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(PDF) SKIN WHITENING-A BRIEF REVIEW
(PDF) SKIN WHITENING-A BRIEF REVIEW

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# SKIN WHITENING-A BRIEF REVIEW

- February 2013

- 2(2):244-248

Authors:

[![Aditi Singhal at Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](profile/Aditi-Singhal-2)

[Aditi Singhal](profile/Aditi-Singhal-2)

- [Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology](https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Noida_Institute_of_Engineering_and_Technology)

[![Dr Dharmendra Kumar at Sanskaram University](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](profile/Dr-Kumar-164)

[Dr Dharmendra Kumar](profile/Dr-Kumar-164)

- Sanskaram University

[![Mayank Bansal](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)](scientific-contributions/Mayank-Bansal-2134925692)

[Mayank Bansal](scientific-contributions/Mayank-Bansal-2134925692)

[Mayank Bansal](scientific-contributions/Mayank-Bansal-2134925692)

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## Abstract

It is the time for herbal cosmetics as it is the time for looking young and smarter. They are also being widely used forimproving several skin related problems. Herbal cosmetics are also called as natural cosmetics. Skin care cosmetics are being used for several functions like anti-oxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antiseptic etc. vitamins are also added in skin care cosmetic formulation. Pigmentation is the reason for various skin related diseases like skin darkens, aging, acne, wrinkles etc. Anti-oxidant property, anti-microbial activity, skin moisture content activity, mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory assay etc are various methods for the evaluation of skin care cosmetics. Natural Cosmaceuticals does not have any side effects to the skin, easy to handle, easy to store, easy to use and offers various beneficial effects to the skin.

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SKIN WHITENING- A BRIEF REVIEW

Aditi Singhal\*, Dharmendra Kumar, Mayank Bansal

Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,

Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Baghpat bypass crossing, NH-58, Delhi-Roorkee Highway, Meerut-250005, U.P.,

India.

\*singhal28aditi@gmail.com

Abstract:

It is the time for herbal cosmetics as it is the time for looking young and smarter.

They are also being widely used forimproving several skin related problems. Herbal

cosmetics are also called as natural cosmetics. Skin care cosmetics are being used

for several functions like anti-oxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-

septic etc. vitamins are also added in skin care cosmetic formulation. Pigmentation

is the reason for various skin related diseases like skin darkens, aging, acne,

wrinkles etc. Anti-oxidant property, anti-microbial activity, skin moisture content

activity, mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory assay etc are various methods for the

evaluation of skin care cosmetics. Natural Cosmaceuticals does not have any side

effects to the skin, easy to handle, easy to store, easy to use and offers various

beneficial effects to the skin.

REFERENCE ID: PHARMATUTOR-ART-1853

Introduction

1\. Anatomy and Physiology:

\[1,2,3,4\]

Skin is the body’s outer covering layer

which helps to protect us from heat,

light, microbial infection and injury. It

is the body’s largest organ, mainly

regulates body temperature and

stores vitamin D which is essential for

human body, fat as well as water.

Skin is composed of three layers,

which are:

1.1. Cellular epidermis.

1.2. Dermis.

1.3. Subcutaneous Tissues.

pH value of skin varies from 4.0 to

5.6. Generally, it is considered as the

smooth layer but because of aging,

sunrays, dust, microbial infection, cold

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and heat it becomes rougher and

thicker. Now a days, wrinkles and skin

darkens are also considered as a

major problem. Skin contains mainly

two types of essential fatty acids,

linoleic acid and arachidonic acid,

having a vital role in regulating barrier

functions. Two types of skin are

present in humans, hairy and non-

hairy. Hair follicles and sebaceous

glands present in hairy skin and non-

hairy skin consists only of sebaceous

glands. Non-hairy skin is present in

palms and soles.

1.1. Epidermis:\[3,5,6\]

The outer layer of skin works as a

protective sheath against

environmental influences like sunrays,

dust, heat, microbial infection etc.

Epidermis comprises of five separate

layers like;

a. Horny layer (Stratum corneum).

b. Stratum lucidum.

c. Stratum granulosum (Granular

layer).

d. Stratum spinosum (Prickly cell

layer).

e. Stratum germinativum (Basal layer

and dermoepidermal junction).

1.2. Dermis: \[3\]

Dermis is the middle layer of skin

which gives elasticity, moisture and

firmness to the skin. Blood vessels,

nerve cells, sebaceous glands, sweat

glands are present in dermis layer.

Dermis is having 0.2 to 0.3cm

thickness. It also contains dense

network of structural protein fibers

that is collagen, reticulum and elastin.

1.3. Subcutaneous tissues: \[3\]

Subcutaneous layer consists of a sheet

of fat areolar tissue. This type of layer

is quite elastic and having the

presence of large arteries and veins in

the superficial region. It mainly

synthesizes and stores high energy

chemicals.

2\. Skin disorders: \[7,8\]

2.1. Pigmenting disorders\- These

are also called as pigmentation

disorders and are due to excessive or

reductive production of melanin. Due

to this disorder, skin becomes

darkens, blotchy (discolored) or

lighter.

2.1.1. Types of Skin Pigmentation:

2.1.1.1. Hypo-pigmentation\- It is

caused by lesser amount of melanin.

It can also occur in caucasions. The

common disorders due to hypo-

pigmentation are-

2.1.1.1.1 Vitiligo- It is an auto-

immune disorder which causes white

spots on the skin. Now a day’s 2% of

the population is affected by vitiligo.

Addison’s disease and hyperthyroidism

are common with vitiligo.

2.1.1.1.2 Albinism- It occurs due to

complete absence ofpigment. Patient

suffering from this disorder have pale

skin and light yellow eyes. Skin cancer

is common with albinism.

2.1.1.2. Hyper-pigmentation\- It is

caused by excessive production of

melanin in the skin. The major factors

which lead to hyper-pigmentation are

excessive amount of sunbathing and

malnutrition. Drugs like antibiotics,

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anti-malarial, anti-arrhythmic can also

lead to hyper-pigmentation. The

common hyper-pigmentation disorders

are lamellar ichthyosis (fish scale

disease), lichen simplex and melasma.

2.2. Sebaceous and Sweat glands

disorders\- The common disorders are

acne, pimples, blackheads, prickly

heat. This disorder mainly occurs in

neck and large area of skin.

2.3. Skin scaling disorders- The

commondisorders are dandruff and

psoriasis.

2.3.1.Psoriasis\- It is the formation of

scaly red patches on skin.

2.3.2.Dandruff\- It can be caused by

microbial infection or immunological

disorders. It is present on the stratum

corneum.

2.3.3.Effects of aging on skin\- Due

to aging skin become darker, dull,

damage and lower melanin level. Acne

and wrinkle are very common

examples.

3\. Skin problems treated by herbal

and Synthetic (man-made)

cosmetics:\[9\]

Skin problems are generally treated

by the help of herbal and synthetic

cosmetics. Cosmetics are used to

reduce/lower the wrinkles, acne,

darkness and controls oil secretion.

Various skin problems are occurred by

the excessive amount of sunrays

bathing, aging and wrinkles. These

problems are treated by using

cosmetics which are having

antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,

antibacterial and antiseptic properties.

Herbal and Synthetic preparations are

available in market in the form of

creams/gels. Massage creams,

vanishing creams and face wash gels

are also used to treat various skin

problems. To protect from U.V.

radiations various sun protecting

factors like SPF 15, SPF 30, SPF 40,

SPF 50 are used but SPF 40 and SPF

50 are best suited to protect skin from

U.V. radiations. In herbal cosmetics,

natural substances like aloe-vera,

cucumber, turmeric, green tea, rose

etc. are used to treat all types of skin

problems. Similarly synthetic

cosmetics like pearl powder, Sebum

REG, BHT (butylated hydroxyl

toluene), Beeswax, Candelilla wax,

Lanolin alcohol, Ozokerite wax,

Ethylene diamine tetra acetate

(EDTA), Triethanolamine etc are used

to treat skin problem. Skin diseases

are very common symptoms of lupus.

Almost 80% of the lupus suffering

patients are having several skin

related problems/diseases. Mainly

three types of lupus are as follows;

\[10\]

3.1.Acute cutaneous lupus

erythematosus (ACLE).

3.2.Subacute cutaneous lupus

erythematous (SCLE).

3.3.Discoid lupus erythematous

(DLE) or Chronic cutaneous lupus

erythematous (CCLE).

3.1.Acute cutaneous lupus

erythematosus (ACLE) – It is also

known as ‘Malar rash’ which involves

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the upper cheeks, and is also known

as ‘Butterfly rash’ which refers unique

butterfly like shape.

3.1.1. Characteristics of ACLE-

a. ACLE is having a symmetrical

appearance which covers both cheeks

and the nose bridge.

b. Neck and forehead are also affected

in many cases.

c. Skin becomes red and swollen

similarly like sunburn.

3.1.2. Causes and long term

effects-

ACLE is highly photosensitive. ACLE

lasts for several weeks or days. It may

cause skin rashes, but if the rashes

will clear there will be no permanent

effects.

3.2.Subacute cutaneous lupus

erythematosus (SCLE) –

3.2.1. Characteristics of SCLE-

a. Ring shaped or dish- shaped

patches will occur.

b. Sun exposure and another form of

U.V. light may cause SCLE.

3.2.2. Causes and long term

effects-

SCLE is also photosensitive; it is

started by U.V. light. Skin becomes

darkening due to this disorder. It can

also occur due to side effects of

medication.

3.3.Discoid lupus erythematosus

(DLE) – It is alsocalled as Chronic

cutaneous lupus erythematous

(CCLE).

3.3.1. Types of Discoid lupus

erythematosus (DLE) -

a. Localized DLE- The lesions are

located on the scalp and face.

b. Generalized DLE-Thelesions are

present on any portion of the body.

3.3.2. Characteristics of DLE-

a. It may only affect the skin.

b. Disk or coin shaped lesions occur.

c. Painless.

d. Usually present on scalp and face.

3.3.3. Causes and long term

effects-

DLE is more photosensitive then SCLE.

It may damage hair follicles which

lead to permanent hair loss. Several

environm1111ental factors and

different types of medications may

used to stimulate the symptoms of

DLE.

4\. Melanin Pigment-

Melanin is the end-product of various

multiple transformations of L-tyrosine.

Melanin is biosynthesized by;

a. Initiated by the hydroxylation of L-

phenylalanine to L-tyrosine.

b. Oxidation of L-DOPA to

dopaquinone- is similar for both

eumelanogenesis and

pheomelanogenic pathway. \[11\]

Eumelanogenesis involves the

procedure of dopaquinone to

leukodopachrome. Pheomelanogenesis

may also starts with dopaquinone,

conjugate with cysteine or glutathione

to yield cysteinyldopa and

glutathionyldopa for transformation

into pheomelanin. Melanin pigments

having their common arrangements

linked by carbon-carbon bonds, but

having different chemical composition,

physical as well as chemical

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properties. Eumelanine is behaving

like polyanions, having the capability

of reversibly bind anions, cations and

polyamines. Electron paramagnetic

resonance (EPR) spectrum of

eumelanin yields to slightly

asymmetric singlet whichproduces a

free radical signal. Pheomelanin is the

back bone of benzothiazine units

which exhibits a yellow to reddish

brown color and is soluble in alkali.

Pheomelanin is highly protein bound

which indicates that it acts like a

chromo protein \[11,12,13\], it can

also act as a binding agent for

chemicals and drugs.\[14\] Adult

female epidermis is less melanized in

comparison to males due to gender

specific effect.\[15\] Function of

melanin in human skin appears by the

attenuation of U.V. penetration to the

blood in dermal vessels.\[16\].

Fig 1: Melanin Formation

5\. Melanogenesis Pathway- Melanocytes are usually 7µm in length.Melanin is the

only factor responsible for skin coloration. Melanin is produced in the melanocytes,

where melanocytes stored in the melanosomes after these melanocytes transferred

melanosomes into keratinocytes. Melanocytes are stored in the epidermal-dermal

junction. They extend the intracellular nitric acid (NO) production which initiates

signal transduction cascades for the production of Melanogenesis by the help of

tyrosinase enzyme. \[17\].

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Fig.2: Melanogenesis Pathway

5.1 The process of Melanogenesis

can be understood in following

three steps- Melanogenesis process

is done by three steps such as; \[18\]

a. Production of Cysteinyldopa- The

process occurs with the addition of

cysteine to dopaquinone.

b. Oxidation of Cysteinyldopa- This

process gives the pheomelanin.

c. Production ofeumelanin- which

starts after the reduction of

Cysteinyldopa.

5.2 Mechanism of regulation of

Melanogenesis: \[19-35\]

Melanogenesis is regulated by two

methods which are:

5.2.1. Transcriptional Regulation\-

Tyrosinase genes generally contains at

least one major and three minor

transcription sites.\[19\]TATA and

CAAT boxes comes under promoter

region, many potentional

micropthalmia-associated transcription

factor (MITF) binding sites including E-

boxes, M-boxes as well as tyrosinase

distal element (TDE), five AP-1 and

two AP-2 binding sites are used for

phorbol ester-inducible enhancer-

binding protein AP-1 (Activator

protein-1), UV responsive elements

(URE), thyroid and retinoic acid like

responsive elements (TREand RER),

tyrosinase element-1 (TE-1) \[20-30\].

Transcriptional regulation of

Melanogenesis related genes is having

an important role by the number of

class III POU binding protein Brn-2/N-

Oct3\[31,32\].Negative

transcriptional regulation process is

mediated by brachyury-related

transcription factor (TBX 2) \[33\].

5.2.2. Intracellular signal

transduction regulation-

Intracellular signal transduction

pathway is used for the positive

regulation of Melanogenesis with cAMP

used as the critical factor\[34,35\].

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Fig.3: Intracellular Signal Transduction Pathway

Where, DAG- diacylglycerol ; PKC-

Protein kinase C ; P13-K-

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase ; PKA-

Protein kinase A ; NO- Nitric acid ;

PKG- Protein kinase G.

cAMP regulation mechanism of

Melanogenesis including the activities

of protein kinase A (PKA), then

phosphorylates enzymes, ion channels

and various regulatory proteins.

Transcriptional activity is regulated by

activated PKA (Protein kinase A) which

involves phosphorylation of cAMP

responsive element binding protein

(CREB) and CREB binding protein

(CBP).

6\. Herbal cosmetics: \[36\]

Herbal cosmetics have a great role for

reducing the skin problems which

occurs due to several factors. Herbal

cosmetics have no side effects while

applying on skin. Generally herbal

cosmetics are derived from botanical

extracts which are having highly

antioxidant property, anti

inflammatory property and rich in

vitamin C and vitamin K. Herbal

cosmetics are mostly used by the

following benefits;

a. Safely to the skin.

b. Easily available.

c. Low cost.

d. Having less or no side effects on

the skin.

e. Having high concentration of

vitamins and minerals which are

beneficial for prevention of skin

disease.

f. Almost more than half population

totally depends on the herbal

cosmetics as they are having less or

negligible side effects.

7\. List of Some Herbal medicines used for treating Skin diseases- \[37,38\]

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Table 1

Scientific nameFamilyUses

Bauhinia VariegataFabaceaeAnti-oxidant property

Areca catechuArecaceaeAnti-oxidant property

Aloe Vera

Liliaceae

Anti

-

dermatitis

Green tea

Theaceae

Photo

-

protective

Ginko bilolsa

Ginkogaceae

Skin tonic

Allium sativum

Alliaceae

Anti-oxidant

Dancus carota

Apiaceae

U.V.

protection

Curcuma domesticaTricholomataceaeSkin care

Lentinus edodesZingiberaceaeAnti-oxidant property

Muntingia calbura

(Jamaica cherry)

Elaeocarpaceae

Skin lightening and

anti

-

oxidant property

Pluchea indicaAsteraceaeAnti-oxidant property

Glycyrrhiza glabraLeguminosaeSkin whitener

Thea viridisTheaceaeAnti-oxidant

Crataevea murulaCapparidaceaeAnti-aging

Rosemarinus officinalis

LamiaceaeAnti-aging

Buckwheet seedsPolygonaceaeAnti-wrinkle

Psorolia corlifoliaFabaceaePigmenting agent

8\. Synthetic Cosmetics: \[39\]

Synthetic cosmetics are also used for skin care formulations. Mainly the synthetic

cosmetic preparation having a large amount of surfactants used like Span 20,

Tween 80, Sodium lauryl sulphate, etc. They are less time consuming, easy to use,

easy to carry and easy to store. The various ingredients used in synthetic

preparations are as follows;

Table 2

Synthetic Agents

Examples

Anti Aging and Anti Wrinkle

agents

Argireline, Pearl powder, Beta

Glucan, Coenzyme Q

10

,

Glycan

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Booster peptide, Ceramide complex

Soothing and Regenerating

agents

Allantoin, Aloe-Vera gel, Colloidal

Oatmeal

Oily Skin Regulators

Sebum REG

Skin Whitening agentsAlpha-

Arbutin, Skin white BLE, Kojic

acid, Skin white MSH, Glycolic acid,

Aleosin, Hydroquinone, Salicylic acid

Emollients

Squaline

Humectants

Glycerin, Sodium PCA, Caprylyl

Gylcol EHG, Algae extract and

Hyaluronate gel, Propylne glycol,

Hyaluronic acid, Sorbital, Urea

Surfactants

Alkyl sulphonate, Coco betaine, Coco

glucose,

Sulfosuccinate, Polyglucose,

Polyquaternium-87

Emulsion stabilizersEthylene diamine tetra acetate

(EDTA), Triethanolamine

Anti-oxidantsBHT(Butylated hydroxyl toulene),

propyl gallate, Vitamin E

Thickeners

Lanolin alcohol, , Cetyl alcohol,

Carbomer, Acrylate copolymer

9\. Functional Active Agents in Skin

care formulations:

9.1Anti Aging agents-\[40\] Stress is

the major factor for aging. Other

factors which cause aging are excess

amount of calories present in the

body, excessive insulin amount,

reduced anti oxidant level, etc. Due to

aging the skin becomes less elastic,

becomes drier, and wrinkles appears

in huge amount. Skin aging problem

may breakdown the DNA, Collagen,

Elastin, Hyaluronic acid and all other

molecules present in the skin.

Melanotropin activity, Tyrosinase

activity becomes larger due to skin

aging problem. Reduction of Vitamin C

and Vitamin E are the main factors

that causes skin aging problem.Anti-

aging cream mainly acts to slow or

reduce the signs of aging.

9.2Anti Oxidant agents-\[41-43\]

These agents are used to inhibit the

several problems of skin. Reactive

Oxygen Species (ROS) is the main

factor responsible for several skin

problems. Anti oxidants are used to

inhibit the ROS production. Anti

oxidants works at different levels in

oxidative process such as;

a. Free radical scavenging.

b. Lipid peroxyl radicals scavenging.

c. Metal ion binding occurs.

d. Removing oxidatively damaged

biomolecules.

Ascorbic acid is the main and effective

example ofanti oxidant used to

control sun burn, cell formation and

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tumors formation problem. Another

example of anti oxidants like Vitamin

E, Vitamin C, Lentinus edodes,

Pluchea indica inhibits the U.V.

penetration power.

9.3. Vitamins- Vitamins are the vital

compounds which are very beneficial

to the body. Vitamins are used in anti

wrinkle creams, anti aging creams,

skin whitening creams and in the

various products which are very

beneficial to the skin. Vitamin C is

widely used in preparation of

cosmetics as it is having an anti

oxidant property \[44\]. Vitamin E is

also having an anti oxidant property

and used in cosmetics because of this

free radical scavenging property

\[45,46\].In human skin it acts as a

predominant lipid soluble anti oxidant

in the human stratum corneum. They

are also used to protect several

components like DNA, proteins,

reactive oxygen species (ROS) which

are caused by UV radiation and by

various air pollutants \[47\]. Vitamin A

(Retinol) is also used in the cosmetics

and in dietary nutrient required for the

growth of bone and for skin keratosis.

9.4. Emollients-\[48\] Emollients

having a skin softening function. They

are used to reduce skin dryness, skin

scaling, wrinkles and mild irritant

contact dermatitis. Several emollients

used for skin nourishing are Almond

oil, Caster oil, Coconut oil, Grapeseed

oil, Meadowfoam seed oil, Hemp seed

oil, Jojoba oil, Rose hip oil, Sesame

oil, Squaline, etc.

9.5. Skin lightening actives-\[49\]

Skin lightening active agents used to

light the skin color which becomes

darker due to excessive amount of

sunray bathing. There are a lot of skin

lightening formulation present in the

market which may contain anti

oxidant, anti wrinkle, anti aging

properties for the removal of several

skin related problems. Skin lightening

formulations may also contain natural

extracts which influences the

melanization process. Skin lightening

formulations contains different

combinations like Arbutin, Azelaic

acid, Kjoic acid, Resveratrol, Liquorice.

Trichloroacetic acid is used to remove

melanin loaded skin tissues.

10\. Testing for Skin care

formulations- Patients suffering with

these types of lupus disorders have to

avoid directly exposure of sunlight or

U.V. light by using various sun

protecting factors like SPF 30, SPF 40

and SPF 50 etc. various anti-malarial

drugs and hydroxychloroquine may be

highly effective in treating various skin

diseases. Skin care formulations to be

used for controlling various skin

related problems like skin darkens,

aging, black spots, acne and many

other problems. Now a day’s both

herbal as well as synthetic skin care

formulations are more generally used.

Herbal cosmetics formulations are

used as they are not having any side

effect to the skin but they are not

easy to use, not easy to handle that’s

why synthetic cosmetics are generally

used as they are easy to use and easy

to handle. Various tests are performed

on skin care formulations such as anti-

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oxidant property test, anti- tyrosinase

test etc.

10.1. Anti oxidant property-These

agents are used to inhibit several

problems occurs with skin. This test is

evaluated by several methods like-

10.1.1. DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2-

picrylhydrazine) radical scavenging

activity.

10.1.2. ABTS (2, 2-azino-bis (3-

ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)

scavenging activity.

10.1.3. Nitric acid scavenging

activity.

10.1.4. Hydrogen peroxide (H

2

O

2

)

scavenging activity.

10.1.5. Anti oxidant property is also

determined by using FRAP (Ferric

reducing ability of plasma or plant),

Benzie and Strain.

10.1.1. DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2-

picrylhydrazine) radical

scavenging activity-\[50\]DPPH is

commonly used for the anti oxidant

property. DPPH method is generally

used in a 96 well microtitre plate.

When the anti oxidant molecules

incubated, they reacts with DPPH

(which is in purple color) and forms

di-phenyl hydrazine (yellow color).

This conversion of DPPH (purple color)

to di-phenyl hydrazine (yellow color)

measured at 520nm which is used to

measure the scavenging potential of

the plant extracts added to specified

volume of DPPH solution in a

microtitre plate. These plates are

incubated at 25°C for 10minutes and

absorbance is measured at 520nm.

DPPH acts as a control solvent and

other solvents used with plant extract

are used as test solvents.

% inhibition of DPPH radical

scavenging activity =

\[(Absorbance of control-

Absorbance of test) / (Absorbance

of control)\]×100

10.1.2. ABTS(2,2-azino-bis (3-

ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic

acid) radical cation decoloration

scavenging activity-\[51\] In this

procedure a specified amount of ABTS

is dissolved in distilled water and also

added potassium persulphate to it.

The whole reaction mixture is allowed

to stand at room temperature for

overnight before use. To various

concentrations of extracts, add

specified volume of DMSO (di-methyl

sulfoxide) and ABTS to make the final

volume. Absorbance is measured at

734nm for 20 minutes.

10.1.3. Nitric acid scavenging

activity-\[52,53\] Sodium

nitropursside is incubated in

phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.4)

with different concentrations of test

extracts incubated at 25°Cfor 5

hours. The incubation plates are

removed and are diluted with Griess

reagent (which is prepared by using

equal volume of 1% sulphanilamide in

2% phosphoric acid and 0.1%

naphthylethylene dihydrochloride in

water). The absorbance is measured

at 546nm.

10.1.4. Hydrogen peroxide (H

2

O

2

)

scavenging activity-\[54\] Phosphate

saline buffer (pH 7.4) is used to

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prepare hydrogen peroxide solution.

Various concentrations of few ml of

extracts or standards in

ethanol/methanol are added to

hydrogen peroxide solution.

Absorbance measured at 230nm after

10 minutes. Phosphate buffer without

hydrogen peroxide solution (Blank

solution) is used to compare it.

10.2. Anti tyrosinase activity-\[55\]

Tyrosinase activity is determined by

using dopachrome method where L-

DOPA is used as a substrate. The

assay method is conducted in a 96-

well microtitre plate and absorbance

of these plates is measured at 475nm

with reference. All samples are

dissolved 50% solution of DMSO. Each

microtitre plate contains sample and

phosphate buffer in the ratio of 1:2

and tyrosinase and L-DOPA in the 1:1

ratio. Results are compared with the

50% DMSO solution in replace of

sample.

% tyrosinase inhibition = (A

control

–

A

sample

) / A

control

×100.

10.3. Anti- microbial activity-\[56-

60\]. The anti- microbial activity is

performed by the disc-diffusion test by

using the specified volume of

suspension which is containing few ml

of bacteria spread on the nutrient

medium. Air dried and powdered fruit

materials are extracted in a soxhlet

apparatus by using methanol for 72

hours. Extracts are filtered by using

Whatmann filter paper and

concentrated in vaccum at 40 °C by

the help of rotary evaporator. Filter

paper disc are impregnated with few

µg of extract/ disc and placed into

agarnutrient. Similarly, negative

controls are prepared by using the

same solvents used to dissolve plant

extracts. The plates are incubated at

35 °C for 24 hours.

10.4. Clinical testing\- \[61\]Clinical

testing is performed for the

determination of results skin of

formulations. Clinical testing of skin

formulations is generally done on

human volunteers or animals who give

the exact consent about the

formulations. This test is carried out

for several weeks or days. The skin

formulation (Cosmaceuticals) is

applied on all the human volunteers or

animals used in study. For evaluation

of skin whitening formulations-

Chromameter is used for the

measurement of skin darkness. Skin

darkness is measured which is taken

before applying the product and again

after few hours. The test carried out

for the result of skin formulations.

10.5. Mushroom tyrosinase

inhibitory assay-\[62\] Mushroom

tyrosinase inhibitory assay of various

plant extracts are determined by

spectrophotometric methods. In this

method, the plant extracts were

dissolved in DMSO solution at a

constant concentration then diluted it

with different concentrations of DMSO

solution. The sample solution is

diluted with phosphate buffer pH 6.8

in test tubes. After this add one or two

drops of L-Tyrosine solution and finally

added mushroom tyrosinase solution.

Few microlitres of DMSO and Kojic

acid solution are used as blank

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reference and positive control. The

initial absorbance is measured at

490nm. Then incubate it for 20

minutes at 37°C and then the final

absorbance is measured at 490nm.

The IC

50

values are determined the

concentration at which the 50%

tyrosinase activity inhibited.

% mushroom tyrosinase inhibition

= \[(A

2

– A

1

) – (B

2 –

B

1

)\] / (A

2 –

A

1

)\] × 100

Where, A

1 =

absorbance of blank

solution at 490nm at 0 minute.

A

2

= absorbance of blank solution at

490nm at 20 minutes.

B

1 =

absorbance of sample solution at

490nm at 0 minute.

B

2

= absorbance of sample solution at

490nm at 20 minutes.

10.6. Skin moisture content-\[63\]

Moisture content for skin mainly

involves the retaining and increasing

water content; reducing the TEWL

\[Transepidermal water loss\] level,

maintain the skin integrity and

appearance. This study is used to

investigate the effects of base and

formulation on sebum contents of

human skin. The sebum content of

human skin is obtained by the help of

ANOVA test. It is observed that after

application of base an increment occur

in the sebum content may produce an

oily layer onhuman skin (w/o

emulsion). While reduction in sebum

content occurs shows the presence of

isotretinoin after application which is

effective in reducing the sebaceous

gland size, reducing the sebum

production level by inhibiting the

sebaceous lipid synthesis.

10.7.Transepidermal water loss

(TEWL)–\[63\] This method is used to

reflect/ show the skin water content.

An increment occurs in TEWL shows

the impairment of water barrier. TEWL

measure the skin irritants and various

allergic patch test reactions. TEWL

measurements affected by skin

surface temperature, ambient air

temperature, ambient air humidity,

anatomical site, sweating and other

various variables.

10.8. Pharmaceutical Stability testing-

10.8.1. General evaluation parameters-

Table 3

S.No.

Parameters

Limits

1.

Total fatty matter

22.0

-

25.0

2.

Water content

60.0-70.0

3.

Titratable acidity

6.0-7.5

4.

Standard plate count

Fair

5.

Coliform count

Satisfactory

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10.8.2. Organoleptic evaluation-

Table 4

S.No.

Specifications

Limits

1.

State

Semisolid

2.

Odour

Characteristic

3.

Colour

White

4.

Spreadbility

Easily

5.

Oily / tacky film

No

10.8.3. Physical evaluation-

Table 5

S.No.

Specification

Limits

1.

Specific gravity

1.00-1.50g /ml

2.

Reference index

Not more than 2

3.

Clarity

Clear

4.

Viscosity

4000 cp

5.

pH

6.0

-

7.0

10.8.4. Microbial evaluation-

Table 6

S.No.

Microbial load

Limits

1.

Total microbial count

Not more than 100

2.

Limit tests

-

E.coli, S.aures,

Solmonella

No characteristic colonies

Marketed Skin care products-

Table 7

S.No.

ProductIngredientsCompany

name

Reference

1.Skin brightKojic acid, lemon

extract,

Arbutin

Premium

naturals\[64\]

2.Skin

brightener

Arbutin, lumi

skin(diacetyl bolidine),

antioxidants,

Revitol\[65\]

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Vit.A, C and K,

whitener agent

3.Lucederm

Niacinamide, alpha

arbutin, Kojic acid,

lemon, licorice,

Mulberry, bearberry

Sisquoc\[66\]

4.Meladerm

Kojic acid,

Niacinamide, alpha

arbutin, Mulberry,

bearberry, licorice,

giga white, lemon

juice

Civant skin

care\[66\]

5.Synerlight

Sophora

angustifolia

root,

actinidia chinensis fruit

LIBiol\[65\]

6.Chromabright

Dimethylmethoxy

chromanyl palmitate

Lipotec\[65\]

Future development-Skin care

products are now days most widely

used. Mainly herbal cosmetics are

generally used as they does not have

side effect to the skin. In coming next

years it will be expected that there are

a lot of chances for the future

development of herbal cosmetics.

Various herbal and synthetic products

are to be used for improving various

skin related diseases related to skin

darken, acne, wrinkle, sun burn etc.

New development will give a better

opportunity in the treatment of skin

related diseases.

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## Citations (2)

## References (17)

... Melanin absorbs free radicals and protects our skin from ultraviolet (UV) radiations (Souza et al., 2012). Despite its protective role, its abnormal accumulation may result in increased pigmentation causing unwanted aesthetic problems such as darkening of skin, aging, acne and wrinkles (Singhal et al., 2013). Thus, to resolve such aesthetic problems melanin inhibition is desirable. ...

... Tyrosinase inhibitors can be obtai ned from synthetic sources easily. Synth etic agents such as pearl powder, sebum REG, candelilla wax, butylated hydroxyl t oluene, beeswax, lanolin alcohol, ethylen e diamine tetra acetate, triethanolamine and ozokeritewax are easily available an d frequently used in cosmetics (Singhal et al.,2013). Many synthetic tyrosinase inhibitors have given promising results however their long use have shown side effects which encouraged us to find new safer sources such as from edible stuff for the isolation of tyrosinase inhibitors. ...

[Isolation Of Allium Sativum And Mentha Piperita Extracts; Evaluation Of Their Antioxidant And Anti-Tyrosinase Activities In-Vitro](publication/353122475_Isolation_Of_Allium_Sativum_And_Mentha_Piperita_Extracts_Evaluation_Of_Their_Antioxidant_And_Anti-Tyrosinase_Activities_In-Vitro)

Preprint

Full-text available

- Apr 2021

- [Farrukh Avais](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Farrukh-Avais-2197879190)
- [![Anser Ali](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Anser Ali](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anser-Ali)
- [Hamza Javed](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Hamza-Javed-2176546885)
- [![Muhammad Rafiq](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Muhammad Rafiq](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muhammad-Rafiq-5)

Present study was conducted at the Department of zoology at Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), during 2018-2019 to isolate extracts from selected plants (Garlic and Peppermint) to explore their tyrosinase inhibition activity. Tyrosinase is a key enzyme of melanogenesis which determines the mammalian skin, hair and eye colour. Hyper-pigmentation leads to various skin disorders like melasma, sunspots, age spots and freckles. Moreover, abnormal skin pigmentation is a serious aesthetic concern which leads to psychosocial problems. Thus to achieve melanin inhibition, inhibition of tyrosinase might be an effective approach. To this end we prepared methanolic (MeOH) extracts from leaves and roots of Garlic Allium sativum (AS) and Peppermint Mentha piperita (MP), which were further processed for 1:1 fractional distillation to prepare methanolic n-hexane (MeOH\_n-Hx), methanolic ethyl acetate (MeOH\_EA) and methanolic chloroform (MeOH\_CHCl 3) extracts, aiming to evaluate tyrosinase and anti-oxidant activities in-vitro. Our results confirmed that all MeOH-crude AS and MP extracts showed significant anti-oxidant activity with IC 50 values ranging from 0.05 ± 0.2 mg/ml to 4.3 ± 2.3mg/ml. Moreover, AS and MP all 16 extracts have significant anti-tyrosinase activity with IC 50 range from 0.014 ± 0mg/ml to 1.205 ± 0.07mg/ml. Interestingly, AS leaf MetOH\_EA, AS leaf MetOH\_CHCl 3 , AS root MetOH\_EA and MP leaf MetOH\_CHCl 3 showed significant anti-tyrosinase activity even higher than positive control kojic acid. AS leaf MetOH\_CHCl 3 extract being the most potent among all tested extracts is proposed as potential candidate to treat tyrosinase rooted hyper-pigmentation in future.

[View](publication/353122475_Isolation_Of_Allium_Sativum_And_Mentha_Piperita_Extracts_Evaluation_Of_Their_Antioxidant_And_Anti-Tyrosinase_Activities_In-Vitro)

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... However, its use in cosmetic formulations is prohibited due to the side effects such as irritation, allergic reactions, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, and temporary hypopigmentation that it can cause \[12,13,\[15\]\[16\]\[17\]\[18\]25,26\]. Hydroquinone (C 6 H 6 O 2 ) reduces the level of pigmentation by non-selectively degrading epidermal melanocytes and keratinocytes, making it cytotoxic to cells \[27,28\]. Therefore, the use of skin-lightening agents in cosmetic formulations has shifted towards more effective alternative compounds with low toxic and irritation effects, such as kojic acid \[23,29\]. ...

[Nanotechnology-Enhanced Cosmetic Application of Kojic Acid Dipalmitate, a Kojic Acid Derivate with Improved Properties](publication/377992701_Nanotechnology-Enhanced_Cosmetic_Application_of_Kojic_Acid_Dipalmitate_a_Kojic_Acid_Derivate_with_Improved_Properties)

Article

Full-text available

- Feb 2024

- [Angreni Ayuhastuti](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Angreni-Ayuhastuti-2184801496)
- [Insan Sunan Kurniawan Syah](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Insan-Sunan-Kurniawan-Syah-2269963556)
- [Sandra Megantara](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Sandra-Megantara-2270017902)
- [![Anis Chaerunisaa](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Anis Chaerunisaa](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anis-Chaerunisaa-2)

Kojic acid (KA) has emerged as a prominent tyrosinase inhibitor with considerable potential in cosmetic applications; however, its susceptibility to instability during storage poses a challenge to its widespread use. This review explores the advancements in addressing this limitation through the development of various KA derivatives, focusing on the modification of the C-7 hydroxyl group. Strategies such as esterification, hydroxy-phenyl ether formation, glycosylation, and incorporation into amino acid or tripeptide derivatives have been employed to enhance stability and efficacy. Among these derivatives, Kojic Acid Dipalmitate (KDP), a palmitic ester derivative of KA, stands out for its notable improvements in stability, permeability, and low toxicity. Recent developments indicate a growing utilization of KDP in cosmetic formulations, with over 132 available products on the market, encompassing various formulations. Formulations based on nanotechnology, which incorporate KDP, have been provided, including nanosomes, nanocreams, multiple emulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), ethosomes, and nanoemulsions. Additionally, three patents and seven advanced system deliveries of KDP further underscore its significance. Despite its increasing prevalence, the literature on KDP remains limited. This review aims to bridge this gap by providing insights into the synthesis process, physicochemical properties, pharmaceutical preparation, diverse applications of KDP in cosmetic products, and recent nanotechnology formulations of KDP. This review paper seeks to explore the recent developments in the use of KDP in cosmetics. The goal is to enhance stability, permeability, and reduce the toxicity of KA, with the intention of promoting future research in this promising sector.

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[In vitro antioxidant and free radical scavenging potential of Parkinsonia aculeata Linn](publication/279899402_In_vitro_antioxidant_and_free_radical_scavenging_potential_of_Parkinsonia_aculeata_Linn)

Article

Full-text available

- Jan 2008
- Phcog Mag

- [![Mruthunjaya Kenganora](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Mruthunjaya Kenganora](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mruthunjaya-Kenganora-3)
- [V. I. Hukkeri](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/V-I-Hukkeri-2077136795)

Parkinsonia aculeata is found most exclusively in the drier regions of India. Leaves from this plant contain orientin, iso-orientin, vitexin, iso-vitexin, lucenin-II, vicenin-II, diosmetin 6-C-B-glucoside, apigenin, luteolin, kaempferot, chrysoeriol, epi-orientin, parkinsonin-A, parkinsonin-B, and parkintin. In folk medicine, the plant leaves are used to treat jaundice. Due to the presence of flavonoids and its widespread use to treat jaundice, our aim with this study was to evaluate the antioxidant properties of P. aculeata. The antioxidant activity of the 70% hydroalcoholic extract of Parkinsonia aculeata was evaluated in vitro by various experimental parameters such as DPPH radical scavenging activity, nitric oxide scavenging, B-carotene-linoleic acid module system, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and lipid peroxidation. Also, ferric ion reduction capability of the evaluated extracts, total antioxidant capacity, and total phenolic content, were also determined. Our results showed that Parkinsonia aculeate displayed potent antioxidant properties, supporting the ethnomedical use given to this plant to treat jaundice.

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[Antioxidant and Tyrosinase inhibition properties of leaves and rhizomes of ginger species](publication/222533173_Antioxidant_and_Tyrosinase_inhibition_properties_of_leaves_and_rhizomes_of_ginger_species)

Article

Full-text available

- Aug 2008
- FOOD CHEM

- [![Eric Wei Chiang Chan](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Eric Wei Chiang Chan](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric-Chan-20)
- [![Yau Yan Lim](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Yau Yan Lim](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yau-Lim)
- [L.F. Wong](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/LF-Wong-2081239901)
- [T.Y. Lim](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/TY-Lim-72279444)

Total phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) of leaves of 26 ginger species belonging to nine genera and three tribes were screened. For 14 species, TPC and AEAC of rhizomes were also assessed. Ferrous ion-chelating (FIC) abilities of leaves and rhizomes of eight species were compared. Leaves of five species of Etlingera were analysed for tyrosinase inhibition activity. Of the 26 species, leaves of Etlingera species had the highest TPC and AEAC. Eleven of the 14 species had significantly higher TPC and/or AEAC in leaves than in rhizomes. Values of leaves of Etlingera elatior and Etlingera maingayi were seven to eight times higher than those of rhizomes. In terms of FIC ability, six of the eight species clearly showed higher values in leaves than in rhizomes. The most outstanding was the FIC value of Alpinia galanga leaves which was more than 20 times higher than that of rhizomes. Of the five species of Etlingera, leaves of E. elatior displayed the strongest tyrosinase inhibition activity, followed by leaves of Etlingera fulgens and E. maingayi. Values of their inhibition activity were significantly higher than or comparable to the positive control. Besides promising tyrosinase inhibition ability, leaves of these three Etlingera species also have high antioxidant activity and antibacterial properties.

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[Effect of intake of L-ascorbic acid on the incidence of dermal neoplasms induced in mice by UV light](publication/16238464_Effect_of_intake_of_L-ascorbic_acid_on_the_incidence_of_dermal_neoplasms_induced_in_mice_by_UV_light)

Article

Full-text available

- Jan 1983

- [W B Dunham](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/W-B-Dunham-2139690132)
- [![Emile Zuckerkandl](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Emile Zuckerkandl](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emile-Zuckerkandl)
- [R Reynolds](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-Reynolds-2030953643)
- [Linus Pauling](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Linus-Pauling-2110108183)

We have carried out a study of large malignant skin tumors (squamous cell carcinomas) and other lesions in hairless mice (groups of 38-45) intermittently exposed to ultraviolet light over a period of 15 weeks, beginning when the mice were about 10 weeks old. The several groups were given a standard diet with 0%, 0.3%, 5%, and 10% added L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) throughout the study. No lesions developed in unirradiated control groups. The lesions were counted every 14 days for 4 months, beginning 4 weeks before the end of the period of irradiation. The observed incidence of lesions of several sizes during successive time periods was analyzed by the statistical method recommended by a committee of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. A pronounced effect of vitamin C in decreasing the incidence and delaying the onset of the malignant lesions was observed with high statistical significance.

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[In vitro antioxidant activity of various extracts of Aristolochia bracteolata leaves](publication/315692544_In_vitro_antioxidant_activity_of_various_extracts_of_Aristolochia_bracteolata_leaves)

Article

- Dec 2005

- [![Shrishailappa Badami](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Shrishailappa Badami](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shrishailappa-Badami)
- [Christy K Jose](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Christy-K-Jose-2125369789)
- [Choksi Rakshit Kumar K](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Choksi-Rakshit-Kumar-K-2125381469)
- [![Bhavana Suresh](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Bhavana Suresh](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bhavana-Suresh-3)

Aristolochia bracteolata is being used in traditional medicine for a variety of ailments. Three successive and two crude extracts of its leaves were subjected for in vitro antioxidant activity using seven different methods. The successive ethyl acetate and crude methanol extracts have shown potent antioxidant activity in ABTS method with IC\_{50} values of 17.08\\;?\\;0.44\\;and\\;28.12\\;?\\;2.87\\;?g/ml, respectively. The crude methanol and successive chloroform extracts have shown moderate antioxidant activity in scavenging of hydroxyl radical by p-NDA method. All the extracts have shown moderate to low antioxidant activity by other methods.

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[Enzymic and Non-Enzymic Antioxidants in Epidermis and Dermis of Human Skin](publication/232790198_Enzymic_and_Non-Enzymic_Antioxidants_in_Epidermis_and_Dermis_of_Human_Skin)

Article

- Jan 1994

- [Yasuko Shindo](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Yasuko-Shindo-69036652)
- [Eric Witt](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Eric-Witt-61956475)
- [Derick Han](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Derick-Han-72629616)
- [![Lester Packer](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Lester Packer](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lester-Packer)

We measured enzymic and non-enzymic antioxidants in human epidermis and dermis from six healthy volunteers undergoing surgical procedures. Epidermis was separated from dermis by currettage and antioxidants were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or standard spectrophotometric methods. The concentration of every antioxidant (referenced to skin wet weight) was higher in the epidermis than in the dermis.
Among the enzymic antioxidants, the activities of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase were higher in the epidermis compared to the dermis by 126, 61 and 215%, respectively. Catalase activity in particular was much higher (720%) in the epidermis. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase, which provide reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), also showed higher activity in the epidermis than the dermis by 111% and 313%, respectively.
Among the lipophilic antioxidants, the concentration of α-tocopherol was higher in the epidermis than the dermis by 90%. The concentration of ubiquinol 10 was especially higher in the epidermis, by 900%. Among the hydrophilic antioxidants, concentrations of ascorbic acid and uric acid were also higher in the epidermis than in the dermis by 425 and 488%, respectively. Reduced glutathione and total glutathione were higher in the epidermis than in the dermis by 513 and 471%.
Thus the antioxidant capacity of the human epidermis is far greater than that of dermis. As the epidermis composes the outermost 10% of the skin and acts as the initial barrier to oxidant assault, it is perhaps not surprising that it has higher levels of antioxidants.

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[Antioxidant Functions of Vitamins](publication/228013866_Antioxidant_Functions_of_Vitamins)

Article

- Dec 2006
- [ANN NY ACAD SCI](journal/Annals-of-the-New-York-Academy-of-Sciences-1749-6632)

- [![Helmut Sies](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Helmut Sies](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmut-Sies)
- [![Wilhelm Stahl](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Wilhelm Stahl](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilhelm-Stahl)
- [Alfred R. Sundquist](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Alfred-R-Sundquist-38187525)

[View](publication/228013866_Antioxidant_Functions_of_Vitamins)

[Determination of in vitro antioxidant activity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed extracts (vol 36, pg 263, 2003)](publication/222926585_Determination_of_in_vitro_antioxidant_activity_of_fennel_Foeniculum_vulgare_seed_extracts_vol_36_pg_263_2003)

Article

- Mar 2003
- LWT-FOOD SCI TECHNOL

- [Münir Oktay](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Muenir-Oktay-9756207)
- [![Ilhami Gülçin](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Ilhami Gülçin](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ilhami-Guelcin-2)
- [Ö. İrfan Küfrevioğlu](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Oe-Irfan-Kuefrevioglu-2041201009)

In this study, the antioxidant activity of water and ethanol extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed (FS) was evaluated by various antioxidant assay, including total antioxidant, free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, metal chelating activities and reducing power. Those various antioxidant activities were compared to standard antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and α-tocopherol. The water and ethanol extracts of FS seeds showed strong antioxidant activity. 100 μg of water and ethanol extracts exhibited 99.1% and 77.5% inhibition of peroxidation in linoleic acid system, respectively, and greater than the same dose of α-tocopherol (36.1%). The both extracts of FS have effective reducing power, free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, and metal chelating activities. This antioxidant property depends on concentration and increasing with increased amount of sample. In addition, total phenolic compounds in the water and ethanol extracts of fennel seeds were determined as gallic acid equivalents. The results obtained in the present study indicated that the fennel (F. vulgare) seed is a potential source of natural antioxidant. Although, the tests presented here show the usefulness of FS extracts as in vitro antioxidants it still needs to be that this extracts show their activity in emulsions, biological systems, health implications or dry foods.

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[Vitamin E in Humans: Demand and Delivery](publication/14365335_Vitamin_E_in_Humans_Demand_and_Delivery)

Article

- Feb 1996

- [![Maret Traber](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Maret Traber](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maret-Traber)
- [![Helmut Sies](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Helmut Sies](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Helmut-Sies)

How much vitamin E is enough? An established use of supplemental vitamin E in humans is in the prevention and therapy of deficiency symptoms. The cause of vitamin E deficiency, characterized by peripheral neuropathy and ataxia, is usually malabsorption-a result of fat malabsorption or genetic abnormalities in lipoprotein metabolism. Genetic abnormalities in the hepatic alpha-tocopherol transfer protein also cause vitamin E deficiency-defects in this protein cause an impairment in plasma vitamin E transport. Impaired delivery of vitamin E to tissues, thereby, results in deficiency symptoms. Also discussed is the use of supplemental vitamin E in chronic diseases such as ischemic heart disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes, cataracts, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and impared immune function, as well as in subjects receiving total parenterol nutrition. In healthy individuals, a daily intake of about 15-30 mg of alpha-tocopherol is recommended to obtain "optimal plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations" (30 microM or greater).

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[Antimicrobial activity of bark extracts of Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston (Myrtaceae)](publication/12415519_Antimicrobial_activity_of_bark_extracts_of_Syzygium_jambos_L_Alston_Myrtaceae)

Article

- Aug 2000
- J ETHNOPHARMACOL

- [Corine Djadjo Djipa](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Corine-Djadjo-Djipa-2014971355)
- [![Michel Delmée](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Michel Delmée](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michel-Delmee)
- [![Joëlle Quetin-Leclercq](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Joëlle Quetin-Leclercq](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joelle-Quetin-Leclercq)

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston (Myrtaceae) is a widespread medicinal plant traditionally used in sub-Saharan Africa to treat infectious diseases. Acetone and aqueous extracts from the bark of S. jambos were tested for antimicrobial activity in vitro by the agar dilution method in petri dishes. Both extracts showed some activity against the tested micro-organisms. They proved to be particularly effective on Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica and coagulase negative staphylococci among which Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus cohnii and Staphylococcus warneri. These properties seem to be related to the high tannin content of S. jambos extracts (77 and 83% for the aqueous and acetone extracts, respectively, determined according to the European Pharmacopoeia method) which were generally more active than Hamamelis virginiana, Krameria triandra, Alchemilla vulgaris and Rubus fruticosus extracts containing 48, 44, 46 and 28% tannins, respectively. Furthermore, elimination of tannins totally suppressed these antimicrobial activities.

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[The IFPCS presidential lecture: a chemist’s view of melanogenesis](publication/10754982_The_IFPCS_presidential_lecture_a_chemist's_view_of_melanogenesis)

Article

- Jul 2003

- [![Shosuke Ito](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)Shosuke Ito](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shosuke-Ito)

The significance of our understanding of the chemistry of melanin and melanogenesis is reviewed. Melanogenesis begins with the production of dopaquinone, a highly reactive o-quinone. Pulse radiolysis is a powerful tool to study the fates of such highly reactive melanin precursors. Based on pulse radiolysis data reported by Land et al. (J Photochem Photobiol B: Biol 2001;64:123) and our biochemical studies, a pathway for mixed melanogenesis is proposed. Melanogenesis proceeds in three distinctive steps. The initial step is the production of cysteinyldopas by the rapid addition of cysteine to dopaquinone, which continues as long as cysteine is present (1 microM). The second step is the oxidation of cysteinyldopas to give pheomelanin, which continues as long as cysteinyldopas are present (10 microM). The last step is the production of eumelanin, which begins only after most cysteinyldopas are depleted. It thus appears that eumelanin is deposited on the preformed pheomelanin and that the ratio of eu- to pheomelanin is determined by the tyrosinase activity and cysteine concentration. In eumelanogenesis, dopachrome is a rather stable molecule and spontaneously decomposes to give mostly 5,6-dihydroxyindole. Dopachrome tautomerase (Dct) catalyses the tautomerization of dopachrome to give mostly 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). Our study confirmed that the role of Dct is to increase the ratio of DHICA in eumelanin and to increase the production of eumelanin. In addition, the cytotoxicity of o-quinone melanin precursors was found to correlate with binding to proteins through the cysteine residues. Finally, it is still unknown how the availability of cysteine is controlled within the melanosome.

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- [Patrick Cole](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Patrick-Cole-39140560)
- [Daniel A Hatef](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Daniel-A-Hatef-38628132)
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Use of over-the-counter cosmetics, approaches to hygiene, and many basic dermatologic principles differ between individuals with Caucasian skin and ethnic skin. Still, comparatively few publications highlight these variations or discuss appropriate management. Among many ethnic patients, issues related to skin hydration, restoration of even pigmentation, hair removal, and acne care remain ... \[Show full abstract\] problematic yet not fully addressed. As well, there are some dermatologic conditions that may be rare in Caucasian skin but are much more common in the ethnic patient. Here, we discuss various aspects of skin hydration, dyschromia, sunscreen use, and chemical depilatories in the ethnic population.

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- ![Associate Professor Dr Mosab Arafat](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Associate Professor Dr Mosab Arafat](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Associate-Professor-Dr-Mosab-Arafat)
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Abstract: Nowadays there are obvious appearing of new diseases, and increasing in the number of cancer patients all over the world. However, some researchers found that there is a relationship between cosmetics and cancer. In fact, there is a noticeable increasing in the using of these agents in the last century whereas increasing in cancer with all its types in the same time. Polyacrylamide and ... \[Show full abstract\] its derivatives (acrylamide, acrylate, poly-acrylate, poly-quaternium) is one of the common component used in cosmetic formulations. Latest studies found that polyacrylamide and its derivatives can be to carcinogenic to human and they can be absorbed through skin to reached the blood. Many people still use many skin care products containing these chemical agents without knowing the risk of it. Thus, the aim of our study was to find out the percentage of skin care products are in the market contains polyacrylamide and its derivatives in comparison with polyacrylamide free-product. As a result, we found out that nearly 70 % of skin care products in the market have these chemical agents of high concern. These skin care products were as followings: acne clearer cream with polyquaternium-7, face wash with acrylate C10-30, matte foundation with methacrylate crosspolymer, gentle care shampoo with polyquatrenium-7 and acrylate copolymer, hair therapy with polyacrylamide and sanitizer with acrylate/c10-30 and alkyl acrylate crosspolymer. On the other hand, some skin care products were found without these chemicals such as, facial wash, daily wash and cream, oil replacement for hair and sunscreen tinted cream. In conclusion, as polyacrylamide and its derivatives can increases the risk of developing cancers, consumer, who cares about their health, must be careful when choosing cosmetics by checking the composition of it as some formulation ingredients can be harmful. Keywords: Polyacrylamide, acrylamide, acrylate, skin care products

[View full-text](publication/314859273_POTENTIAL_CANCER_RISK_IN_COSMETIC_FORMULATIONS_-_ACRYLATES_AND_DERIVATIVES)

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August 2005 · Dermatologic Clinics

- ![Ella Toombs](data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mN89OjNfwAJDwOxHEacwgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==)[Ella Toombs](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ella-Toombs)

This article describes scenarios of patients who have acne vulgaris have tried over-the-counter products and cosmetics and are disheartened by the persistence of their disease and the resulting scars. They may have seen an aesthetician, plastic surgeon, or even a general practitioner before seeing a well-informed skin specialist. Patients perceive the dermatologist to be the skin care expert and ... \[Show full abstract\] seek guidance to obtain otherwise unobtainable results. Therefore, practicing dermatologists should take advantage of the available tools to treat patients aggressively and completely. Appropriately applied cosmetics can play a role in achieving this goal. This article describes scenarios that integrate cosmetics into an anti-acne treatment regimen that is effective and safe for all ethnic groups and is well tolerated by both male and female patients.

[Read more](publication/7706961_Cosmetics_in_the_Treatment_of_Acne_Vulgaris)

Article

### [Cosmetics in acne and rosacea](publication/11754711_Cosmetics_in_acne_and_rosacea)

October 2001 · Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery

- [Zoe Diana Draelos](https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Zoe-Diana-Draelos-39713556)

Cosmetics that are appropriate for use in patients with rosacea and acne must be noncomedogenic, nonacnegenic, nonirritating, and hypoallergenic. This requires a basic understanding of cosmetic fromulation and the selection of products that meet guidelines for sensitive skin.

[Read more](publication/11754711_Cosmetics_in_acne_and_rosacea)

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