Time Management: 7 Techniques & 3 Tools to Help Clients
We'll discuss seven core components of time management and how to apply these, along with useful tools and recommended readings for your client's daily life.
Perfectionism
Being overly concerned with a perfect product/outcome can quickly derail the best-laid plans. <anchor>Perfectionism</anchor> is a maladaptive behavior characterized by extreme self-criticism, fear of making mistakes, self-doubt, and impossible standards (Rice et al., 2012).
What Is Perfectionism According to Psychology? 7 Examples
What Is Perfectionism According to Psychology? 7 Examples

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# What Is Perfectionism According to Psychology? 7 Examples

**24 Sep 2021** by **[Jeremy Sutton, Ph.D.](https://positivepsychology.com/team/jeremy-sutton/)**

Scientifically reviewed by **[Jo Nash, Ph.D.](https://positivepsychology.com/team/jo-nash/)**

![Perfectionism](https://positive.b-cdn.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Perfectionism-300x150.jpeg)At one time or another, haven’t we all sought perfection?

A perfect score on a test, a flawless presentation, or the ultimate date.

While aiming for the best can be helpful, _perfectionism_ as a trait can be damaging, putting us at risk of mental and physical illness (Thomson, 2019).

Perfectionism is a complex characteristic that according to experts, can be “adaptive (healthy, positive, functional) or maladaptive (unhealthy, negative, dysfunctional)” (Stoeber, 2018, p. 22.)

This article explores the drives and concerns associated with perfectionism, along with theories that offer insight into this fascinating personality trait.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to [download our three Productivity Exercises for free](https://pro.positivepsychology.com/opt-in/3-free-productivity-tools/). These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients become more productive and efficient.

## This Article Contains:

- [What Is Perfectionism? 7 Examples](#examples)
- [10+ Traits and Symptoms of Perfectionists](#traits)
- [Causes of Perfectionism: 3 Psychology Theories](#theories)
- [Can Perfectionism Be Dysfunctional?](#dysfunctional)
- [Perfectionism, Fear of Failure, & Procrastination](#procrastination)
- [Link Between Burnout and Perfectionism](#link)
- [Resources From PositivePsychology.com](#resources)
- [A Take-Home Message](#home)
- [References](#references)

## What Is Perfectionism? 7 Examples

We are constantly subject to evaluation, criticism, correction, and rewards throughout our lives. Society repeatedly tells us we have or have not done well (Antony & Swinson, 2009).

Not only do we experience increasing demands from the _outside_, but “many people feel pressure from within to succeed or perform at a certain level” (Antony & Swinson, 2009, p. 16). Such expectations and the apparent need for perfection can be exhausting and, over time, damaging.

While it is not wrong to wish to improve performance and meet high standards, it is not always helpful to view anything that falls short of perfection as unacceptable.

After all, “perfectionism is a common personality trait that can affect all domains of life” (Stoeber, 2018, p. 27.) It is also complex and multidimensional, having positive and negative effects on who we are and how we think, feel, and behave.

While setting high standards and aiming for success can help us deliver on our goals and improve performance, _perfectionism_ can drive us toward impossible expectations (Thomson, 2019).

### Examples of perfectionism

Alice Boyes (2020) suggests perfectionism has the potential to limit productivity in the workplace:

- _Reluctance to prioritize_ can mean it is difficult to assign some tasks to the “unimportant” pile. Perfectionists typically want to control everything and can find it hard to let go of minor details and the non-essential in order to focus on what is needed.
- _Obligation to over-deliver_ can result in the continual need to beat expectations and excel at everything. This persistent expectation is linked to feelings of anxiety, a lack of confidence, and the nagging doubt of imposter syndrome.
- _Avoidance of failure_ can prevent perfectionists from starting positive habits (paralysis by analysis) or striving for a goal unless 100% sure of success. Where certainty is lacking, taking no steps can seem preferable to the possibility of failing.

Psychologists often consider perfectionism along two dimensions – strivings and concerns – creating a two-factor model (Stoeber, 2018; Antony & Swinson, 2009):

- _Perfectionist strivings_ are a combination of (exceedingly) high personal standards that perfectionists set themselves:

  - _Self-oriented perfectionism_ (setting impossibly high standards for yourself)
  - _Other-oriented perfectionism_ (setting impossibly high expectations for others)
  - _Socially prescribed perfectionism_ (assuming others have expectations of you that are impossible to meet)
- _Perfectionist concerns_ combine fears and worries over making mistakes. They focus perfectionists’ attention on endless doubts about almost everything, from actions taken, parental expectations, and criticism to socially prescribed demands.

There are also important aspects of perfectionism to consider outside of the two-factor model. Two further examples include the following (Stoeber, 2018):

- _Perfectionist self-presentation_ is essential to adjustment and maladjustment, and affects the therapeutic process and interpersonal relationships.

Such self-presentation involves two aims:

- _Promoting_ the impression of being perfect (promotion focused)
- _Preventing_ the impression of being less than perfect (prevention focused)
- _Perfectionist cognitions_ are automatic thoughts that reflect the need for perfection. Such automatic and involuntary thinking can stop decision making and delay actions.

![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20700%20700'%3E%3C/svg%3E)

## World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

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_“The best positive psychology resource out there!”_

— **Emiliya Zhivotovskaya**, Flourishing Center CEO

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## 10+ Traits and Symptoms of Perfectionists

“Personality traits are stable characteristics that make people who they are” and “affect behavior across situations and over time” (Antony & Swinson, 2009, p. 20).

While there are several ways to define and describe perfectionism, most theories identify the following three features (or traits) of perfectionists (Antony & Swinson, 2009):

1. Adopting standards that are extremely difficult or impossible to meet.
2. Setting expectations so high that they damage, rather than enhance, their performance.
3. The presence other mental health problems, including depression and anxiety.

### Symptoms of perfectionism

![Symptoms of Perfectionists](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20300%20150'%3E%3C/svg%3E)Unreasonably high standards and expectations can be harmful throughout our lives, damaging enjoyment and performance and preventing engagement across many situations, including (Antony & Swinson, 2009):

- _Career and educational performance_


Perfectionists at work and in school settings often set overly strict standards for themselves and others, leading to too much time measuring and assessing, and resulting in delays and missed deadlines.

Perfectionist managers may become angry when an employee arrives late, even when they complete extra hours later in the day. Students who set themselves too high standards may feel depressed unless they are at the top of the class.

- _Neatness and aesthetics_


Extreme neatness and cleaning may leave perfectionists with little time for other activities or may hold them back from beginning an activity if it may leave a mess. An excessive tidiness focus can lead to upset and disagreement at home and outside.
- _Organization_


As with neatness, if things are left disorganized or not set out in a particular way, perfectionists may experience anxiety or react angrily. They may spend hours planning and making lists, yet still failing to engage in the task.
- _Writing_


Sending emails, filling in forms, completing assignments, and even writing in a card may be delayed due to fear of making mistakes, making the process of writing tortuous.
- _Self-consciousness in speaking_


Perfectionists may be overly self-conscious regarding what they say and how they say it, and may be unduly concerned with incorrectly pronouncing words.
- _Physical appearance_


People with perfectionist standards can set impossibly high standards regarding their hair, clothes, weight, and body image. Individuals may be late for work, prioritizing their time on finding the perfect outfit.
- _Cleanliness_


Perfectionist behavior may focus too much on health and wellbeing. Health-obsessed individuals may be concerned about touching anything or eating something they haven’t prepared, and frequently visit the doctor.

Ultimately, for people with impossibly high standards, only the impeccable can be accepted. Failing to reach this level can be so devastating it may not be worth trying to succeed at all (New Scientist, 2019).

![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20500%20500'%3E%3C/svg%3E)

## Download 3 Free Productivity Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients with tools to do their deepest, most productive work.

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## Causes of Perfectionism: 3 Psychology Theories

Next, we explore several popular and important theories in psychology and use them to understand the precursors to perfectionism (Stoeber, 2018).

We begin with summaries of _attachment theory, person-centered theory,_ and _self psychology_ before examining their impact on how we acquire perfectionism (modified from Stoeber, 2018):

- _Attachment theory_

[Attachment theory](https://positivepsychology.com/attachment-theory/) provides a practical and compelling view of the effect of an individual’s early environment on personality development, including self-regulation and performance.

Attachment theory suggests that during times of threat, we seek support from caregivers. A lack of care or neglect leads to insecure attachment and a reduced capacity for emotional regulation and support seeking.

The models we form early in life are carried forward to adulthood, impacting coping and interpersonal behaviors (Stoeber, 2018).

- _Person-centered theory_

[Carl Rogers](https://positivepsychology.com/rogers-actualizing-tendency/) (1959) suggested that people have a natural drive to actualize their potential, and as part of this, they “have an innate sense of what will help or hurt their ability to actualize themselves” (Stoeber, 2018, p. 245).

Initially, all experiences are unitary; then, over time and because of interaction with caregivers, children discriminate between _what is me_ and _not me_. Children become aware that self-value and [positive regard](https://positivepsychology.com/unconditional-positive-regard/) often depend on others’ acceptance and meeting their performance expectations.

- _Self psychology_


Kohut and Wolf (1978) propose that a [child’s self-esteem](https://positivepsychology.com/self-esteem-for-children/) and self-development are dependent on how parents meet their needs. Specifically, children must experience caregivers’ admiration (empathic mirroring) and regard them in an idealized, all-powerful way.

Any disruptions to this process provide the child with the opportunity to self-soothe and strengthen their sense of self (Kohut & Wolf, 1978; Stoeber, 2018, p. 245).

According to Kenneth Rice, Hanna Suh, and Don Davis (cited in Stoeber, 2018), the three theories above provide the basis for understanding the early origins, development, and maintenance of perfectionism.

Parents providing supportive and reliable environments “help children develop high but realistic standards and corresponding views of themselves as worthy and confident, and views of others as trustworthy and confident” (Stoeber, 2018, p. 247).

Positive settings that lead to healthy, adaptive perfectionism include (Stoeber, 2018):

- Dependable and stable relationships with parents and parental expectations that are both reasonable and clear
- Parents who encourage performance, yet whose love is unconditional on how children perform
- Parents who respond supportively and with encouragement

On the other hand, maladaptive perfectionism results from the opposite or lack of the above:

- Parents are inconsistent or unclear (to their children) regarding their expectations.
- Children’s performance matters little or not at all to parents.
- The child may fail to experience inherent relational or intrinsic value from their parents.

“Children of such parents may learn to emphasize the importance of their performance over and above their emotional needs” (Stoeber, 2018, p. 247).

Striving for perfection and ignoring emotional needs can be a ‘logical’ consequence of unsupportive home environments, while the child attempts to maintain recognition or avoid criticism.

Perfectionism may emerge to self-soothe children who live with either few and unclear expectations or far too many, excessively detailed ones (Stoeber, 2018).

## Can Perfectionism Be Dysfunctional?

![OCD & perfectionism](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20300%20150'%3E%3C/svg%3E)While perfectionism can have a positive, adaptive side, driving development and growth, it can also be dysfunctional.

When excessively high and demanding standards perpetuate, they can affect mental and physical wellbeing, relationships, and careers (Antony & Swinson, 2009).

### Is perfectionism bad?

“Perfect performance, flawlessness, and the perfect body are revered in sport, dance, and exercise” and have led to incredible performances and achievements (Stoeber, 2018, p. 155).

While perfectionism in any activity requiring discipline and prolonged focus can have its benefits and deliver success, at other times (even in those same individuals), it can damage motivation and directly lead to failure (Stoeber, 2018).

### OCD & perfectionism

The link between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and perfection is well documented. Perfectionists are more likely to engage in excessive ordering, washing, sanitizing, and checking, often linked to a need for certainty (Martinelli, Chasson, Wetterneck, Hart, & Björgvinsson, 2014).

### Depression & perfectionism

People with a higher degree of perfectionism are more prone to developing depression, particularly during stressful episodes. In education, this could include exam time, and in the workplace, when project timescales slip (Antony & Swinson, 2009).

If the stress persists, _self-oriented perfectionists_ are more likely to be depressed a year later. On the other hand, through reducing expectations and learning to accept lower standards, the effects of depression can subside (Antony & Swinson, 2009).

Video

### Perfectionism holds us back. Here’s why – Charly Haversat

## Perfectionism, Fear of Failure, & Procrastination

[Procrastination](https://positivepsychology.com/psychology-procrastination/) is common among perfectionists (Stoeber, 2018). Along with tackling other counterproductive behaviors, therapists may suggest that clients self-monitor behavior and thoughts linked to procrastination, such as obstructing or delaying tasks.

Perfectionistic concerns generate a gap between a person’s actual and ideal self. This sense of falling short leads them to put off until tomorrow what they could get done today (Smith, Sherry, Saklofske, & Mushqaush, 2017).

Other studies, particularly in sports, have found that perfectionists are also more likely to experience a [fear of failure](https://positivepsychology.com/fear-of-failure/) (Correia, 2018). Procrastination may be a response to concerns regarding making mistakes or performing poorly.

## Link Between Burnout and Perfectionism

![Perfectionism and burnout](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20300%20150'%3E%3C/svg%3E) [Burnout](https://positivepsychology.com/burnout/) is a “psychosocial syndrome that is associated with motivational, performance, and psychological difficulties” and has three core symptoms (Hill & Curran, 2015, p. 1):

1. _Emotional exhaustion_


A general feeling of being overstretched due to excessive demands.
2. _Impersonal or cynical attitude_


A sense of indifference or detachment from others or the environment.
3. _Reduced sense of competence or accomplishment_


The higher the sense of incompetence or failure, the more burned out the individual.

Perfectionism gets in the way of successfully managing our workload and can sometimes be a factor in burnout. Excessively high standards may mean perfectionists are less successful at delegating, prioritizing, and even saying no, leading to a higher volume of tasks (Harvard Business Review, 2021).

Possibly because of its negative effect on motivation, perfectionism is associated with burnout and its symptoms (Hill & Curran, 2015).

As such, when exploring the factors affecting burnout in a client, it may be worthwhile identifying their degree of perfectionism.

![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20700%20700'%3E%3C/svg%3E)

## World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

_The Positive Psychology Toolkit©_ is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing **over 500 science-based exercises**, activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

Updated monthly. 100% Science-based.

_“The best positive psychology resource out there!”_

— **Emiliya Zhivotovskaya**, Flourishing Center CEO

[Get Instant Access](https://pro.positivepsychology.com/sale-page/positive-psychology-toolkit/)

## Resources From PositivePsychology.com

The following resources help clients become more aware of their personality traits through mindfulness and self-reflection. Other tools help them find calm and peace, and can help with excessive life demands experienced by those with perfectionist tendencies.

- _Perfectionist Beliefs ‘Flexibility’ Self-Assessment_

[This short assessment](https://positive.b-cdn.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Perfectionist-Beliefs-%E2%80%98Flexibility-Self-Assessment.pdf) presents a series of questions to help clients identify areas where their thinking is rigid and instances when they might benefit from relaxing perfectionist tendencies.
- _Countdown to Calmness_

[This mindfulness exercise](https://positive.b-cdn.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Countdown-to-Calmness.pdf) invites clients to use all five senses to ground themselves, induce calm, and mindfully accept things the way they are.
- _Compassionate Chair Work_


This exercise, available to download for free via our [Positive Psychology Exercise pack](https://pro.positivepsychology.com/opt-in/3-free-pp-tools/), draws on the [principles of schema therapy](https://positivepsychology.com/schema-therapy-questionnaires-tests/) to help clients learn to relate differently to their inner critical voice. It involves the client moving between two chairs as they dialogue between different parts of themselves in an attempt to better understand how they work together, conflict, and feel when experienced in the present.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others become more productive and efficient, [this collection contains 17 validated productivity and work efficiency exercises](https://pro.positivepsychology.com/product/17-productivity-work-efficiency-exercises/). Use them to help others prioritize better, eliminate time wasters, maximize their personal energy, and more.

## A Take-Home Message

Seeking high standards or reaching for our ultimate achievements can motivate and encourage us to be and do our very best. Yet too much, too often can damage our wellbeing, potentially leading to burnout, depression, and poor motivation.

Our degree of perfectionism may be formed early in our lives, most likely in response to correction, criticism, rewards, and support. Our caregivers’ reaction to our efforts and their degree of encouragement can either lead to high but realistic standards or an emphasis on performance at the cost of our emotional needs.

Perfectionism can have far-reaching impacts, from education, work, and pastimes, to maintaining relationships.

Ultimately, excessive perfectionism can be exhausting, pushing us to our limits and leaving us emotionally drained or unable to complete what is needed when it is required.

Take time to review the article. Consider whether your stressed or burned-out client is experiencing the consequences of perfectionism. Check out our article on [how to overcome perfectionism](https://positivepsychology.com/how-to-overcome-perfectionism/), and ask yourself how it would be possible to set more realistic standards and achievable goals with them. Having a more balanced outlook and expectations is likely to improve their lives and relationships with others.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to [download our three Productivity Exercises for free](https://pro.positivepsychology.com/opt-in/3-free-productivity-tools/).

References

- Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (2009). _When perfect isn’t good enough: Strategies for coping with perfectionism_. New Harbinger.
- Boyes, A. (2020). _Don’t let perfection be the enemy of productivity_. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved August 24, 2021, from https://hbr.org/2020/03/dont-let-perfection-be-the-enemy-of-productivity
- Correia, M. E. (2018). Fear of failure and perfectionism in sport. _Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte_, _18_(1), 161–172.
- Harvard Business Review. (2021). _HBR guide to beating burnout_. Harvard Business Review Press.
- Hill, A. P., & Curran, T. (2015). Multidimensional perfectionism and burnout. _Personality and Social Psychology Review_, _20_(3), 269–288.
- Kohut, H., & Wolf, E. S. (1978). The disorders of the self and their treatment: An outline. _International Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, _59_, 413–425.
- Martinelli, M., Chasson, G. S., Wetterneck, C. T., Hart, J. M., & Björgvinsson, T. (2014). Perfectionism dimensions as predictors of symptom dimensions of obsessive-compulsive disorder. _Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic_, _78_(2), 140–159.
- New Scientist. (2019, August 14). _Our obsession with perfection is damaging individuals and society_. Retrieved August 24, 2021, from https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24332433-200-our-obsession-with-perfection-is-damaging-individuals-and-society/
- Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships: As developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), _Psychology: A study of a science: Vol. 3. Formulations of the person and the social context_ (pp. 184–256). McGraw-Hill.
- Smith, M. M., Sherry, S. B., Saklofske, D. H., & Mushqaush, A. R. (2017). Clarifying the perfectionism-procrastination relationship using a 7-day, 14-occasion daily diary study. _Personality and Individual Differences_, _112_, 117–123.
- Stoeber, J. (2018). _The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications_. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
- Thomson, H. (2019). _The misunderstood personality trait that is causing anxiety and stress_. New Scientist. Retrieved August 24, 2021, from https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24332430-600-the-misunderstood-personality-trait-that-is-causing-anxiety-and-stress/

About the author

[Jeremy Sutton, Ph.D.](https://positivepsychology.com/team/jeremy-sutton/), is an experienced psychologist, consultant, and coach. Jeremy also teaches psychology online at the University of Liverpool and works as a coach and educator, specialising in positive psychology, performance psychology, sports psychology, and strength-based psychology.

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