как проектируются микросхемы
Как разрабатываются и производятся процессоры: изготовление ...
Однако проектирование и изготовление транзисторов — это только половина чипа. Нам необходимы проводники, чтобы соединить всё согласно схеме. Эти ...
ионной имплантацией
Если мы добавим точно контролируемое количество элементов-доноров электронов, например, мышьяка, сурьмы или фосфора, то можем создать область n-типа. Поскольку область пластины, на которую нанесены эти элементы, теперь имеет избыток электронов, она становится отрицательно заряженной. Отсюда взялось название типа (n — negative) и буква «n» в nMOS. Добавляя на кремний такие элементы-акцепторы электронов, как бор, индий или галлий, мы можем создавать область p-типа, заряженную положительно. Отсюда взялась буква «p» в p-типе и pMOS (p — positive). Конкретные процессы добавления этих примесей к кремнию называются <anchor>ионной имплантацией</anchor> и диффузией; их мы в статье рассматривать не будем.
Ion implantation - Wikipedia
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## Contents

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- (Top)

- [1General principle](#General_principle)Toggle General principle subsection  - [1.1Ion source](#Ion_source)
- [2Application in semiconductor device fabrication](#Application_in_semiconductor_device_fabrication)Toggle Application in semiconductor device fabrication subsection  - [2.1Doping](#Doping)
  - [2.2Silicon on insulator](#Silicon_on_insulator)
  - [2.3Mesotaxy](#Mesotaxy)
- [3Application in metal finishing](#Application_in_metal_finishing)Toggle Application in metal finishing subsection  - [3.1Tool steel toughening](#Tool_steel_toughening)
  - [3.2Surface finishing](#Surface_finishing)
- [4Other applications](#Other_applications)Toggle Other applications subsection  - [4.1Ion beam mixing](#Ion_beam_mixing)
  - [4.2Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation](#Ion_implantation-induced_nanoparticle_formation)
- [5Problems with ion implantation](#Problems_with_ion_implantation)Toggle Problems with ion implantation subsection  - [5.1Crystallographic damage](#Crystallographic_damage)
  - [5.2Damage recovery](#Damage_recovery)
  - [5.3Amorphization](#Amorphization)
  - [5.4Sputtering](#Sputtering)
  - [5.5Ion channelling](#Ion_channelling)
- [6Safety](#Safety)Toggle Safety subsection  - [6.1Hazardous materials](#Hazardous_materials)
  - [6.2High voltages and particle accelerators](#High_voltages_and_particle_accelerators)
- [7See also](#See_also)
- [8References](#References)
- [9External links](#External_links)

Toggle the table of contents

# Ion implantation

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Use of ions to cause chemical changes

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ion_implantation_machine_at_LAAS_0521.jpg/250px-Ion_implantation_machine_at_LAAS_0521.jpg)](/wiki/File:Ion_implantation_machine_at_LAAS_0521.jpg) An ion implantation system at [LAAS](/wiki/Laboratory_for_analysis_and_architecture_of_systems "Laboratory for analysis and architecture of systems") technological facility in Toulouse, France.

**Ion implantation** is a low-temperature process by which [ions](/wiki/Ion_(physics) "Ion (physics)") of one element are accelerated into a solid target, thereby changing the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the target. Ion implantation is used in [semiconductor device fabrication](/wiki/Fabrication_(semiconductor) "Fabrication (semiconductor)") and in metal finishing, as well as in [materials science](/wiki/Materials_science "Materials science") research. The ions can alter the elemental composition of the target (if the ions differ in composition from the target) if they stop and remain in the target. Ion implantation also causes chemical and physical changes when the ions impinge on the target at high energy. The [crystal structure](/wiki/Crystal_structure "Crystal structure") of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic [collision cascades](/wiki/Collision_cascade "Collision cascade"), and ions of sufficiently high energy (tens of MeV) can cause [nuclear transmutation](/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation "Nuclear transmutation").

## General principle

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: General principle")\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ion_implanter_schematic.svg/220px-Ion_implanter_schematic.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Ion_implanter_schematic.svg) Ion implantation setup with mass separator

Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an [ion source](/wiki/Ion_source "Ion source"), where ions of the desired element are produced, an [accelerator](/wiki/Particle_accelerator "Particle accelerator"), where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy or using radiofrequency, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Thus ion implantation is a special case of [particle radiation](/wiki/Particle_radiation "Particle radiation"). Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implants are typically small (micro-amperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Therefore, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.

Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 [keV](/wiki/Electronvolt "Electronvolt") (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation [ion beam deposition](/wiki/Ion_beam_deposition "Ion beam deposition"). Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad ( [Bragg peak](/wiki/Bragg_peak "Bragg peak")), the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.

The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called [stopping](/wiki/Stopping_power_(particle_radiation) "Stopping power (particle radiation)") and can be simulated with the [binary collision approximation](/wiki/Binary_collision_approximation "Binary collision approximation") method.

Accelerator systems for ion implantation are generally classified into medium current (ion beam currents between 10 μA and ~2 mA), high current (ion beam currents up to ~30 mA), high energy (ion energies above 200 keV and up to 10 MeV), and very high dose (efficient implant of dose greater than 1016 ions/cm2).[\[1\]](#cite_note-1)[\[2\]](#cite_note-auto1-2)[\[3\]](#cite_note-3)

### Ion source

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=2 "Edit section: Ion source")\]

All varieties of ion implantation beamline designs contain general groups of functional components (see image). The first major segment of an ion beamline includes an ion source used to generate the ion species. The source is closely coupled to biased electrodes for extraction of the ions into the beamline and most often to some means of selecting a particular ion species for transport into the main accelerator section.

The ion source is often made of materials with a high melting point such as tungsten, tungsten doped with lanthanum oxide, molybdenum and tantalum. Often, inside the ion source a plasma is created between two tungsten electrodes, called reflectors, using a gas often based on fluorine containing the ion to be implanted whether it is germanium, boron, or silicon, such as boron trifluoride,[\[4\]](#cite_note-4) boron difluoride,[\[5\]](#cite_note-5) germanium tetrafluoride or silicon tetrafluoride.[\[6\]](#cite_note-semiconductor-digest.com-6) Arsine gas or phosphine gas can be used in the ion source to provide arsenic or phosphorus respectively for implantation.[\[7\]](#cite_note-7) The ion source also has an indirectly heated cathode. Alternatively this heated cathode can be used as one of the reflectors, eliminating the need for a dedicated one,[\[8\]](#cite_note-auto4-8)[\[9\]](#cite_note-9)[\[10\]](#cite_note-auto2-10) or a directly heated cathode is used.[\[11\]](#cite_note-11)

Oxygen or oxide based gases such as carbon dioxide can also be used for ions such as carbon. Hydrogen or hydrogen with xenon, krypton or argon may be added to the plasma to delay the degradation of tungsten components due to the halogen cycle.[\[6\]](#cite_note-semiconductor-digest.com-6)[\[10\]](#cite_note-auto2-10)[\[12\]](#cite_note-12)[\[13\]](#cite_note-13) The hydrogen can come from a high pressure cylinder or from a hydrogen generator that uses electrolysis.[\[14\]](#cite_note-auto3-14)
Repellers at each end of the ion source continually move the atoms from one end of the ion source to the other, resembling two mirrors pointed at each other constantly reflecting light.[\[8\]](#cite_note-auto4-8)

The ions are extracted from the source by an extraction electrode outside the ion source through a slit shaped aperture in the source,[\[15\]](#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](#cite_note-16) then the ion beam then passes through an analysis magnet to select the ions that will be implanted and then passes through one or two[\[17\]](#cite_note-17) linear accelerators (linacs)[\[18\]](#cite_note-auto-18) that accelerate the ions before they reach the wafer in a process chamber.[\[18\]](#cite_note-auto-18) In medium current ion implanters there is also a neutral ion trap before the process chamber to remove neutral ions from the ion beam.[\[19\]](#cite_note-19)

Some dopants such as aluminum, are often not provided to the ion source as a gas but as a solid compound based on Chlorine or Iodine that is vaporized in a nearby crucible such as [Aluminium iodide](/wiki/Aluminium_iodide "Aluminium iodide") or [Aluminium chloride](/wiki/Aluminium_chloride "Aluminium chloride") or as a solid sputtering target inside the ion source made of [Aluminium oxide](/wiki/Aluminium_oxide "Aluminium oxide") or [Aluminium nitride](/wiki/Aluminium_nitride "Aluminium nitride").[\[14\]](#cite_note-auto3-14) Implanting antimony often requires the use of a vaporizer attached to the ion source, in which antimony trifluoride, antimony trioxide, or solid antimony are vaporized in a crucible and a carrier gas is used to route the vapors to an adjacent ion source, although it can also be implanted from a gas containing fluorine such as antimony hexafluoride or vaporized from liquid antimony pentafluoride.[\[6\]](#cite_note-semiconductor-digest.com-6) Gallium, Selenium and Indium are often implanted from solid sources such as selenium dioxide for selenium although it can also be implanted from hydrogen selenide. Crucibles often last 60–100 hours and prevent ion implanters from changing recipes or process parameters in less than 20–30 minutes. Ion sources can often last 300 hours.[\[20\]](#cite_note-20)[\[6\]](#cite_note-semiconductor-digest.com-6)

The "mass" selection (just like in [mass spectrometer](/wiki/Mass_spectrometry "Mass spectrometry")) is often accompanied by passage of the extracted ion beam through a magnetic field region with an exit path restricted by blocking apertures, or "slits", that allow only ions with a specific value of the product of mass and velocity/charge to continue down the beamline. If the target surface is larger than the ion beam diameter and a uniform distribution of implanted dose is desired over the target surface, then some combination of beam scanning and wafer motion is used. Finally, the implanted surface is coupled with some method for collecting the accumulated charge of the implanted ions so that the delivered dose can be measured in a continuous fashion and the implant process stopped at the desired dose level.[\[21\]](#cite_note-21)

## Application in semiconductor device fabrication

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=3 "Edit section: Application in semiconductor device fabrication")\]

### Doping

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Doping")\]

[Semiconductor doping](/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor) "Doping (semiconductor)") with boron, phosphorus, or arsenic is a common application of ion implantation. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom can create a charge carrier in the semiconductor after [annealing](/wiki/Furnace_anneal "Furnace anneal"). A [hole](/wiki/Electron_hole "Electron hole") can be created for a [p-type](/wiki/P-type_semiconductor "P-type semiconductor") dopant, and an electron for an [n-type](/wiki/N-type_semiconductor "N-type semiconductor") dopant. This modifies the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity. The technique is used, for example, for adjusting the threshold voltage of a [MOSFET](/wiki/MOSFET "MOSFET"). Ion implantation is practical due to the high sensitivity of semiconductor devices to foreign atoms, as ion implantation does not deposit large numbers of atoms.[\[2\]](#cite_note-auto1-2) Sometimes such as during the manufacturing of SiC devices, ion implantation is carried out while heating the SiC wafer to 500 °C.[\[22\]](#cite_note-22) This is known as a hot implant and it is used to control damage to the surface of the semiconductor.[\[23\]](#cite_note-23)[\[24\]](#cite_note-24)[\[25\]](#cite_note-25) Cryogenic implants (Cryo-implants) can have the same effect.[\[26\]](#cite_note-26)

The energies used in doping often vary from 1 KeV to 3 MeV and it is not possible to build an ion implanter capable of providing ions at any energy due to physical limitations. To increase the throughput of ion implanters, efforts have been made to increase the current of the beam created by the implanter.[\[2\]](#cite_note-auto1-2) The beam can be scanned across the wafer magnetically, electrostatically,[\[27\]](#cite_note-27) mechanically or with a combination of these techniques.[\[28\]](#cite_note-28)[\[29\]](#cite_note-29)[\[30\]](#cite_note-30) A mass analyzer magnet is used to select the ions that will be implanted on the wafer.[\[31\]](#cite_note-31) Ion implantation is also used in displays containing LTPS transistors.[\[18\]](#cite_note-auto-18)

Ion implantation was developed as a method of producing the p-n junction of photovoltaic devices in the late 1970s and early 1980s,[\[32\]](#cite_note-32) along with the use of pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing,[\[33\]](#cite_note-33) although pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing has not to date been used for commercial production. Ion implantation is not used in most photovoltaic silicon cells, instead, thermal diffusion doping is used.[\[34\]](#cite_note-34)

### Silicon on insulator

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=5 "Edit section: Silicon on insulator")\]

One prominent method for preparing silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates from conventional [silicon](/wiki/Silicon "Silicon") substrates is the _SIMOX_ (separation by implantation of oxygen) process, wherein a buried high dose oxygen implant is converted to silicon oxide by a high temperature [annealing](/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy) "Annealing (metallurgy)") process.

### Mesotaxy

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Mesotaxy")\]

Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to [epitaxy](/wiki/Epitaxy "Epitaxy"), which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different. For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of [nickel silicide](/wiki/Nickel_silicide "Nickel silicide") can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.

## Application in metal finishing

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Application in metal finishing")\]

### Tool steel toughening

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=8 "Edit section: Tool steel toughening")\]

Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevents crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.

### Surface finishing

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=9 "Edit section: Surface finishing")\]

In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion.

## Other applications

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: Other applications")\]

### Ion beam mixing

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=11 "Edit section: Ion beam mixing")\]

Ion implantation can be used to achieve [ion beam mixing](/wiki/Ion_beam_mixing "Ion beam mixing"), i.e. mixing up atoms of different elements at an interface. This may be useful for achieving graded interfaces or strengthening adhesion between layers of immiscible materials.

### Ion implantation-induced [nanoparticle](/wiki/Nanoparticle "Nanoparticle") formation

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=12 "Edit section: Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation")\]

Ion implantation may be used to induce nano-dimensional particles in oxides such as [sapphire](/wiki/Sapphire "Sapphire") and [silica](/wiki/Silica "Silica"). The particles may be formed as a result of precipitation of the ion implanted species, they may be formed as a result of the production of a mixed oxide species that contains both the ion-implanted element and the oxide substrate, and they may be formed as a result of a reduction of the substrate, first reported by Hunt and Hampikian.[\[35\]](#cite_note-Hunt-35)[\[36\]](#cite_note-Hunt2-36)[\[37\]](#cite_note-37) Typical ion beam energies used to produce nanoparticles range from 50 to 150 keV, with ion fluences that range from 1016 to 1018 ions/cm2.[\[38\]](#cite_note-Werner-38)[\[39\]](#cite_note-Alves-39)[\[40\]](#cite_note-Xiang-40)[\[41\]](#cite_note-Mota-Santiago-41)[\[42\]](#cite_note-Stepanov-42)[\[43\]](#cite_note-McHargue-43)[\[44\]](#cite_note-Xiang2-44)[\[45\]](#cite_note-Sharma-45)[\[46\]](#cite_note-Xiang3-46) The table below summarizes some of the work that has been done in this field for a sapphire substrate. A wide variety of nanoparticles can be formed, with size ranges from 1 nm on up to 20 nm and with compositions that can contain the implanted species, combinations of the implanted ion and substrate, or that are comprised solely from the cation associated with the substrate.

Composite materials based on dielectrics such as sapphire that contain dispersed metal nanoparticles are promising materials for [optoelectronics](/wiki/Optoelectronics "Optoelectronics") and [nonlinear optics](/wiki/Nonlinear_optics "Nonlinear optics").[\[42\]](#cite_note-Stepanov-42)

Implanted Species
Substrate
Ion Beam Energy (keV)
Fluence (ions/cm2)
Post Implantation Heat Treatment
Result
Source
Produces Oxides that Contain the Implanted Ion
Co
Al2O365
5\*1017Annealing at 1400 °C
Forms Al2CoO4 spinel
[\[38\]](#cite_note-Werner-38)Co
α-Al2O3150
2\*1017Annealing at 1000 °C in oxidizing ambient
Forms Al2CoO4 spinel
[\[39\]](#cite_note-Alves-39)Mg
Al2O3150
5\*1016\-\-\-
Forms MgAl2O4 platelets
[\[35\]](#cite_note-Hunt-35)Sn
α-Al2O360
1\*1017Annealing in O2 atmosphere at 1000 °C for 1 hr
30 nm SnO2 nanoparticles form
[\[46\]](#cite_note-Xiang3-46)Zn
α-Al2O348
1\*1017Annealing in O2 atmosphere at 600 °C
ZnO nanoparticles form
[\[40\]](#cite_note-Xiang-40)Zr
Al2O365
5\*1017Annealing at 1400 °C
ZrO2 precipitates form
[\[38\]](#cite_note-Werner-38)Produces Metallic Nanoparticles from Implanted Species
Ag
α-Al2O31500, 2000
2\*1016, 8\*1016Annealing from 600 °C to 1100 °C in oxidizing, reducing, Ar or N2 atmospheres
Ag nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix
[\[41\]](#cite_note-Mota-Santiago-41)Au
α-Al2O3160
0.6\*1017, 1\*10161 hr at 800 °C in air
Au nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix
[\[42\]](#cite_note-Stepanov-42)Au
α-Al2O31500, 2000
2\*1016, 8\*1016Annealing from 600 °C to 1100 °C in oxidizing, reducing, Ar or N2 atmospheres
Au nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix
[\[41\]](#cite_note-Mota-Santiago-41)Co
α-Al2O3150
<5\*1016Annealing at 1000 °C
Co nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix
[\[39\]](#cite_note-Alves-39)Co
α-Al2O3150
2\*1017Annealing at 1000 °C in reducing ambient
Precipitation of metallic Co
[\[39\]](#cite_note-Alves-39)Fe
α-Al2O3160
1\*1016 to 2\*1017Annealing for 1 hr from 700 °C to 1500 °C in reducing ambient
Fe nanocomposites
[\[43\]](#cite_note-McHargue-43)Ni
α-Al2O364
1\*1017\-\-\-
1-5 nm Ni nanoparticles
[\[44\]](#cite_note-Xiang2-44)Si
α-Al2O350
2\*1016, 8\*1016Annealing at 500 °C or 1000 °C for 30 min
Si nanoparticles in Al2O3[\[45\]](#cite_note-Sharma-45)Sn
α-Al2O360
1\*1017\-\-\-
15 nm tetragonal Sn nanoparticles
[\[46\]](#cite_note-Xiang3-46)Ti
α-Al2O3100
<5\*1016Annealing at 1000 °C
Ti nanoparticles in Al2O3[\[39\]](#cite_note-Alves-39)Produces Metallic Nanoparticles from Substrate
Ca
Al2O3150
5\*1016\-\-\-
Al nanoparticles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and CaO
[\[35\]](#cite_note-Hunt-35)Y
Al2O3150
5\*1016\-\-\-
10.7± 1.8 nm Al particles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and Y2O3[\[35\]](#cite_note-Hunt-35)Y
Al2O3150
2.5\*1016\-\-\-
9.0± 1.2 nm Al particles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and Y2O3[\[36\]](#cite_note-Hunt2-36)

## Problems with ion implantation

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=13 "Edit section: Problems with ion implantation")\]

### Crystallographic damage

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=14 "Edit section: Crystallographic damage")\]

Each individual ion produces many [point defects](/wiki/Crystallographic_defect "Crystallographic defect") in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause [successive collision events](/wiki/Collision_cascade "Collision cascade").
Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in [dislocation](/wiki/Dislocation "Dislocation") loops and other defects.

### Damage recovery

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=15 "Edit section: Damage recovery")\]

Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery.

### Amorphization

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=16 "Edit section: Amorphization")\]

The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an [amorphous solid](/wiki/Amorphous_solid "Amorphous solid") (such a solid produced from a melt is called a [glass](/wiki/Glass "Glass")). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal. Amorphisation of the substrate can occur as a result of the beam damage. For example, yttrium ion implantation into sapphire at an ion beam energy of 150 keV to a fluence of 5\*1016 Y+/cm2 produces an amorphous glassy layer approximately 110 nm in thickness, measured from the outer surface. \[Hunt, 1999\]

### Sputtering

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=17 "Edit section: Sputtering")\]

Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected ( [sputtered](/wiki/Sputtering "Sputtering")) from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.

### Ion channelling

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=18 "Edit section: Ion channelling")\]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Diamond_structure.png)](/wiki/File:Diamond_structure.png) A diamond cubic crystal viewed from the [<110>](/wiki/Crystallography#Notation "Crystallography") direction, showing hexagonal ion channels.

If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping than other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the <110> direction in [silicon](/wiki/Silicon "Silicon") and other [diamond cubic](/wiki/Diamond_cubic "Diamond cubic") materials.[\[47\]](#cite_note-47) This effect is called _ion channelling_, and, like all the [channelling](/wiki/Channelling_(physics) "Channelling (physics)") effects, is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth. For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects.

Ion channelling can be used directly in [Rutherford backscattering](/wiki/Rutherford_backscattering "Rutherford backscattering") and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials.

## Safety

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=19 "Edit section: Safety")\]

### Hazardous materials

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=20 "Edit section: Hazardous materials")\]

In fabricating [wafers](/wiki/Wafer_(electronics) "Wafer (electronics)"), [toxic](/wiki/Toxic "Toxic") materials such as [arsine](/wiki/Arsine "Arsine") and [phosphine](/wiki/Phosphine "Phosphine") are often used in the ion implanter process. Other common [carcinogenic](/wiki/Carcinogen "Carcinogen"), [corrosive](/wiki/Corrosion "Corrosion"), [flammable](/wiki/Flammable "Flammable"), or toxic elements include [antimony](/wiki/Antimony "Antimony"), [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [phosphorus](/wiki/Phosphorus "Phosphorus"), and [boron](/wiki/Boron "Boron"). [Semiconductor fabrication](/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication "Semiconductor fabrication") facilities are highly automated, but residue of hazardous elements in machines can be encountered during servicing and in [vacuum pump](/wiki/Vacuum_pump "Vacuum pump") hardware.

### High voltages and particle accelerators

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=21 "Edit section: High voltages and particle accelerators")\]

High voltage power supplies used in ion accelerators necessary for ion implantation can pose a risk of [electrical injury](/wiki/Electrical_injury "Electrical injury"). In addition, high-energy atomic collisions can generate [X-rays](/wiki/X-ray "X-ray") and, in some cases, other ionizing radiation and [radionuclides](/wiki/Radionuclide "Radionuclide"). In addition to high voltage, [particle accelerators](/wiki/Particle_accelerator "Particle accelerator") such as radio frequency [linear particle accelerators](/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator "Linear particle accelerator") and laser [wakefield plasma accelerators](/wiki/Plasma_acceleration "Plasma acceleration") present other hazards.

## See also

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=22 "Edit section: See also")\]

- [Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter](/wiki/Stopping_and_Range_of_Ions_in_Matter "Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter")
- [Plasma-immersion ion implantation](/wiki/Plasma-immersion_ion_implantation "Plasma-immersion ion implantation")

## References

\[ [edit](/w/index.php?title=Ion_implantation&action=edit&section=23 "Edit section: References")\]

01. **[^](#cite_ref-1)**["Ion Implantation \| Semiconductor Digest"](https://sst.semiconductor-digest.com/2015/12/ion-implantation/). Retrieved 21 June 2021.
02. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-auto1_2-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-auto1_2-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-auto1_2-2)["Ion Implantation in Silicon Technology"](https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Ion_Implantation_in_Silicon_Technology.pdf)(PDF). Retrieved 2 March 2024.
03. **[^](#cite_ref-3)**"Ion implantation in CMOS Technology: Machine Challenges". _Ion Implantation and Synthesis of Materials_. 2006\. pp. 213–238. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1007/978-3-540-45298-0\_15](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-45298-0_15). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-540-23674-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23674-0 "Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23674-0").
04. **[^](#cite_ref-4)**Rimini, Emanuele (27 November 2013). [_Ion Implantation: Basics to Device Fabrication_](https://books.google.com/books?id=vqUSBwAAQBAJ&dq=bf3+ion+implantation&pg=PA76). Springer. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4615-2259-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4615-2259-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4615-2259-1").
05. **[^](#cite_ref-5)**Hsieh, Tseh-Jen; Colvin, Neil (2014). "Improved ion source stability using H2 co-gas for fluoride based dopants". _2014 20th International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 1–4. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2014.6940042](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2014.6940042). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4799-5212-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0").
06. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-semiconductor-digest.com_6-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-semiconductor-digest.com_6-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-semiconductor-digest.com_6-2) [_**d**_](#cite_ref-semiconductor-digest.com_6-3)["Source Materials Enable the Evolution of the Ion-Implantation Process"](https://www.semiconductor-digest.com/source-materials-enable-the-evolution-of-the-ion-implantation-process/). 8 February 2020.
07. **[^](#cite_ref-7)**Stellman, Jeanne Mager (28 February 1998). [_Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety_](https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&dq=arsine+ion+implantation&pg=RA3-SA83-PA10). International Labour Organization. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-92-2-109816-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-109816-4 "Special:BookSources/978-92-2-109816-4").
08. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-auto4_8-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-auto4_8-1)[_Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology_](https://books.google.com/books?id=PsVVKz_hjBgC&dq=ion+source+repeller&pg=SA7-PA43). CRC Press. 19 December 2017. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4200-1766-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1766-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1766-3").
09. **[^](#cite_ref-9)**Horsky, Thomas N. (April 1998). "Indirectly heated cathode arc discharge source for ion implantation of semiconductors". _Review of Scientific Instruments_. **69** (4): 1688–1690. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [1998RScI...69.1688H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RScI...69.1688H). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1063/1.1148866](https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1148866).
10. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-auto2_10-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-auto2_10-1)[https://global-sei.com/technology/tr/bn73/pdf/73-03.pdf](https://global-sei.com/technology/tr/bn73/pdf/73-03.pdf)\[ _[bare URL PDF](/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs "Wikipedia:Bare URLs")_\]
11. **[^](#cite_ref-11)**Sakai, Shigeki; Hamamoto, Nariaki; Inouchi, Yutaka; Umisedo, Sei; Miyamoto, Naoki (February 2014). "Ion sources for ion implantation technology (invited)". _Review of Scientific Instruments_. **85** (2): 02C313. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2014RScI...85bC313S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014RScI...85bC313S). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1063/1.4852315](https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4852315). [PMID](/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [24593650](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24593650).
12. **[^](#cite_ref-12)**Hsieh, Tseh-Jen; Colvin, Neil K. (2016). "Exemplary Ion Source for the Implanting of Halogen and Oxygen Based Dopant Gases". _2016 21st International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 1–4. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2016.7882870](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2016.7882870). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5090-2024-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5090-2024-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5090-2024-9").
13. **[^](#cite_ref-13)**Hsieh, Tseh-Jen; Colvin, Neil (2014). "Improved ion source stability using H2 co-gas for fluoride based dopants". _2014 20th International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 1–4. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2014.6940042](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2014.6940042). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4799-5212-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0").
14. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-auto3_14-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-auto3_14-1)[https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Production-Worthy-Al-beams-for-SiC-Applications.pdf](https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Production-Worthy-Al-beams-for-SiC-Applications.pdf)\[ _[bare URL PDF](/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs "Wikipedia:Bare URLs")_\]
15. **[^](#cite_ref-15)**[https://www.semitracks.com/newsletters/march/2012-march-newsletter.pdf](https://www.semitracks.com/newsletters/march/2012-march-newsletter.pdf)\[ _[bare URL PDF](/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs "Wikipedia:Bare URLs")_\]
16. **[^](#cite_ref-16)**Walther, S.R.; Pedersen, B.O.; McKenna, C.M. (1991). "Ion sources for commercial ion implanter applications". _Conference Record of the 1991 IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference_. pp. 2088–2092. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/PAC.1991.164876](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPAC.1991.164876). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-7803-0135-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-0135-8 "Special:BookSources/0-7803-0135-8").
17. **[^](#cite_ref-17)**Satoh, Shu; Platow, Wilhelm; Kondratenko, Serguei; Rubin, Leonard; Mayfield, Patrick; Lessard, Ron; Bonacorsi, Genise; Jen, Causon; Whalen, Paul; Newman, Russ (10 January 2023). "Purion XEmax, Axcelis ultra-high energy implanter with Boost™ technology". _MRS Advances_. **7** (36): 1490–1494. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1557/s43580-022-00442-9](https://doi.org/10.1557%2Fs43580-022-00442-9).
18. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-auto_18-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-auto_18-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-auto_18-2)Glavish, Hilton; Farley, Marvin (2018). "Review of Major Innovations in Beam Line Design". _2018 22nd International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 9–18. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2018.8807986](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2018.8807986). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5386-6828-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-6828-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-6828-3").
19. **[^](#cite_ref-19)**[_Fundamentals of Semiconductor Manufacturing and Process Control_](https://books.google.com/books?id=OfJuCh5hCcEC&dq=ion+implanter+neutral+beam+trap&pg=PA57). John Wiley & Sons. 26 May 2006. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-471-79027-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-79027-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-79027-3").
20. **[^](#cite_ref-20)**Hsieh, Tseh-Jen; Colvin, Neil (2014). "Improved ion source stability using H2 co-gas for fluoride based dopants". _2014 20th International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 1–4. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2014.6940042](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2014.6940042). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4799-5212-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0").
21. **[^](#cite_ref-21)**Hamm, Robert W.; Hamm, Marianne E. (2012). _Industrial Accelerators and Their Applications_. World Scientific. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-981-4307-04-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4307-04-8 "Special:BookSources/978-981-4307-04-8").
22. **[^](#cite_ref-22)**Takahashi, Naoya; Itoi, Suguru; Nakashima, Yoshiki; Zhao, Weijiang; Onoda, Hiroshi; Sakai, Shigeki (2015). "High temperature ion implanter for SiC and Si devices". _2015 15th International Workshop on Junction Technology (IWJT)_. pp. 6–7. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IWJT.2015.7467062](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIWJT.2015.7467062). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-4-8634-8517-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-8634-8517-4 "Special:BookSources/978-4-8634-8517-4").
23. **[^](#cite_ref-23)**[_Ion Implantation: Basics to Device Fabrication_](https://books.google.com/books?id=vqUSBwAAQBAJ&dq=hot+ion+implantation&pg=PA152). Springer. 27 November 2013. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4615-2259-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4615-2259-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4615-2259-1").
24. **[^](#cite_ref-24)**Sinclair, Frank; Olson, Joe; Rodier, Dennis; Eidukonis, Alex; Thanigaivelan, Thirumal; Todorov, Stan (2014). "VIISta 900 3D: Advanced medium current implanter". _2014 20th International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology (IIT)_. pp. 1–4. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.2014.6940037](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.2014.6940037). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4799-5212-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5212-0").
25. **[^](#cite_ref-25)**Kachurin, G.A.; Tyschenko, I.E.; Fedina, L.I. (May 1992). "High-temperature ion implantation in silicon". _Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms_. **68** (1–4): 323–330. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [1992NIMPB..68..323K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992NIMPB..68..323K). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/0168-583X(92)96103-6](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0168-583X%2892%2996103-6).
26. **[^](#cite_ref-26)**Renau, Anthony (2010). "Device performance and yield — A new focus for ion implantation". _2010 International Workshop on Junction Technology Extended Abstracts_. pp. 1–6. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IWJT.2010.5475003](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIWJT.2010.5475003). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4244-5866-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-5866-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-5866-0").
27. **[^](#cite_ref-27)**Olson, J.C.; Renau, A.; Buff, J. (1998). "Scanned beam uniformity control in the VIISta 810 ion implanter". _1998 International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology. Proceedings (Cat. No.98EX144)_. Vol. 1. pp. 169–172. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1109/IIT.1999.812079](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIIT.1999.812079). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-7803-4538-X](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-4538-X "Special:BookSources/0-7803-4538-X").
28. **[^](#cite_ref-28)**["Beam scanning control device for ion implantation system"](https://patents.google.com/patent/US4494005A/en).
29. **[^](#cite_ref-29)**[https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/IntroducingThePurionH\_Vanderberg\_FINAL.pdf](https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/IntroducingThePurionH_Vanderberg_FINAL.pdf)\[ _[bare URL PDF](/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs "Wikipedia:Bare URLs")_\]
30. **[^](#cite_ref-30)**Turner, N. (1983). "Comparison of Beam Scanning Systems". _Ion Implantation: Equipment and Techniques_. pp. 126–142. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1007/978-3-642-69156-0\_15](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-69156-0_15). [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-642-69158-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-69158-4 "Special:BookSources/978-3-642-69158-4").
31. **[^](#cite_ref-31)**Current, Michael & Rubin, Leonard & Sinclair, Frank. (2018). Commercial Ion Implantation Systems.
32. **[^](#cite_ref-32)**Armini, A. J.; Bunker, S. N.; Spitzer, M. B. (1982). _Non-mass-analyzed ion implantation equipment for high volume solar cell production_. 16th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference. pp. 895–899. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [1982pvsp.conf..895A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982pvsp.conf..895A).
33. **[^](#cite_ref-33)**Landis, G. A.; Armini, A. J.; Greenwald, A. C.; Kiesling, R. A. (1981). "Apparatus and technique for pulsed electron beam annealing for solar cell production". _15th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference_: 976–980. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [1981pvsp.conf..976L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981pvsp.conf..976L).
34. **[^](#cite_ref-34)**Saga, Tatsuo (July 2010). "Advances in crystalline silicon solar cell technology for industrial mass production". _NPG Asia Materials_. **2** (3): 96–102. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1038/asiamat.2010.82](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fasiamat.2010.82).
35. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Hunt_35-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Hunt_35-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Hunt_35-2) [_**d**_](#cite_ref-Hunt_35-3)Hunt, Eden; Hampikian, Janet (1999). "Ion implantation-induced nanoscale particle formation in Al2O3 and SiO2 via reduction". _Acta Materialia_. **47** (5): 1497–1511. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [1999AcMat..47.1497H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AcMat..47.1497H). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/S1359-6454(99)00028-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1359-6454%2899%2900028-2).
36. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Hunt2_36-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Hunt2_36-1)Hunt, Eden; Hampikian, Janet (April 2001). "Implantation parameters affecting aluminum nano-particle formation in alumina". _Journal of Materials Science_. **36** (8): 1963–1973. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1023/A:1017562311310](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1017562311310). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [134817579](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134817579).
37. **[^](#cite_ref-37)**Hunt, Eden; Hampikian, Janet. ["Method for ion implantation induced embedded particle formation via reduction"](http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6294223.PN.&OS=PN/6294223&RS=PN/6294223). _uspto.gov_. USPTO. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
38. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Werner_38-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Werner_38-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Werner_38-2)Werner, Z.; Pisarek, M.; Barlak, M.; Ratajczak, R.; Starosta, W.; Piekoszewski, J.; Szymczyk, W.; Grotzschel, R. (2009). "Chemical effects in Zr- and Co-implanted sapphire". _Vacuum_. **83**: S57–S60. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2009Vacuu..83S..57W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Vacuu..83S..57W). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/j.vacuum.2009.01.022](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.vacuum.2009.01.022).
39. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Alves_39-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Alves_39-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Alves_39-2) [_**d**_](#cite_ref-Alves_39-3) [_**e**_](#cite_ref-Alves_39-4)Alves, E.; Marques, C.; da Silva, R.C.; Monteiro, T.; Soares, J.; McHargue, C.; Ononye, L.C.; Allard, L.F (2003). "Structural and optical studies of Co and Ti implanted sapphire". _Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms_. **207** (1): 55–62. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2003NIMPB.207...55A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NIMPB.207...55A). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/S0168-583X(03)00522-6](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-583X%2803%2900522-6).
40. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Xiang_40-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Xiang_40-1)Xiang, X; Zu, X T; Zhu, S; Wei, Q M; Zhang, C F; Sun, K; Wang, L M (28 May 2006). "ZnO nanoparticles embedded in sapphire fabricated by ion implantation and annealing". _Nanotechnology_. **17** (10): 2636–2640. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2006Nanot..17.2636X](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Nanot..17.2636X). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1088/0957-4484/17/10/032](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0957-4484%2F17%2F10%2F032). [hdl](/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[2027.42/49223](https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F49223). [PMID](/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [21727517](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21727517).
41. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Mota-Santiago_41-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Mota-Santiago_41-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Mota-Santiago_41-2)Mota-Santiago, Pablo-Ernesto; Crespo-Sosa, Alejandro; Jimenez-Hernandez, Jose-Luis; Silva-Pereyra, Hector-Gabriel; Reyes-Esqueda, Jorge-Alejandro; Oliver, Alicia (2012). "Size characterisation of noble-metal nano-crystals formed in sapphire by ion irradiation and subsequent thermal annealing". _Applied Surface Science_. **259**: 574–581. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2012ApSS..259..574M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApSS..259..574M). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.06.114](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apsusc.2012.06.114).
42. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Stepanov_42-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Stepanov_42-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Stepanov_42-2)Stepanov, A. L.; Marques, C.; Alves, E.; da Silva, R. C.; Silva, M. R.; Ganeev, R. A.; Ryasnyansky, A. I.; Usmanov, T. (2005). "Nonlinear optical properties of gold nanoparticles synthesized by ion implantation in sapphire matrix". _Technical Physics Letters_. **31** (8): 702–705. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2005TePhL..31..702S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005TePhL..31..702S). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1134/1.2035371](https://doi.org/10.1134%2F1.2035371). [S2CID](/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [123688388](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123688388).
43. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-McHargue_43-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-McHargue_43-1)McHargue, C.J.; Ren, S.X.; Hunn, J.D (1998). "Nanometer-size dispersions of iron in sapphire prepared by ion implantation and annealing". _Materials Science and Engineering: A_. **253** (1): 1–7. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/S0921-5093(98)00722-9](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-5093%2898%2900722-9).
44. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Xiang2_44-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Xiang2_44-1)Xiang, X.; Zu, X. T.; Zhu, S.; Wang, L. M. (2004). "Optical properties of metallic nanoparticles in Ni-ion-implanted α-Al2O3 single crystals". _Applied Physics Letters_. **84** (1): 52–54. [Bibcode](/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"): [2004ApPhL..84...52X](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApPhL..84...52X). [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1063/1.1636817](https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1636817).
45. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Sharma_45-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Sharma_45-1)Sharma, S. K.; Pujari, P. K. (2017). "Embedded Si nanoclusters in α-alumina synthesized by ion implantation: An investigation using depth dependent Doppler broadening spectroscopy". _Journal of Alloys and Compounds_. **715**: 247–253. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.04.285](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jallcom.2017.04.285).
46. ^ [_**a**_](#cite_ref-Xiang3_46-0) [_**b**_](#cite_ref-Xiang3_46-1) [_**c**_](#cite_ref-Xiang3_46-2)Xiang, X; Zu, X T; Zhu, S; Wang, L M; Shutthanandan, V; Nachimuthu, P; Zhang, Y (21 November 2008). "Photoluminescence of SnO 2 nanoparticles embedded in Al 2 O 3". _Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics_. **41** (22): 225102. [doi](/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"): [10.1088/0022-3727/41/22/225102](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0022-3727%2F41%2F22%2F225102). [hdl](/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[2027.42/64215](https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F64215).
47. **[^](#cite_ref-47)**Ohring, Milton (2002). _Materials science of thin films : deposition and structure_ (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [9780125249751](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780125249751 "Special:BookSources/9780125249751"). [OCLC](/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [162575935](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/162575935).

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