bias and evaluate the hypothesis directly; we found that strict factorial invariance was tenable in both samples and either the strong or the weak form of the hypothesis was supported, with 87 and 78% of the group differences attributable to g in the VES and NLSY ’79 respectively. Using item response theory metrics to avoid pass rate confounding, a strong relationship between g loadings and group differences (r = 0.80 and 0.79) was observed. Finally, assessing differential item functioning with item level data revealed that a handful of items functioned differently, but their removal did not affect gap sizes much beyond what would be expected from shortening tests, and assessing the effect this had on scores using an anchoring method, the differential functioning was found to be negligible in size. In aggregate, results supported Spearman's hypothesis but not test bias as an explanation for the cognitive differences between the groups we studied.

[View full-text](publication/351882210_Spearman's_Hypothesis_in_the_Vietnam_Experience_Study_and_National_Longitudinal_Survey_of_Youth_'79)

Article

Full-text available

### [The intelligence–religiosity nexus: A representative study of white adolescent Americans](publication/223637492_The_intelligence-religiosity_nexus_A_representative_study_of_white_adolescent_Americans)

February 2009 · Intelligence

- ![Helmuth Nyborg](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Helmuth Nyborg](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmuth-Nyborg)

The present study examined whether IQ relates systematically to denomination and income within the framework of the g nexus, using representative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY97). Atheists score 1.95 IQ points higher than Agnostics, 3.82 points higher than Liberal persuasions, and 5.89 IQ points higher than Dogmatic persuasions. Denominations differ significantly in IQ ... \[Show full abstract\] and income. Religiosity declines between ages 12 to 17. It is suggested that IQ makes an individual likely to gravitate toward a denomination and level of achievement that best fit his or hers particular level of cognitive complexity. Ontogenetically speaking this means that contemporary denominations are rank ordered by largely hereditary variations in brain efficiency (i.e. IQ). In terms of evolution, modern Atheists are reacting rationally to cognitive and emotional challenges, whereas Liberals and, in particular Dogmatics, still rely on ancient, pre-rational, supernatural and wishful thinking.

[View full-text](publication/223637492_The_intelligence-religiosity_nexus_A_representative_study_of_white_adolescent_Americans)

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