Biomarkers are needed to identify at-risk individuals, stage their disease, and track disease progression. Such biomarkers should be noninvasive, inexpensive, and simple to acquire. Neurodegeneration biomarkers in CSF include neurofilament light (NfL), Chitinase 3-like protein 1 (CHI3L1). NfL for example increases in several neurologic conditions, including AD. In addition, NfL can be detected in serum using standard immunoassay formats. Higher CSF levels of CHI3L1 are seen in patients with neurological disorders such as MS patients experiencing relapses of MS. In addition, C-X-C motif chemokine 13 (CXCL13) is a crucial homeostatic chemokine expressed in lymphoid organs, and it is essential for the recruitment and compartmentalization of lymphocytes. In MS, CXCL13 regulates homing of B cells and subsets of T cells to inflammatory foci in CNS by interacting with the CXCR5 receptor. The levels of CXCL13 are elevated in the CSF of patients with MS compared to healthy controls, as well as in other neuroinflammatory diseases. CXCL13 may be considered a CSF biomarker of intrathecal B cell response, as its levels correlate with the count of B cells, the IgG index, and the presence and OCBs in the CSF.~Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) assesses several cortical properties such as excitability, plasticity, and connectivity in humans. TMS has been applied to patients with dementia, enabling the identification of potential markers of the pathophysiology and predictors of cognitive decline; moreover, applied repetitively, TMS holds promise as a potential therapeutic intervention.
Dementia is a neurological disease that causes cognitive and behavioral impairments that could ultimately interfere with the ability to function at work or to do the usual daily activities. It is recognized as a healthcare and social burden and remains challenging in terms of proper diagnosis and treatment.