Chatbot - Wikipedia
Modern chatbots are typically online and use generative artificial intelligence systems that are capable of maintaining a conversation with a user in natural ...
End-to-end encryption
Data security is one of the major concerns of chatbot technologies. Security threats and system vulnerabilities are weaknesses that are often exploited by malicious users. Storage of user data and past communication, that is highly valuable for training and development of chatbots, can also give rise to security threats.[93] Chatbots operating on third-party networks may be subject to various security issues if owners of the third-party applications have policies regarding user data that differ from those of the chatbot.[93] Security threats can be reduced or prevented by incorporating protective mechanisms. User authentication, chat <anchor>End-to-end encryption</anchor>, and self-destructing messages are some effective solutions to resist potential security threats.[93]
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## Contents

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- [1E2EE and privacy](#E2EE_and_privacy)
- [2Etymology of the term](#Etymology_of_the_term)
- [3Modern usage](#Modern_usage)
- [4Challenges](#Challenges)Toggle Challenges subsection  - [4.1Man-in-the-middle attacks](#Man-in-the-middle_attacks)    - [4.1.1Authentication](#Authentication)
  - [4.2Endpoint security](#Endpoint_security)
  - [4.3Backdoors](#Backdoors)
  - [4.4Compliance and regulatory requirements for content inspection](#Compliance_and_regulatory_requirements_for_content_inspection)
- [5See also](#See_also)
- [6References](#References)
- [7Further reading](#Further_reading)

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# End-to-end encryption

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Encryption model where only the sender and recipient can read the ciphertext

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**End-to-end encryption** ( **E2EE**) is a private communication system in which only communicating users can participate. As such, no one else, including the communication system provider, [telecom providers](/wiki/Telecommunications_service_providers "Telecommunications service providers"), [Internet providers](/wiki/Internet_providers "Internet providers") or [malicious actors](/wiki/Cybercrime "Cybercrime"), can access the [cryptographic keys](/wiki/Key_(cryptography) "Key (cryptography)") needed to converse.[\[1\]](#cite_note-Wired_Lexicon-1) End-to-end [encryption](/wiki/Encryption "Encryption") is intended to prevent data being read or [secretly modified](/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack "Man-in-the-middle attack"), other than by the true sender and recipient(s). The [messages](/wiki/Text_messaging "Text messaging") are encrypted by the sender but the third party does not have a means to decrypt them, and stores them encrypted. The recipients retrieve the encrypted data and decrypt it themselves. Because no third parties can decipher the data being communicated or stored, for example, companies that provide end-to-end encryption are unable to hand over texts of their customers' messages to the authorities.[\[2\]](#cite_note-2)

In 2022, the UK's [Information Commissioner's Office](/wiki/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office "Information Commissioner's Office"), the government body responsible for enforcing online data standards, stated that opposition to E2EE was misinformed and the debate too unbalanced, with too little focus on benefits, since E2EE helped keep children safe online and law enforcement access to stored data on servers was "not the only way" to find abusers.[\[3\]](#cite_note-3)

## E2EE and privacy

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: E2EE and privacy")\]

In many messaging systems, including [email](/wiki/Email "Email") and many chat networks, messages pass through intermediaries and are stored by a third party,[\[4\]](#cite_note-4) from which they are retrieved by the recipient. Even if the messages are encrypted, they are only [encrypted 'in transit'](/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security "Transport Layer Security"), and are thus accessible by the service provider,[\[5\]](#cite_note-5) regardless of whether server-side disk encryption is used. Server-side disk encryption simply prevents unauthorized users from viewing this information. It does not prevent the company itself from viewing the information, as they have the key and can simply decrypt this data.

This allows the third party to provide search and other features, or to scan for illegal and unacceptable content, but also means they can be read and misused by anyone who has access to the stored messages on the third-party system, whether this is by design or via a [backdoor](/wiki/Backdoor_(computing) "Backdoor (computing)"). This can be seen as a concern in many cases where privacy is very important, such as in governmental and [military communications](/wiki/Military_communications "Military communications"), [financial transactions](/wiki/Financial_transaction "Financial transaction"), and when [sensitive information](/wiki/Information_sensitivity "Information sensitivity") such as [health](/wiki/Medical_privacy "Medical privacy") and [biometric data](/wiki/Biometrics "Biometrics") are sent, as a malicious actor or adversarial government could obtain such information sent in unencrypted messages.[\[6\]](#cite_note-6)

E2EE alone does not guarantee [privacy](/wiki/Privacy "Privacy") or [security](/wiki/Data_security "Data security").[\[7\]](#cite_note-7) For example, data may be held unencrypted [on the user's own device](/wiki/Endpoint_security "Endpoint security"), or be accessible via their own app, if their login is compromised.

## Etymology of the term

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=2 "Edit section: Etymology of the term")\]

The term "end-to-end encryption" originally only meant that the communication is never decrypted during its transport from the sender to the receiver.[\[8\]](#cite_note-Baran-E2EE-8)
For example, around 2003, E2EE has been proposed as an additional layer of encryption for [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM")[\[9\]](#cite_note-GSM-E2EE-9) or [TETRA](/wiki/Terrestrial_Trunked_Radio "Terrestrial Trunked Radio"),[\[10\]](#cite_note-TETRA-E2EE-10) in addition to the existing radio encryption protecting the communication between the mobile device and the network infrastructure. This has been standardized by SFPG for TETRA.[\[11\]](#cite_note-SFPG-E2EE-11) Note that in TETRA E2EE, the keys are generated by a Key Management Centre (KMC) or a Key Management Facility (KMF), not by the communicating users.[\[12\]](#cite_note-12)

Later, around 2014, the meaning of "end-to-end encryption" started to evolve when WhatsApp encrypted a portion of its network,[\[13\]](#cite_note-13) requiring that not only the communication stays encrypted during transport,[\[14\]](#cite_note-14)but also that the provider of the communication service is not able to decrypt the communications either by having access to the private key, or by having the capability to undetectably inject an adversarial public key as part of a [man-in-the-middle attack](/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack "Man-in-the-middle attack").\[ _[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")_\] This new meaning is now the widely accepted one.[\[15\]](#cite_note-15)

## Modern usage

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=3 "Edit section: Modern usage")\]

As of 2016,[\[16\]](#cite_note-16) typical [server](/wiki/Server_(computing) "Server (computing)")-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption.[\[17\]](#cite_note-17) These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between [clients](/wiki/Client_(computing) "Client (computing)") and [servers](/wiki/Server_(computing) "Server (computing)"),[\[18\]](#cite_note-18) meaning that users have to trust the third parties who are running the servers with the sensitive content. End-to-end encryption is regarded as safer[\[19\]](#cite_note-19) because it reduces the number of parties who might be able to interfere or break the encryption.[\[20\]](#cite_note-ssdeef-20) In the case of instant messaging, users may use a third-party client or plugin to implement an end-to-end encryption scheme over an otherwise non-E2EE protocol.[\[21\]](#cite_note-21)

Some non-E2EE systems, such as [Lavabit](/wiki/Lavabit "Lavabit") and [Hushmail](/wiki/Hushmail "Hushmail"), have described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they did not.[\[22\]](#cite_note-22) Other systems, such as [Telegram](/wiki/Telegram_(software) "Telegram (software)") and [Google Allo](/wiki/Google_Allo "Google Allo"), have been criticized for not enabling end-to-end encryption by default. Telegram did not enable end-to-end encryption by default on VoIP calls while users were using desktop software version, but that problem was fixed quickly.[\[23\]](#cite_note-cpj-2016-05-31-23)[\[24\]](#cite_note-24) However, as of 2020, Telegram still features no end-to-end encryption by default, no end-to-end encryption for group chats, and no end-to-end encryption for its desktop clients. In 2022, [Facebook Messenger](/wiki/Messenger_(software) "Messenger (software)") came under scrutiny because the messages between a mother and daughter in [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska") were used to seek criminal charges in an [abortion](/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States "Abortion in the United States")-related case against both of them. The daughter told the police that she had a miscarriage and tried to search for the date of her miscarriage in her Messenger app. Police suspected there could be more information within the messages and obtained and served a warrant against Facebook to gain access. The messages allegedly mentioned the mother obtaining [abortion pills](/wiki/Medical_abortion "Medical abortion") for her daughter and then burning the evidence. Facebook expanded default end-to-end encryption in the Messenger app just days later.[\[25\]](#cite_note-25)[\[26\]](#cite_note-26) Writing for _Wired_, Albert Fox Cahn criticized Messenger's approach to end-to-end encryption, which was not enabled by default, required opt-in for each conversation, and split the message thread into two chats which were easy for the user to confuse.[\[27\]](#cite_note-27)

Some encrypted [backup](/wiki/Backup "Backup") and [file sharing](/wiki/File_sharing "File sharing") services provide [client-side encryption](/wiki/Client-side_encryption "Client-side encryption"). This type of encryption is not referred to as end-to-end encryption because only one end has the ability to decrypt the data. However, the term "end-to-end encryption" is sometimes incorrectly used to describe client-side encryption.[\[28\]](#cite_note-28)

## Challenges

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Challenges")\]

### Man-in-the-middle attacks

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=5 "Edit section: Man-in-the-middle attacks")\]

End-to-end encryption ensures that data is transferred securely between endpoints. But, rather than try to break the encryption, an eavesdropper may impersonate a message recipient (during [key exchange](/wiki/Key_exchange "Key exchange") or by substituting their [public key](/wiki/Public_key_cryptography "Public key cryptography") for the recipient's), so that messages are encrypted with a key known to the attacker. After decrypting the message, the snoop can then encrypt it with a key that they share with the actual recipient, or their public key in case of asymmetric systems, and send the message on again to avoid detection. This is known as a [man-in-the-middle attack](/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack "Man-in-the-middle attack") (MITM).[\[1\]](#cite_note-Wired_Lexicon-1)[\[29\]](#cite_note-Schneier-29)

#### Authentication

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Authentication")\]

See also: [Key Transparency](/wiki/Key_Transparency "Key Transparency")

Most end-to-end encryption protocols include some form of endpoint [authentication](/wiki/Authentication_cookie "Authentication cookie") specifically to prevent MITM attacks. For example, one could rely on [certification authorities](/wiki/Certificate_Authority_Security_Council "Certificate Authority Security Council") or a [web of trust](/wiki/Web_of_trust "Web of trust").[\[30\]](#cite_note-30) An alternative technique is to generate cryptographic hashes (fingerprints) based on the communicating users’ public keys or shared secret keys. The parties compare their [fingerprints](/wiki/Public_key_fingerprint "Public key fingerprint") using an outside (out-of-band) communication channel that guarantees integrity and authenticity of communication (but not necessarily secrecy\[ _[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")_\]), before starting their conversation. If the fingerprints match, there is, in theory, no man in the middle.[\[1\]](#cite_note-Wired_Lexicon-1)

When displayed for human inspection, fingerprints usually use some form of [Binary-to-text encoding](/wiki/Binary-to-text_encoding "Binary-to-text encoding")\[ _[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")_\].[\[31\]](#cite_note-31) These strings are then formatted into groups of characters for readability. Some clients instead display a [natural language](/wiki/Natural_language "Natural language") representation of the fingerprint.[\[32\]](#cite_note-pEp-whitepaper-32) As the approach consists of a [one-to-one mapping](/wiki/One-to-one_mapping "One-to-one mapping") between fingerprint blocks and words, there is no loss in [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"). The protocol may choose to display words in the user's native (system) language.[\[32\]](#cite_note-pEp-whitepaper-32) This can, however, make cross-language comparisons prone to errors.[\[33\]](#cite_note-Marlinspike-2016-04-05-33)

In order to improve [localization](/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization "Internationalization and localization"), some protocols have chosen to display fingerprints as base 10 strings instead of more error prone hexadecimal or natural language strings.[\[34\]](#cite_note-Budington-2016-04-07-34)[\[33\]](#cite_note-Marlinspike-2016-04-05-33) An example of the base 10 fingerprint (called _safety number_ in Signal and _security code_ in WhatsApp) would be:

```
 37345  35585  86758  07668
 05805  48714  98975  19432
 47272  72741  60915  64451

```

Other applications such as Telegram, instead, encode fingerprints using emojis.

Modern messaging applications can also display fingerprints as [QR codes](/wiki/QR_code "QR code") that users can scan off each other's devices.[\[34\]](#cite_note-Budington-2016-04-07-34)

### Endpoint security

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Endpoint security")\]

The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves. Each user's computer can still be hacked to steal their cryptographic key (to create a MITM attack) or simply read the recipients’ decrypted messages both in real time and from log files. Even the most perfectly encrypted communication pipe is only as secure as the mailbox on the other end.[\[1\]](#cite_note-Wired_Lexicon-1) Major attempts to increase endpoint security have been to isolate key generation, storage and cryptographic operations to a smart card such as Google's Project Vault.[\[35\]](#cite_note-35) However, since plaintext input and output are still visible to the host system, malware can monitor conversations in real time. A more robust approach is to isolate all sensitive data to a fully [air gapped](/wiki/Air_gap_(networking) "Air gap (networking)") computer.[\[36\]](#cite_note-36) [PGP](/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy "Pretty Good Privacy") has been recommended by experts for this purpose.[\[37\]](#cite_note-37) However, as [Bruce Schneier](/wiki/Bruce_Schneier "Bruce Schneier") points out, [Stuxnet](/wiki/Stuxnet "Stuxnet") developed by US and Israel successfully jumped air gap and reached Natanz nuclear plant's network in Iran.[\[38\]](#cite_note-38) To deal with key exfiltration with malware, one approach is to split the [Trusted Computing Base](/wiki/Trusted_Computing_Base "Trusted Computing Base") behind two [unidirectionally connected](/wiki/Unidirectional_network "Unidirectional network") computers that prevent either insertion of malware, or exfiltration of sensitive data with inserted malware.[\[39\]](#cite_note-39)

### Backdoors

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=8 "Edit section: Backdoors")\]

A backdoor is usually a secret method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer system, a product, an embedded device, etc.[\[40\]](#cite_note-40) Companies may also willingly or unwillingly introduce [backdoors](/wiki/Backdoor_(computing) "Backdoor (computing)") to their software that help subvert key negotiation or bypass encryption altogether. In 2013, information leaked by [Edward Snowden](/wiki/Edward_Snowden "Edward Snowden") showed that [Skype](/wiki/Skype "Skype") had a backdoor which allowed Microsoft to hand over their users' messages to the [NSA](/wiki/NSA "NSA") despite the fact that those messages were officially end-to-end encrypted.[\[41\]](#cite_note-41)[\[42\]](#cite_note-42)

Following terrorist attacks in [San Bernardino in 2015](/wiki/2015_San_Bernardino_attack "2015 San Bernardino attack") and [Pensacola in 2019](/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Pensacola_shooting "Naval Air Station Pensacola shooting"), the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") requested backdoors to [Apple's](/wiki/Apple_Inc. "Apple Inc.") [iPhone](/wiki/IPhone "IPhone") software. The company, however, refused to create a backdoor for the government, citing concern that such a tool could pose risk for its consumers’ privacy.[\[43\]](#cite_note-43)

### Compliance and regulatory requirements for content inspection

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=9 "Edit section: Compliance and regulatory requirements for content inspection")\]

While E2EE can offer privacy benefits that make it desirable in consumer-grade services, many businesses have to balance these benefits with their regulatory requirements. For example, many organizations are subject to mandates that require them to be able to decrypt any communication between their employees or between their employees and third parties.[\[44\]](#cite_note-44)
This might be needed for archival purposes, for inspection by [Data Loss Prevention (DLP)](/wiki/Data_loss_prevention_software "Data loss prevention software") systems, for litigation-related [eDiscovery](/wiki/Electronic_discovery "Electronic discovery") or for detection of [malware](/wiki/Antivirus_software "Antivirus software") and other threats in the data streams. For this reason, some enterprise-focused communications and information protection systems might implement encryption in a way that ensures all transmissions are encrypted with the encryption being terminated at their internal systems (on-premises or cloud-based) so they can have access to the information for inspection and processing.

## See also

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: See also")\]

- [Comparison of instant messaging protocols](/wiki/Comparison_of_instant_messaging_protocols "Comparison of instant messaging protocols")
- [Comparison of VoIP software § Secure VoIP software](/wiki/Comparison_of_VoIP_software#Secure_VoIP_software "Comparison of VoIP software") – a table overview of VoIP clients that offer end-to-end encryption
- [Diffie–Hellman key exchange](/wiki/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange "Diffie–Hellman key exchange")
- [End-to-end auditable voting systems](/wiki/End-to-end_auditable_voting_systems "End-to-end auditable voting systems")
- [Point-to-point encryption](/wiki/Point-to-point_encryption "Point-to-point encryption")

## References

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=11 "Edit section: References")\]

01. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Wired_Lexicon_1-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Wired_Lexicon_1-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Wired_Lexicon_1-2) [_**d**_](#cite_ref-Wired_Lexicon_1-3)Greenberg, Andy (2014-11-25). ["Hacker Lexicon: What Is End-to-End Encryption?"](https://www.wired.com/2014/11/hacker-lexicon-end-to-end-encryption/). _WIRED_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151223002912/http://www.wired.com/2014/11/hacker-lexicon-end-to-end-encryption/) from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
02. **[^](#cite_ref-2)**McLaughlin, Jenna (21 December 2015). ["Democratic Debate Spawns Fantasy Talk on Encryption"](https://theintercept.com/2015/12/21/democratic-debate-spawns-fantasy-talk-on-encryption/). _The Intercept_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151223045636/https://theintercept.com/2015/12/21/democratic-debate-spawns-fantasy-talk-on-encryption/) from the original on 23 December 2015.
03. **[^](#cite_ref-3)**["Encryption: UK data watchdog criticises government campaign"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-60072191). _BBC News_. 21 January 2022.
04. **[^](#cite_ref-4)**["Cryptography Concepts – Fundamentals – E3Kit \| Virgil Security"](https://developer.virgilsecurity.com/docs/e3kit/fundamentals/cryptography/#end-to-end-encryption). _developer.virgilsecurity.com_. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
05. **[^](#cite_ref-5)**Mundhenk, Ben Rothke and David (2009-09-10). ["End-to-End Encryption: The PCI Security Holy Grail"](https://www.csoonline.com/article/2124346/end-to-end-encryption--the-pci-security-holy-grail.html). _CSO Online_. Retrieved 2020-11-04.
06. **[^](#cite_ref-6)**Weinstein, Gary. ["Encryption: The Necessary Tool For U.S. National Security And The Intelligence Community"](https://www.forbes.com/sites/digital-assets/2023/05/07/encryption-the-necessary-tool-for-us-national-security-and-the-intelligence-community/). _Forbes_. Retrieved 2024-07-26.
07. **[^](#cite_ref-7)**Meehan, Tom (2021-11-29). ["End-to-End Encryption Doesn't Guarantee Internet Privacy"](https://losspreventionmedia.com/end-to-end-encryption-doesnt-guarantee-internet-privacy/). _Loss Prevention Media_. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
08. **[^](#cite_ref-Baran-E2EE_8-0)**Baran, Paul (1964). "IX. Security, Secrecy, and Tamper-Free Considerations. III. Some Fundamentals of Cryptography". [_On Distributed Communications_](https://web.archive.org/web/20200407143949/https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3765/RM3765.chapter3.html). RAND corporation. Archived from [the original](https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3765/RM3765.chapter3.html) on 2020-04-07. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
09. **[^](#cite_ref-GSM-E2EE_9-0)**Moldal, L.; Jorgensen, T. (11 February 2003). ["End to end encryption in GSM, DECT and satellite networks using NSK200"](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1292124). _IEE Seminar Secure GSM and Beyond: End to End Security for Mobile Communications_. Vol. 2003. IET. p. 5. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1049/ic:20030013](https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fic%3A20030013).
10. **[^](#cite_ref-TETRA-E2EE_10-0)**Murgatroyd, Brian (11 February 2003). ["End to end encryption in public safety TETRA networks"](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1292126). _IEE Seminar Secure GSM and Beyond: End to End Security for Mobile Communications_. Vol. 2003. IET. p. 7. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1049/ic:20030015](https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fic%3A20030015).
11. **[^](#cite_ref-SFPG-E2EE_11-0)**["New chair for the SFPG"](https://tcca.info/new-chair-for-the-sfpg/). 2007.
12. **[^](#cite_ref-12)**Morquecho Martinez, Raul Alejandro (31 March 2016). [_Delivery of encryption keys in TETRA networks_](https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/20880/master_Morquecho_Martinez_Raul_2016.pdf)(PDF) (Master's Thesis). Aalto University.
13. **[^](#cite_ref-13)**["Forget Apple vs. the FBI: WhatsApp Just Switched on Encryption for a Billion People"](https://www.wired.com/2016/04/forget-apple-vs-fbi-whatsapp-just-switched-encryption-billion-people/). _Wired_. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [1059-1028](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028). Retrieved 2021-03-02.
14. **[^](#cite_ref-14)**Mtega, Wulystan Pius (Jan 2021). ["Using WhatsApp Messenger for improving learners' engagement in teaching and learning: a case of undergraduate students at the Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania"](https://www.proquest.com/docview/2492709488). _Library Philosophy and Practice_: 1–18. [ProQuest](/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier) "ProQuest (identifier)") [2492709488](https://search.proquest.com/docview/2492709488) – via ProQuest.
15. **[^](#cite_ref-15)**Lewis, James A., Denise E. Zheng, and William A. Carter. "The effect of encryption on lawful access to communications and data". _Rowman & Littlefield_.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( [link](/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list "Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list"))
16. **[^](#cite_ref-16)**["A history of end-to-end encryption and the death of PGP"](https://www.cryptologie.net/article/487/a-history-of-end-to-end-encryption-and-the-death-of-pgp/). _www.cryptologie.net_. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
17. **[^](#cite_ref-17)**Nabeel, Mohamed (2017-06-23). ["The Many Faces of End-to-End Encryption and Their Security Analysis"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ieee.edge.2017.47). _2017 IEEE International Conference on Edge Computing (EDGE)_. IEEE. pp. 252–259. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/ieee.edge.2017.47](https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fieee.edge.2017.47). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5386-2017-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-2017-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-2017-5"). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [3419988](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3419988).
18. **[^](#cite_ref-18)**["What is End-to-end encryption (E2EE) ?"](https://www.gbnews.ch/what-is-end-to-end-encryption-e2ee/). _Geneva Business News \| Actualités: Emploi, RH, économie, entreprises, Genève, Suisse._ (in French). 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
19. **[^](#cite_ref-19)**Bai, Wei; Pearson, Michael; Kelley, Patrick Gage; Mazurek, Michelle L. (September 2020). ["Improving Non-Experts' Understanding of End-to-End Encryption: An Exploratory Study"](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9229664). _2020 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW)_. Genoa, Italy: IEEE. pp. 210–219. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/EuroSPW51379.2020.00036](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FEuroSPW51379.2020.00036). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-7281-8597-2](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-8597-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-7281-8597-2"). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [220524858](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220524858).
20. **[^](#cite_ref-ssdeef_20-0)**["End-to-End Encryption"](https://ssd.eff.org/en/glossary/end-end-encryption). _EFF Surveillance Self-Defense Guide_. Electronic Frontier Foundation. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160305112131/https://ssd.eff.org/en/glossary/end-end-encryption) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
21. **[^](#cite_ref-21)**["How to: Use OTR for Windows"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160120015142/https://ssd.eff.org/en/module/how-use-otr-windows). _EEF Surveillance Self-Defence Guide_. Electronic Frontier Foundation. Archived from [the original](https://ssd.eff.org/en/module/how-use-otr-windows) on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
22. **[^](#cite_ref-22)**Grauer, Yael. ["Mr. Robot Uses ProtonMail, But It Still Isn't Fully Secure"](https://www.wired.com/2015/10/mr-robot-uses-protonmail-still-isnt-fully-secure/). _WIRED_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170309013643/https://www.wired.com/2015/10/mr-robot-uses-protonmail-still-isnt-fully-secure/) from the original on 2017-03-09.
23. **[^](#cite_ref-cpj-2016-05-31_23-0)**["Why Telegram's security flaws may put Iran's journalists at risk"](https://cpj.org/blog/2016/05/why-telegrams-security-flaws-may-put-irans-journal.php). Committee to Protect Journalists. 31 May 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160819013449/https://cpj.org/blog/2016/05/why-telegrams-security-flaws-may-put-irans-journal.php) from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
24. **[^](#cite_ref-24)**Hackett, Robert (21 May 2016). ["Here's Why Privacy Savants Are Blasting Google Allo"](http://fortune.com/2016/05/21/google-allo-privacy-2/). _Fortune_. Time Inc. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160910182246/http://fortune.com/2016/05/21/google-allo-privacy-2/) from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
25. **[^](#cite_ref-25)**Duffy, Sara O'Brien,Clare (2022-08-10). ["Nebraska teen and mother facing charges in abortion-related case that involved obtaining their Facebook messages \| CNN Business"](https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/10/tech/teen-charged-abortion-facebook-messages/index.html). _CNN_. Retrieved 2024-07-26.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( [link](/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list "Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list"))
26. **[^](#cite_ref-26)**Duffy, Clare (2022-08-11). ["Meta testing expanded encryption features amid renewed scrutiny of messaging data \| CNN Business"](https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/11/tech/meta-messenger-encryption-tests/index.html). _CNN_. Retrieved 2024-07-26.
27. **[^](#cite_ref-27)**Cahn, Albert Fox. ["Facebook's Message Encryption Was Built to Fail"](https://www.wired.com/story/facebook-message-encryption-abortion/). _Wired_. [ISSN](/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [1059-1028](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028). Retrieved 2024-07-27.
28. **[^](#cite_ref-28)**["Improving Non-Experts' Understanding of End-to-End Encryption: An Exploratory Study"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342621891). _ResearchGate_. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
29. **[^](#cite_ref-Schneier_29-0)**Schneier, Bruce; Ferguson, Niels; Kohno, Tadayoshi (2010). [_Cryptography engineering : design principles and practical applications_](https://archive.org/details/cryptographyengi00ferg). Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Pub., inc. p. [183](https://archive.org/details/cryptographyengi00ferg/page/n211). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0470474242](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470474242 "Special:BookSources/978-0470474242").
30. **[^](#cite_ref-30)**["What is man-in-the-middle attack (MitM)? – Definition from WhatIs.com"](http://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/man-in-the-middle-attack-MitM). _IoT Agenda_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160105000628/http://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/man-in-the-middle-attack-MitM) from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
31. **[^](#cite_ref-31)**Dechand, Sergej (10–12 August 2016). ["An Empirical Study of Textual Key-Fingerprint Representations"](https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/usenixsecurity16/sec16_paper_dechand.pdf)(PDF). _The Advanced Computing System Association_: 1–17.
32. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-pEp-whitepaper_32-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-pEp-whitepaper_32-1)["pEp White Paper"](https://pep.foundation/docs/pEp-whitepaper.pdf)(PDF). pEp Foundation Council. 18 July 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161001160110/https://pep.foundation/docs/pEp-whitepaper.pdf)(PDF) from the original on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
33. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Marlinspike-2016-04-05_33-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Marlinspike-2016-04-05_33-1)Marlinspike, Moxie (5 April 2016). ["WhatsApp's Signal Protocol integration is now complete"](https://whispersystems.org/blog/whatsapp-complete/). Open Whisper Systems. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161010101243/https://whispersystems.org/blog/whatsapp-complete/) from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
34. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Budington-2016-04-07_34-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Budington-2016-04-07_34-1)Budington, Bill (7 April 2016). ["WhatsApp Rolls Out End-To-End Encryption to its Over One Billion Users"](https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/04/whatsapp-rolls-out-end-end-encryption-its-1bn-users). _Deeplinks Blog_. Electronic Frontier Foundation. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160912010025/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/04/whatsapp-rolls-out-end-end-encryption-its-1bn-users) from the original on 12 September 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
35. **[^](#cite_ref-35)**Julie Bort, Matt Weinberger ["Google's Project Vault is a tiny computer for sending secret messages"](http://www.businessinsider.com/googles-project-vault-for-secret-messages-2015-5?r=US&IR=T&IR=T) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170808195058/http://www.businessinsider.com/googles-project-vault-for-secret-messages-2015-5?r=US&IR=T&IR=T) 2017-08-08 at the [Wayback Machine](/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), _[Business Insider](/wiki/Business_Insider "Business Insider")_, NYC May 29, 2015
36. **[^](#cite_ref-36)**Whonix Wiki ["Air Gapped OpenPGP Key"](https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Air_Gapped_OpenPGP_Key) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170808194727/https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Air_Gapped_OpenPGP_Key) 2017-08-08 at the [Wayback Machine](/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
37. **[^](#cite_ref-37)**[Matthew D. Green](/wiki/Matthew_D._Green "Matthew D. Green") (9 Mar 2013). ["A Few Thoughts on Cryptographic Engineering"](https://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2013/03/09/here-come-encryption-apps/). If I really had to trust my life to a piece of software, I would probably use something much less flashy — GnuPG, maybe, running on an isolated computer locked in a basement.
38. **[^](#cite_ref-38)**Bruce Schneier ["Air Gaps"](https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2013/10/air_gaps.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170609082507/https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2013/10/air_gaps.html) 2017-06-09 at the [Wayback Machine](/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), _[Schneier on Security](/wiki/Schneier_on_Security "Schneier on Security")_, October 11, 2013
39. **[^](#cite_ref-39)**["maqp/tfc"](https://github.com/maqp/tfc). _GitHub_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170331092533/https://github.com/maqp/tfc/) from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
40. **[^](#cite_ref-40)**Eckersley, Peter; Portnoy, Erica (8 May 2017). ["Intel's Management Engine is a security hazard, and users need a way to disable it"](https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2017/05/intels-management-engine-security-hazard-and-users-need-way-disable-it). www.eff.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180306011455/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2017/05/intels-management-engine-security-hazard-and-users-need-way-disable-it) from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
41. **[^](#cite_ref-41)**Goodin, Dan (20 May 2013). ["Think your Skype messages get end-to-end encryption? Think again"](https://arstechnica.com/security/2013/05/think-your-skype-messages-get-end-to-end-encryption-think-again/). _Ars Technica_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151222185542/http://arstechnica.com/security/2013/05/think-your-skype-messages-get-end-to-end-encryption-think-again/) from the original on 22 December 2015.
42. **[^](#cite_ref-42)**[Greenwald, Glenn](/wiki/Glenn_Greenwald "Glenn Greenwald"); MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura; Ackerman, Spencer; Rushe, Dominic (12 July 2013). ["Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data). _the Guardian_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151119014627/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data) from the original on 19 November 2015.
43. **[^](#cite_ref-43)**Leswing, Kif (2020-01-16). ["Apple's fight with Trump and the Justice Department is about more than two iPhones"](https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/16/apple-fbi-backdoor-battle-is-about-more-than-two-iphones.html). _CNBC_. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
44. **[^](#cite_ref-44)**["Why GDPR Makes it Urgent to Scan Encrypted Traffic for Data Loss"](https://blog.sonicwall.com/en-us/2017/11/why-gdpr-makes-it-urgent-to-scan-encrypted-traffic-for-data-loss/). _SonicWall_. 28 November 2017.

## Further reading

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=End-to-end_encryption&action=edit&section=12 "Edit section: Further reading")\]

- Ermoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca; Halpin, Harry (September 2016). ["End-to-End Encrypted Messaging Protocols: An Overview"](https://hal.inria.fr/hal-01426845/file/paper_21.pdf)(PDF). In Bagnoli, Franco; et al. (eds.). _Internet Science_. INSCI 2016. Florence, Italy: Springer. pp. 244–254. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1007/978-3-319-45982-0\_22](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-45982-0_22). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-319-45982-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45982-0 "Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45982-0").

- [v](/wiki/Template:Cryptographic_software "Template:Cryptographic software")
- [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Cryptographic_software "Template talk:Cryptographic software")
- [e](/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptographic_software "Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptographic software")

[Cryptographic software](/wiki/Encryption_software "Encryption software")

[Email clients](/wiki/Email_client "Email client")

- [Apple Mail](/wiki/Apple_Mail "Apple Mail")
- [Autocrypt](/wiki/Autocrypt "Autocrypt")
- [Claws Mail](/wiki/Claws_Mail "Claws Mail")
- [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail "Enigmail")
- [GPG](/wiki/GNU_Privacy_Guard "GNU Privacy Guard") ( [Gpg4win](/wiki/Gpg4win "Gpg4win"))
- [Kontact](/wiki/Kontact "Kontact")
- [Outlook](/wiki/Microsoft_Outlook "Microsoft Outlook")
- [p≡p](/wiki/Pretty_Easy_privacy "Pretty Easy privacy")
- [PGP](/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy "Pretty Good Privacy")
- [Sylpheed](/wiki/Sylpheed "Sylpheed")
- [Thunderbird](/wiki/Mozilla_Thunderbird "Mozilla Thunderbird")

[Secure\
\
communication](/wiki/Secure_communication "Secure communication")

[OTR](/wiki/Off-the-Record_Messaging "Off-the-Record Messaging")

- [Adium](/wiki/Adium "Adium")
- [BitlBee](/wiki/BitlBee "BitlBee")
- [Centericq](/wiki/Centericq "Centericq")
- [ChatSecure](/wiki/ChatSecure "ChatSecure")
- [climm](/wiki/Climm "Climm")
- [Jitsi](/wiki/Jitsi "Jitsi")
- [Kopete](/wiki/Kopete "Kopete")
- [Profanity](/wiki/Profanity_(instant_messaging_client) "Profanity (instant messaging client)")

[SSH](/wiki/Secure_Shell "Secure Shell")

- [Dropbear](/wiki/Dropbear_(software) "Dropbear (software)")
- [lsh](/wiki/Lsh "Lsh")
- [OpenSSH](/wiki/OpenSSH "OpenSSH")
- [PuTTY](/wiki/PuTTY "PuTTY")
- [SecureCRT](/wiki/SecureCRT "SecureCRT")
- [WinSCP](/wiki/WinSCP "WinSCP")
- [wolfSSH](/wiki/WolfSSH "WolfSSH")

[TLS & SSL](/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security "Transport Layer Security")

- [BBM Enterprise](/wiki/BBM_Enterprise "BBM Enterprise")
- [Bouncy Castle](/wiki/Bouncy_Castle_(cryptography) "Bouncy Castle (cryptography)")
- [BoringSSL](/wiki/OpenSSL#BoringSSL "OpenSSL")
- [Botan](/wiki/Botan_(programming_library) "Botan (programming library)")
- [cryptlib](/wiki/Cryptlib "Cryptlib")
- [GnuTLS](/wiki/GnuTLS "GnuTLS")
- [JSSE](/wiki/Java_Secure_Socket_Extension "Java Secure Socket Extension")
- [LibreSSL](/wiki/LibreSSL "LibreSSL")
- [MatrixSSL](/wiki/MatrixSSL "MatrixSSL")
- [NSS](/wiki/Network_Security_Services "Network Security Services")
- [OpenSSL](/wiki/OpenSSL "OpenSSL")
- [mbed TLS](/wiki/Mbed_TLS "Mbed TLS")
- [BSAFE](/wiki/BSAFE "BSAFE")
- [SChannel](/wiki/Security_Support_Provider_Interface "Security Support Provider Interface")
- [SSLeay](/wiki/SSLeay "SSLeay")
- [stunnel](/wiki/Stunnel "Stunnel")
- [TeamNote](/wiki/TeamNote "TeamNote")
- [wolfSSL](/wiki/WolfSSL "WolfSSL")

[VPN](/wiki/Virtual_private_network "Virtual private network")

- [Check Point VPN-1](/wiki/Check_Point_VPN-1 "Check Point VPN-1")
- [Hamachi](/wiki/LogMeIn_Hamachi "LogMeIn Hamachi")
- [Openswan](/wiki/Openswan "Openswan")
- [OpenVPN](/wiki/OpenVPN "OpenVPN")
- [SoftEther VPN](/wiki/SoftEther_VPN "SoftEther VPN")
- [strongSwan](/wiki/StrongSwan "StrongSwan")
- [Tinc](/wiki/Tinc_(protocol) "Tinc (protocol)")
- [WireGuard](/wiki/WireGuard "WireGuard")

[ZRTP](/wiki/ZRTP "ZRTP")

- [Jitsi](/wiki/Jitsi "Jitsi")
- [Linphone](/wiki/Linphone "Linphone")
- [Jami](/wiki/Jami_(software) "Jami (software)")
- [Zfone](/wiki/Zfone "Zfone")

[P2P](/wiki/Peer-to-peer "Peer-to-peer")

- [Bitmessage](/wiki/Bitmessage "Bitmessage")
- [Briar](/wiki/Briar_(software) "Briar (software)")
- [RetroShare](/wiki/RetroShare "RetroShare")
- [Tox](/wiki/Tox_(protocol) "Tox (protocol)")

[DRA](/wiki/Double_Ratchet_Algorithm "Double Ratchet Algorithm")

- [Matrix](/wiki/Matrix_(protocol) "Matrix (protocol)")
- [OMEMO](/wiki/OMEMO "OMEMO")
  - [Cryptocat](/wiki/Cryptocat "Cryptocat")
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- [Proteus](/wiki/Wire_Swiss "Wire Swiss")
- [Session](/wiki/Session_(software) "Session (software)")
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  - [Facebook Messenger](/wiki/Facebook_Messenger "Facebook Messenger")
  - [Google Allo](/wiki/Google_Allo "Google Allo")
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  - [Signal](/wiki/Signal_(messaging_app) "Signal (messaging app)")
  - [TextSecure](/wiki/TextSecure "TextSecure")
  - [WhatsApp](/wiki/WhatsApp "WhatsApp")
- SimpleX

[Disk encryption](/wiki/Disk_encryption "Disk encryption")

( [Comparison](/wiki/Comparison_of_disk_encryption_software "Comparison of disk encryption software"))

- [BestCrypt](/wiki/BestCrypt "BestCrypt")
- [BitLocker](/wiki/BitLocker "BitLocker")
- [CrossCrypt](/wiki/CrossCrypt "CrossCrypt")
- [Cryptoloop](/wiki/Cryptoloop "Cryptoloop")
- [dm-crypt](/wiki/Dm-crypt "Dm-crypt")
- [DriveSentry](/wiki/DriveSentry "DriveSentry")
- [E4M](/wiki/E4M "E4M")
- [eCryptfs](/wiki/ECryptfs "ECryptfs")
- [FileVault](/wiki/FileVault "FileVault")
- [FreeOTFE](/wiki/FreeOTFE "FreeOTFE")
- [GBDE](/wiki/GBDE "GBDE")
- [geli](/wiki/Geli_(software) "Geli (software)")
- [LUKS](/wiki/Linux_Unified_Key_Setup "Linux Unified Key Setup")
- [PGPDisk](/wiki/PGPDisk "PGPDisk")
- [Private Disk](/wiki/Private_Disk "Private Disk")
- [Scramdisk](/wiki/Scramdisk "Scramdisk")
- [Sentry 2020](/wiki/Sentry_2020 "Sentry 2020")
- [TrueCrypt](/wiki/TrueCrypt "TrueCrypt")
  - [History](/wiki/TrueCrypt_version_history "TrueCrypt version history")
- [VeraCrypt](/wiki/VeraCrypt "VeraCrypt")

[Anonymity](/wiki/Anonymity#Anonymity_on_the_Internet "Anonymity")

- [GNUnet](/wiki/GNUnet#File_sharing "GNUnet")
- [I2P](/wiki/I2P "I2P")
- [Java Anon Proxy](/wiki/Java_Anon_Proxy "Java Anon Proxy")
- [Tor](/wiki/Tor_(network) "Tor (network)")
- [Vidalia](/wiki/Vidalia_(software) "Vidalia (software)")
- [RetroShare](/wiki/RetroShare "RetroShare")
- [Ricochet](/wiki/Ricochet_(software) "Ricochet (software)")
- [Wickr](/wiki/Wickr "Wickr")

[File systems](/wiki/File_system "File system")( [List](/wiki/List_of_cryptographic_file_systems "List of cryptographic file systems"))

- [EncFS](/wiki/EncFS "EncFS")
- [EFS](/wiki/Encrypting_File_System "Encrypting File System")
- [eCryptfs](/wiki/ECryptfs "ECryptfs")
- [LUKS](/wiki/Linux_Unified_Key_Setup "Linux Unified Key Setup")
- [PEFS](/w/index.php?title=PEFS&action=edit&redlink=1 "PEFS (page does not exist)")
- [Rubberhose](/wiki/Rubberhose_(file_system) "Rubberhose (file system)")
- [StegFS](/wiki/StegFS "StegFS")
- [Tahoe-LAFS](/wiki/Tahoe-LAFS "Tahoe-LAFS")

[Security-focused\
\
operating system](/wiki/Security-focused_operating_system "Security-focused operating system")

- [Tails](/wiki/Tails_(operating_system) "Tails (operating system)")
- [Qubes](/wiki/Qubes "Qubes")

Service providers

- [Freenet](/wiki/Freenet "Freenet")
- [Tresorit](/wiki/Tresorit "Tresorit")
- [Wuala](/wiki/Wuala "Wuala")
- [NordLocker](/wiki/NordLocker "NordLocker")

Educational

- [CrypTool](/wiki/CrypTool "CrypTool")

[Anti–computer forensics](/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93computer_forensics "Anti–computer forensics")

- [USBKill](/wiki/USBKill "USBKill")
- [BusKill](/wiki/BusKill "BusKill")

Related topics

- [Outline of cryptography](/wiki/Outline_of_cryptography "Outline of cryptography")
- [Timeline of cryptography](/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography "Timeline of cryptography")
- [Hash functions](/wiki/Hash_function "Hash function")
  - [Cryptographic hash function](/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function "Cryptographic hash function")
  - [List of hash functions](/wiki/List_of_hash_functions "List of hash functions")
- [Homomorphic encryption](/wiki/Homomorphic_encryption "Homomorphic encryption")
- End-to-end encryption
- [S/MIME](/wiki/S/MIME "S/MIME")

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[Categories](/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):

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