
## Demand For Grants 2023-24 Analysis Jal Shakti

The Ministry of Jal Shakti is responsible for the development of India's water resources, and providing quality drinking water and sanitation facilities to all citizens.1,2  The Ministry was formed in 2019, by merging the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation into the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation.  The Ministry has two departments, both continuing from the erstwhile Ministries which were incorporated into the Ministry of Jal Shakti.3   
This note looks at the proposed expenditure for the Ministry of Jal Shakti for 2023-24, financial trends, and related issues with schemes and programmes of the Ministry.   

## Union Budget Highlights 2023-24

The Ministry of Jal Shakti has been allocated Rs 97,278 crore in 2023-24.4,5  The Department of Water Resources has been allocated Rs 20,055 crore, 43% higher than the revised estimates of the previous year. The Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation has been allocated Rs 77,223 crore, which is a 29% increase over the revised estimates of 2022-23.  

Shakti (in Rs crore) 
% 
Department 
21-22 
Actuals 
22-23 
BE 
22-23 
RE 
23-24 
BE 
Change* 
Water Resources 
17,215  
18,968  
  14,000  
  20,055  
43% 
  66,252  
  67,221  
  60,029  
  77,223  
29% 
Drinking Water and Sanitation Total 
 83,467  
  86,189  
 74,029  
  97,278  
31% 

Note: BE is budget estimate and RE is revised estimate. *% change is change in 2023-24 BE over 2022-23 RE. Sources: Demands for Grants 2023-24, Ministry of Jal Shakti; PRS.  

## Department Of Drinking Water And Sanitation Overview Of Finances

The Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation aims to ensure that every citizen has access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities.2  The Department has been allocated Rs 77,223 crore for 2023-24, a 29% increase over the revised estimates of 2022-23.  From 2013-14, budgetary allocation to the department has grown by about 18%.  However, a significant increase was seen in 2021-22, when the budgetary allocation was more than three times the revised estimates of the previous year.  From 2019-20, the focus of expenditure by the Department shifted from sanitation to drinking water.  
Niranjana S Menon niranjana@prsindia.org 
3rd Floor, Gandharva Mahavidyalaya  212, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Marg  New Delhi - 110002 
Tel: (011) 43434035, 23234801  www.prsindia.org  

Major schemes under the Department 
The Department implements two major schemes: (i) the 
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), and (ii) the Swachh Bharat 
Mission - Gramin (SBM-G).  JJM aims to provide 
drinking water through tap connections to every 
household by 2024.2  It also promotes grey water (used 
water) management, water conservation, and rain water 
harvesting.  The Swachh Bharat Mission was launched 
as a nation-wide campaign to achieve universal 
sanitation coverage by 2019.  91% of the budgetary 
allocation for the department in 2023-24 is for the JJM, 
and 9% for SBM-G. 

Drinking Water and Sanitation (in Rs crore) 
% change  
(23-24 BE/22-
Major Head 
21-22 
Actual 
22-23 
RE 
23-24 
BE 
23 RE) 
JJM 
63,126  
55,000  
70,000  
27% 
SBM-G 
3,099  
5,000  
7,192  
44% 
Others 
27  
       29  
        31  
6% 
Total 
66,252  
60,029  
77,223 
29%  

Source: Demands for Grants of the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, 2023-24; PRS.  

## Key Issues And Analysis Jal Jeevan Mission

JJM was launched in 2019, subsuming the National 
Rural Drinking Water Programme, to provide a 
Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) to 
every rural household (16 crore families).6,7  The 15th 
Finance Commission allocated funds of Rs 2.36 lakh 
crore to rural local bodies to improve water supply and 
sanitation.  60% of the fund (Rs 1.42 lakh crore) is to 
be used exclusively for drinking water, rainwater 
harvesting, and sanitation facilities.  The total estimated 
outlay of JJM is Rs 3.6 lakh crore between 2019 and 
2024.7  As on February 16, 2023, total expenditure on 
the scheme is Rs 1.3 lakh crore.8    

 

There was a significant increase (335%) in allocations to drinking water in 2021-22, due to increased allocation to JJM.  For the financial year 2023-24, the JJM has been allocated Rs 70,000 crore, 27% more than the revised estimates of 2022-23. JJM was launched with the aim of providing all households in the country (19.4 crore) access to FHTCs by 2024.7  3.2 crore households had tap water connections when the scheme was launched.  As of February 14, 2023, 7.9 crore households have been provided FHTCs under the scheme.  11.2 crore (57.56%) households in total have tap water connections as of February 14, 2023.9   

% of 
Month 
Number of households provided with FHTC (in crores) 
households 
with FHTCs 
August 2019 
3.2 
17% 
August 2020 
5.3 
27% 
August 2021 
8.1 
42% 
August 2022 
10.1 
52% 
February 2023 
11.2 
58% 

Source: JJM Dashboard, accessed on February 14, 2023; PRS 
State governments have flagged several bottlenecks which delay fund utilisation and implementation of JJM.10  These include: (i) uneven geographical terrain, (ii) scattered rural habitations, (iii) depletion of groundwater, (iv) adverse climatic conditions, (v) fluctuating prices of materials, and (vi) delays in obtaining clearances.  The 15th Finance Commission had noted that more than 63% of rural habitations received piped water from groundwater sources.11  This adds pressure to India's over-stressed ground water resources.  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns also delayed the achievement of targets.  

## Inter-State Disparities In Achievements

The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2022) noted that several states and UTs had achieved 90%- 100% household coverage under JJM.10  However, they also noted that several larger states, such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Kerala provided less than 40% of their households FHTCs. The Department identified 13 major states which had more than 95% of households which did not have FHTCs.  The issues that these states face in implementing JJM include10: (i) depletion of ground water, (ii) inability to contribute the state's share in a timely manner, and (iii) insufficient contributions by the local community. 

The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2022) 
noted that thousands of rural habitations in the country 
had contaminated water sources.14  Arsenic, fluoride, 
iron, nitrate, and heavy metals have contaminated 
drinking water sources in these habitations.  If 
groundwater is harnessed further through the digging of 
deeper wells, chemical contamination of these sources 
could worsen.11 

Under the JJM, states/UTs can install Community 
Water Purification Plants (CWPPs) to provide quality 
water for basic needs of households, as an interim 
measure until tap connections are established.  The 
Committee noted that less than 6% of habitations with 
contaminated water were covered by CWPPs.10  They 
recommended that these habitations be brought under 
the coverage of CWPPs and provided with FHTCs as 
soon as possible to ensure regular supply of quality 
water.      

contaminated water sources 
| Year       | Number of affected habitations    |
|------------|-----------------------------------|
| April 2019 | 57,539                            |
| April 2020 | 54,166                            |
| April 2021 | 36,054                            |
| April 2022 | 27,160                            |
| June 2022  | 26,930                            |

Source: Report No. 19, Standing Committee on Water Resources; PRS.   

## Swachh Bharat Mission - Gramin

SBM-G was launched in 2014 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the aim of achieving universal sanitation coverage by 2019.7  It also focuses on improving cleanliness in rural areas and ending open defecation.  
By October 2019, all villages in the country had been declared open defecation free (ODF).  Phase II of the scheme was launched in 2020, and aims to sustain the ODF status achieved by the country in Phase I, and also cover all villages with solid and liquid waste management.7  A village attains ODF plus status if these criteria are met, and the village is visually clean. As of February 14, 2023, 1.97 lakh villages (33% of all villages) have achieved ODF plus status (see Annexure I).12  1.4 lakh villages have made arrangements for solid waste management, and 1.5 lakh villages have made arrangements for liquid waste management.     
The National Annual Rural Sanitation Survey (2019- 20) found that 6% of rural households did not have access to toilets and practised open defecation.13  Of those families that have access to toilets, 96% were found to have functional toilets.  However, only 73% households had water available within the premises of the house.  The 15th Finance Commission had noted that piped water supply to rural households was necessary if ODF status of villages was to be maintained.11  This highlights the importance of convergence of JJM and SBM-G. 

## Fund Utilisation Worsened In Sbm-G Phase Ii

For the financial year 2023-24, SBM-G has been allocated Rs 7,192 crore.  Budget allocations to SBM-G have reduced by 8% since 2016-17.  Actual expenditure on the scheme has been lower than the budget estimates since 2018-19.  In 2021-22, actual expenditure was 31% of the budget estimate.   

 
Source: Budget documents of various years; PRS. 

The Department informed the Standing Committee of constraints in utilising funds adequately and achieving targets set under the scheme.14  SBM-G Phase II involves interventions under solid and liquid waste management activities, which makes this phase more complex than Phase I.  Implementing agencies and functionaries at various levels lack capacity to undertake these activities.  Existing assets are expected to be utilised for activities under the scheme such as plastic waste management and faecal sludge management.  However, this often requires coordination between rural and urban functionaries.  

## Rs Crore)

| Year              | Funds allocated    |
|-------------------|--------------------|
| Funds released to |                    |
| States/UTs        |                    |
| 2016-17           | 10,500             |
| 2017-18           | 16,948             |
| 2018-19           | 23,176             |
| 2019-20           | 11,938             |
| 2020-21           | 6,000              |
| 2021-22           | 6,000              |
| Total             | 83,938             |

Source: Unstarred Question No. 443, Rajya Sabha, answered on February 6, 2023; PRS. 

## Increase In Unit Assistance

Under SBM-G, financial assistance of Rs 12,000 is 
being given to beneficiaries for the construction of 
individual household latrines (IHHLs).  The Standing 
Committee on Water Resources (2022) noted that this 
amount is grossly insufficient.10  It does not cover the 
cost of construction of toilets, including material and 
labour.  They recommended that the unit assistance be 
increased to Rs 20,000.10  The Department responded 
that the total assistance provided to beneficiaries can be 
increased if states provide additional funds.  Currently, 
the Union government covers 90% of the total cost in 
the north-eastern states, Himalayan states and Jammu 
and Kashmir, and 60% of the cost in other states.  
States have to provide only Rs 1,200 and Rs 4,800 
respectively to these two categories of states/UTs.  The 
Department also suggested that beneficiaries be 
encouraged to contribute their own share to increase 
ownership.10  

## Department Of Water Resources, River Development And Ganga Rejuvenation Overview Of Finances

The Department of Water Resources, River 
Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation aims to achieve 
poverty reduction, environmental sustenance, and 
sustainable economic development, through integrated 
water management.1  It implements schemes for river 
basin management, major irrigation, water resource 
management, and dam maintenance.  It also has 
attached and subordinate offices which provide 
technical guidance on these matters. 

Between 2013-14 and 2023-24, budgetary allocation for the Department has grown at an average annual rate of 25%.  In 2021-22, there was a 110% jump in allocation. This was due to additional expenditure on river interlinking projects and the Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP).  Till 2020-21, the Central share for projects under AIBP was raised through loans from NABARD.  From 2021-22, budgetary support has been provided for AIBP projects, which increased allocations to the Department.15   
various years; PRS. 

Major schemes under the Department In 2023-24, 43% of the total budgetary allocation has been towards the Pradhan Mantri - Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY).  This is followed by the Namami Gange programme (20%), river interlinking (17%), and water resource management (10%).  The Department has been implementing various schemes to conserve water resources, improve their quality, and ensure equitable distribution of water in the country. However, these schemes face similar problems in planning and implementation.  The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2022) and the CAG (2017,2018) have raised issues related to planning and budgeting for several schemes under the Department. Despite funds being allocated, utilisation is poor.17,31,39 Due to these issues, targets remain unmet, or are achieved with significant time and cost overruns.   

% 
Scheme 
21-22 
Actuals 
22-23 
BE 
22-23 
RE 
23-24 
BE 
Change* 
PMKSY 
  8,541  
10,954  
7,085  
8,587 
21% 
Namami 
Gange  
   1,893  
 2,800  
2,500  
4,000 
60% 
River Interlinking 
   4,634  
  1,400  
1,100  
3,500 
218% 
ABY 
     327  
    700  
   700  
1,000 
43% 
CWC 
363 
   411  
  385  
460 
20% 
CGWB 
     262  
     282  
  291  
304 
5% 
DRIP 
        23  
    100  
     25  
50 
100% 

Key Issues and Analysis 

## Ground Water Management

A study conducted by the Central Water Commission estimated the average per capita availability of water in 2011 at 1,545 cubic meters.16  It was estimated to reduce to 1,486 cubic meters by 2021.  Annual per capita water availability less than 1,700 cubic meters is considered a water stressed condition.17  33% of units (blocks/mandals/districts) assessed by the Central Ground Water Board across the country were found to be semi-critical, critical, over-exploited, or completely saline in 2022.18  

Unsustainable agriculture: In 2022, the overall stage 
of India's ground water development was 60%.18  Stage 
of ground water development is the amount of ground 
water being utilised as a proportion of ground water 
recharge.  However, this proportion varies across states.  
Ground water development in Punjab, Rajasthan, 
Haryana, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu 
was more than 100%, implying that ground water 
consumption was higher than the recharge.  The stage 
of ground water development for all state/UTs is given 
in Annexure II.  

The Central Ground Water Board has reported that 87% 
of ground water extracted annually is used for 
irrigation.18  The Standing Committee on Water 
Resources (2022) noted that subsidised electricity and 
fertilisers incentivised farmers to grow water-intensive 
crops even in water scarce regions.17  Rationalising 
electricity prices could discourage farmers from 
overconsumption of water.  They recommended that the 
Department of Water Resources work closely with the 
Ministry of Power, Ministry of Agriculture, and state 
departments to explore efficient electricity pricing.17   

The government supports producers of major food 
crops through its procurement policy.  Some of these 
crops, such as rice and sugarcane, are water intensive.  
The top rice-producing states in 2020-21 were West 
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab.19  The top producers 
of sugarcane were Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and 
Karnataka.  In Uttar Pradesh, ground water in 34% of 
blocks is (semi)-critical or over-exploited.18  In 
Maharashtra, the proportion is 23%.  Water intensive 
crops are grown even in areas which face water 
scarcity, since farmers receive assured prices for these 
crops.  This has adverse effects on the ground water 
level in these areas.  The 15th Finance Commission 
recommended that farmers in water stressed areas 
should be incentivised to adopt methods like drip 
irrigation or shift away from water intensive crops.11 

Atal Bhujal Yojana: Atal Bhujal Yojana was launched 
in 2020 as a Central Sector Scheme, with an outlay of 
Rs 6,000 crore.20  It aims to improve the management 
of ground water resources over five years from 2020-21 
to 2024-25.  The scheme will be implemented in seven 
states, which account for 37% of the water-stressed 
blocks in the country. However, Punjab, which has a 
ground water development of 166% (2022) is excluded 
from the scheme.18  The Ministry has stated that 
participating states were determined based on 
consultation, criticality of ground water, willingness, 
and degree of preparedness.21  

The scheme was allocated Rs 1,000 crore in 2023-24, 
43% more than the budget allocation for 2022-23.  
However, only around 20% of allocated funds have 
been released, and less than 15% of released funds have 
been spent (Table 7).    

 

on Atal Bhujal Yojana (in Rs crore) 
Funds 
State 
Funds 
Allocated 
Released 
Expenditure 
Gujarat 
346 
72 
22 
Haryana 
339 
54 
39 
Karnataka 
421 
2 
14 
Madhya Pradesh 
124 
26 
0 
Maharashtra 
408 
44 
22 
Rajasthan 
508 
67 
11 
Uttar Pradesh 
283 
4 
0 

Source: Atal Bhujal Yojana Dashboard, accessed on February 13, 2023; PRS. 

Yojana in 2022-23 (as of February 16, 2023) 
| Work Undertaken       | Target    | Achievement    |
|-----------------------|-----------|----------------|
| %                     |           |                |
| Achieved              |           |                |
| Training Programmes   | 1,60,055  | 13,606         |
| Digital/Analog Water  |           |                |
| Level Indicators      |           |                |
| 7,410                 | 5,634     | 76%            |
| Rain Gauge            | 7,149     | 1,663          |
| Water Flow Meters     | 64,857    | 2,458          |
| Water Quality Testing |           |                |
| Kit                   |           |                |
| 6,252                 | 2,703     | 43%            |

Note: Targets for equipment refer to the number installed.  Source: Atal Bhujal Yojana Dashboard, accessed on February 17, 2023; PRS. 

Reducing dependence on ground water: The 15th Finance Commission recommended that surface water sources be utilised optimally to reduce reliance on ground water sources.11  The Jal Shakti Abhiyan, launched in 2019, is a nation-wide campaign aiming to promote water conservation and rainwater harvesting across 256 water-stressed districts in the country.22  The campaign was expanded to all districts across the country in 2021 and 2022.  As of February 2023, Rs 23,717 crore has been spent on activities such as rain water harvesting structures, watershed development, and intensive afforestation.23 
In April 2022, Mission Amrit Sarovar was launched to conserve water for the future, by constructing and rejuvenating one lakh ponds by August 15, 2023.24  As on February 16, 2023, more than 95,000 sites have been identified.  Work has commenced on 61% of sites, and 
54% of works have been completed.25    
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): The CGWB is a scientific organisation which develops and disseminates technologies for the sustainable development of the country's water resources.26  The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2022) noted that almost 32% of posts in the CGWB are vacant.17 Vacancies are 38% in the scientific category and 28% in the engineering category.  The Committee was concerned that the lack of human resources would hamper the functioning of the CGWB. 

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana PMKSY is a centrally sponsored scheme launched in 2015-16, aiming to (i) increase cultivable area under irrigation, (ii) enhance physical access of water on farms, (iii) improve on-farm water use efficiency, and 

(iv) introduce sustainable water conservation 
practices.27  It consists of four components 
implemented by three Ministries.  The Ministry of Jal 
Shakti implements the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit 
Programme, and Har Khet Ko Pani (HKKP).  The 
Watershed Development Component is implemented by 
the Ministry of Rural Development, and the Per Drop 
More Crop is implemented by the Department of 
Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare.27   

In 2023-24, PMKSY has the highest allocation within 
the Department of Water Resources (43%).  This is 
lower than its share in 2022-23 (58%).  Since 2015-16, 
allocation to the scheme has grown at an average 
annual rate of 36%.  

 Source: Demands for Grants of the Department of Water Resources for various years; PRS. 

Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP): 
The AIBP was launched in 1996-97 to provide financial 
assistance to states, and enable them to accelerate the 
implementation of major/minor irrigation projects 
which were held up due to financial constraints.28  In 
2023-24, Rs 3,122 crore has been allocated for the 
AIBP, 3.6% less than the allocation in 2022-23.  As of 
February 6, 2023, about 620 hectares of irrigation 
potential has been created through this scheme.29  A 
total expenditure of Rs 23,902 crore has been made on 
AIBP (with pari-passu implementation of the 
Command Area Development and Water Management 
programme under PMKSY-HKKP), and Rs 4,536 crore 
of Central assistance has been released to states.  This 
includes six new projects taken up under AIBP after 
2021-22  

The CAG (2018) had noted that the implementation of 
projects under AIBP has seen time delays and cost 
overruns.30  While only projects that could be 
completed in two to four years were meant to be 
brought under AIBP, actual project completion was 
delayed by as much as 18 years in some cases.  Out of 
453 projects audited, only 68% of the targeted irrigation 
potential was created.  Cost overruns were as much as 
295% of the original cost for 84 major and medium 
irrigation projects audited.  Shortfall in land acquisition, 
delays in obtaining statutory clearances, and changes in 
the design/scope of work have been cited as reasons for 
poor implementation of AIBP projects. 

of August 8, 2022) 
| Target                   | Performance    | %    |
|--------------------------|----------------|------|
| (Unit)                   | Achieved       |      |
| 30.23                    | 16.42          | 54%  |
| Command Area             |                |      |
| Development & Water      |                |      |
| Management (lakh ha      |                |      |
| of cultivable command    |                |      |
| area covered)            |                |      |
| 4.50                     | 3.42           | 76%  |
| Surface Minor Irrigation |                |      |
| & Repair, Renovation,    |                |      |
| and Restoration of       |                |      |
| Water Bodies (lakh ha    |                |      |
| of irrigation potential  |                |      |
| created)                 |                |      |
| 82,290                   | 70,888         | 86%  |
| Ground Water             |                |      |
| Development (ha of       |                |      |
| irrigation potential     |                |      |
| created)                 |                |      |

Source: Starred Question No. 235, Rajya Sabha, answered on August 
8, 2022.    

## Flood Management

In 1980, the Rashtriya Barh Aayog estimated that 40 million ha of land in India are flood-prone.31  This is about one-eighth of India's total land area.  Flood management projects are implemented by state governments/UTs from their own resources.32  The central government provides financial assistance to states to implement some projects in critical areas though the Flood Management and Border Areas Programme (FMBAP).  There are currently 83 projects ongoing under FMBAP across 10 states/UTs.33   

| Year    |   Funds Released (in crore)  |
|---------|------------------------------|
| 2017-18 |                         563  |
| 2018-19 |                         428  |
| 2019-20 |                         477  |
| 2020-21 |                          48  |
| 2021-22 |                         239  |

Source: FMBAP Dashboard, accessed on February 13, 2023; PRS. 

Regulation of flood management: Flood control is not explicitly mentioned in any of the three lists of Schedule VII of the Constitution.34  The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2021) noted that since 
'drainage and embankments' is part of the State List, flood control and management is presumed to be the responsibility of state governments.31  The Department of Water Resources has stated that the Union government only provides technical and advisory assistance to state governments.  However, since several rivers in India flow across state boundaries, measures taken by one state for flood control/management may have consequences for other states in the river basin.31  The Committee recommended that 'flood control and management' be brought under the Concurrent List.  This could facilitate the creation of an overarching framework for the equitable sharing of water resources across the country.   
Flood plain zoning: Flood plain zoning involves identifying areas likely to be affected by floods, and specifying the types of development permitted in these zones.31  Proper identification and enforcement of flood plain zoning guidelines can minimise damage during 

floods.  The 15th Finance Commission recommended 
that governments should estimate risk exposure and 
take measures to reduce contingent liabilities.35  The 
Standing Committee on Water Resources (2021) noted 
that floodplain zoning has not been performed in 
India.31  The Union government had circulated a Draft 
Model Bill for flood plain zoning to states.  The Bill 
envisages demarcating flood plains according to flood 
frequency and defines the types of activities allowed on 
it.36  However, only four states/UTs (Manipur, 
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Jammu and Kashmir) have 
enacted flood plain zoning legislation.  Flood prone 
states like Bihar, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh have 
not enacted this legislation.  Delineation of flood plains 
is still pending.     

The Standing Committee had also recommended that a 
National Embankment Policy be prepared to repair and 
maintain riverbanks in the country.15  Embankments are 
an important structural measure undertaken for flood 
control, which require timely maintenance and 
strengthening.  However, no such policy has been 
prepared. 

Insufficient focus on planning: Understanding disaster 
risk is the first key priority of the Sendai Framework 
for Disaster Risk Reduction.37  Legislative and policy 
measures such as the Draft Model Bill for flood plain 
zoning and the National Embankment Policy help 
improve planning and preparedness for disasters.  
Capital outlay on flood control measures is estimated to 
decrease from Rs 5.6 crore in 2021-22 to Rs 1.6 crore 
in 2023-24.4  Lack of planning could lead to improper 
allocation of scarce funds.   

## Namami Gange

The Namami Gange Programme was launched in June 
2014 with a budgetary outlay of Rs 20,000 crore to 
rejuvenate the river Ganga and its tributaries.38  It 
focuses on (i) pollution abatement, (ii) rural sanitation, 
(iii) riverfront development, (iv) river flow 
management, and (v) biodiversity conservation.39 

The first phase ended in March 2021, following which 
the scheme was extended till March 2026, with a 
budgetary outlay of Rs 22,500 crore.  In 2023-24, 
Namami Gange II has been allocated Rs 4,000 crore, 
60% more than the revised estimates of 2022-23.  This 
scheme received 20% of the total departmental 
allocation for 2023-24.  

Underutilisation of funds: The Standing Committee on 
Water Resources (2022) noted that there was significant 
underutilisation of funds in the Namami Gange 
programme (Figure 7).17  Between 2016-17 and 2020-
21, actual expenditure was less than 70% of budget 
estimates.  For three of these years, it was less than 
45%.  There were also disparities between the budget 
and revised estimates.  The Committee noted that 
continuous disparity between budget and revised 
estimates indicated deficiency in financial planning by 
the Department.17   

  

Note: BE is budget estimate.  Actual figure for 2022-23 is revised estimate.  Source: Demands for Grants of Department of Water Resources for various years; PRS. 

 

Year 
Funds 
Released 
Expenditure 
% 
Utilisation 
2016-17 
        1,675  
      1,063  
63% 
2017-18 
        1,423  
      1,625  
114% 
2018-19 
        2,308  
      2,627  
114% 
2019-20 
        1,553  
      2,673  
172% 
2020-21 
        1,300  
      1,340  
103% 
2021-22 
        1,893  
      1,893  
100% 
2022-23 
        1,975  
      1,614  
82% 

Source: Unstarred Question No. 1203, Rajya Sabha, answered on February 13, 2023; PRS. 

However, utilisation of funds released by the Union government to the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) frequently went over 100% (Table 11).  Funds are released by the NMCG only when states provide utilisation certificates.  The CAG (2017) found significant delays in the submission of these certificates by states to the NMCG.39  It noted that this adversely affects the financial and physical performance of the scheme. 

Slow progress of projects: Till December 31, 2022, 409 
projects have been taken up under the Namami Gange programme, out of which 232 (57%) have been completed and operationalised.38  The total estimated cost is Rs 32,912 crore.  The majority of these projects deal with the creation of sewage infrastructure.38  The Committee (2021) noted the slow progress of projects, especially those related to sewage infrastructure.15 They recommended that measures be taken to remove implementation bottlenecks to avoid cost and time overruns.   

| Type of Project   |        |
|-------------------|--------|
| Sanctioned        |        |
| Sanctioned        |        |
| Cost (in Rs       |        |
| Projects          |        |
| Completed         |        |
| Projects          |        |
| crore)            |        |
| Sewerage          |        |
| Projects          |        |
| 160               | 24,568 |
| 90                | 1,553  |
| River front,      |        |
| Ghats and         |        |
| crematoria        |        |
| Rural Sanitation  | 1      |
| 15                | 1,267  |
| Industrial        |        |
| Pollution         |        |
| Abatement         |        |
| 41                | 635    |
| Afforestation and |        |
| biodiversity      |        |
| conservation      |        |

Source: Unstarred Question No. 1988, Rajya Sabha, answered on March 21, 2022; PRS.  

## River Interlinking

Interlinking of rivers involves the transfer of water 
from water-surplus river basins to water-deficit basins.  
As per the National Perspective Plan, 30 river-links 
have been identified by the National Water 
Development Agency for the preparation of feasibility 
reports.40  Detailed Project Reports have been prepared 
for eight.  The current status of the projects listed under 
the Inter-Linking of Rivers Programme is given in 
Annexure III.  Implementation has begun for only one, 
the Ken-Betwa Link Project.  It was approved by the 
Union government in December 2021, with a total 
outlay of Rs 44,605 crore.  In 2021-22, Rs 4,642 was 
budgeted for the project, and expenditure was Rs 4,634.  
Budget allocations decreased to Rs 1,400 crore and Rs 
3,500 crore in 2022-23 and 2023-24 respectively.   
                                                         

Inter-State Relations: Most river basins in India cross 
state boundaries.  River-linking projects then require 
cooperation and coordination between states lying in 
those river basins.  The Standing Committee on Water 
Resources (2022) observed that the main problem in 
executing river inter-linking projects is the lack of 
consensus between states.17  States with surplus water 
resources may not agree to the water being diverted to 
other river basins.  The Committee noted that in such 
situations, the central government must engage 
proactively and address any contentious issues.17  The 
Committee also recommended that financial benefits, 
such as an increased share of devolved taxes, or tax 
benefits may be provided to incentivise states to 
participate in river linking projects. 

The Ministry has stated that it is applying a consultative 
approach in dealing with states on river interlinking 
projects.17  A legal group has been constituted to 
investigate legal aspects of river interlinking and 
formulate enabling provisions.  A tripartite agreement 
was signed between Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, 
and the central government for the Ken-Betwa Link 
Project.  

|                           |          | % ODF Plus     | % of population living in households    |
|---------------------------|----------|----------------|-----------------------------------------|
| State                     |          | Total Villages |                                         |
| ODF Plus                  |          |                |                                         |
| Villages                  |          | Villages       |                                         |
| Andaman & Nicobar Islands | 189      | 189            | 100%                                    |
| Andhra Pradesh            | 18,709   | 4,714          | 25%                                     |
| Arunachal Pradesh         | 5,357    | 99             | 2%                                      |
| Assam                     | 25,493   | 388            | 2%                                      |
| Bihar                     | 36,858   | 8,575          | 23%                                     |
| Chhattisgarh              | 18,798   | 5,522          | 29%                                     |
| D&N D&D                   | 97       | 97             | 100%                                    |
| Goa                       | 365      | 204            | 56%                                     |
| Gujarat                   | 18,288   | 7,211          | 39%                                     |
| Haryana                   | 6,769    | 1,966          | 29%                                     |
| Himachal Pradesh          | 15,900   | 12,284         | 77%                                     |
| Jammu & Kashmir           | 7,254    | 4,128          | 57%                                     |
| Jharkhand                 | 29,414   | 2,999          | 10%                                     |
| Karnataka                 | 26,190   | 22,272         | 85%                                     |
| Kerala                    | 1,509    | 569            | 38%                                     |
| Ladakh                    | 238      | 60             | 25%                                     |
| Lakshadweep               | 9        | 9              | 100%                                    |
| Madhya Pradesh            | 50,365   | 28,463         | 57%                                     |
| Maharashtra               | 40,255   | 5,854          | 15%                                     |
| Manipur                   | 2,556    | 24             | 1%                                      |
| Meghalaya                 | 5,832    | 547            | 9%                                      |
| Mizoram                   | 694      | 246            | 35%                                     |
| Nagaland                  | 1,425    | 333            | 23%                                     |
| Odisha                    | 46,778   | 13,910         | 30%                                     |
| Puducherry                | 108      | 67             | 62%                                     |
| Punjab                    | 14,041   | 843            | 6%                                      |
| Rajasthan                 | 42,850   | 13,545         | 32%                                     |
| Sikkim                    | 403      | 203            | 50%                                     |
| Tamil Nadu                | 12,525   | 11,910         | 95%                                     |
| Telangana                 | 12,769   | 12,769         | 100%                                    |
| Tripura                   | 1,176    | 99             | 8%                                      |
| Uttar Pradesh             | 95,829   | 31,136         | 32%                                     |
| Uttarakhand               | 15,049   | 4,005          | 27%                                     |
| West Bengal               | 41,443   | 1,858          | 4%                                      |
| Total                     | 5,95,535 | 1,97,098       | 33%                                     |

Note: Improved sanitation facility includes flush to piped sewer system, flush to septic tank, flush to pit latrine, flush to don't know where, ventilated improved pit (VIP)/biogas latrine, pit latrine with slab, twin pit/composting toilet, which is not shared with any other household. Source: Swachh Bharat Mission Grameen 2.0 Dashboard for ODF Plus figures; National Family Health Survey-5 for figures on sanitation coverage; PRS.  
 

State 
Stage of Ground Water 
Extraction (%) 
State 
Stage of Ground Water 
Extraction (%) 
Andhra Pradesh 
29 
Odisha 
44 
Arunachal Pradesh 
1 
Punjab 
166 
Assam 
12 
Rajasthan 
151 
Bihar 
45 
Sikkim 
6 
Chhattisgarh 
50 
Tamil Nadu 
76 
Delhi 
98 
Telangana State 
42 
Goa 
24 
Tripura 
10 
Gujarat 
53 
Uttar Pradesh 
71 
Haryana 
134 
Uttarakhand 
48 
Himachal Pradesh 
38 
West Bengal 
47 
Jharkhand 
31 
Andaman & Nicobar 
1 
Karnataka 
70 
Chandigarh 
81 
Kerala 
53 
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 
133 
Madhya Pradesh 
59 
Daman & Diu 
158 
Maharashtra 
55 
Jammu & Kashmir 
24 
Manipur 
8 
Ladakh 
41 
Meghalaya 
4 
Lakshadweep 
62 
Mizoram 
4 
Puducherry 
69 
Nagaland 
3 
Total 
60 

Source: Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India 2022, Central Ground Water Board; PRS. 

 

## Table 15: Status Of River Interlinking Projects Identified Under The National Perspective Plan

| S. No                                         | Name                      | Rivers           | States concerned                          |
|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------|------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| Peninsular Component                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| 1(a)                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Mahanadi and                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari                                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Feasibility Report (FR)                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Completed.                                    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Mahanadi (Manibhadra)–                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari (Dowlaiswaram)                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka  |                           |                  |                                           |
| and                                           |                           |                  |                                           |
| Maharashtra                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| 1(b)                                          | FR Completed.             |                  |                                           |
| Mahanadi and                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari                                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Mahanadi (Bermul)–                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari (Dowlaiswaram)                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka  |                           |                  |                                           |
| and                                           |                           |                  |                                           |
| Maharashtra                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR Completed.                                 | 2                         |                  |                                           |
| Godavari (Inchampall)-                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna (Pulichintala) link                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari and                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna                                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,         |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| 3                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari and                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna                                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR and Detailed Project                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Report (DPR) Completed                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari (Inchampalli)-                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna (Nagarjunasagar)                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,         |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| 4                                             | FR Completed.             |                  |                                           |
| Godavari and                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna                                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Godavari (Polavaram)                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| - Krishna (Vijayawada)                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,         |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| 5                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna (Almatti) –Pennar                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna and Pennar                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR Completed.                                 |                           |                  |                                           |
| 6                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna (Srisailam)–Pennar                    |                           |                  |                                           |
| link                                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna and                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pennar                                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR Completed.                                 |                           |                  |                                           |
| 7                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna (Nagarjunasagar)-                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pennar (Somasila) link                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Krishna and Pennar                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR and DPR Completed.                         |                           |                  |                                           |
| 8                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pennar (Somasila)–                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| Cauvery (Grand Anicut) link                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pennar and                                    |                           |                  |                                           |
| Cauvery                                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala |                           |                  |                                           |
| and Puducherry                                |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR and DPR Completed.                         |                           |                  |                                           |
| 9                                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Cauvery (Kattalai)– Vaigai–                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Gundar link                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Cauvery, Vaigai and                           |                           |                  |                                           |
| Gundar                                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Puducherry  | DPR Completed.            |                  |                                           |
| 10                                            | Ken–Betwa link            | Ken and Betwa    | Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh          |
| DPR Completed. Ken-Betwa                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Link Project has been                         |                           |                  |                                           |
| approved.                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| FR Completed.                                 |                           |                  |                                           |
| 11                                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| (i)                                           |                           |                  |                                           |
| Parbati - Kalisindh -                         |                           |                  |                                           |
| Chambal link                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Parbati, Kalisindh                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| and Chambal                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan   |                           |                  |                                           |
| requested to be consulted during consensus    |                           |                  |                                           |
| building)                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| (ii)                                          | Parbati-Kuno-Sindh link   |                  |                                           |
| Parbati, Kuno and                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| Sindh                                         |                           |                  |                                           |
| Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pre-Feasibility Report (PFR)                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| completed                                     | .*                        |                  |                                           |
| 12                                            | Par-Tapi-Narmada link     |                  |                                           |
| Par, Tapi and                                 |                           |                  |                                           |
| Narmada                                       |                           |                  |                                           |
| Maharashtra and Gujarat                       | DPR Completed.            |                  |                                           |
| 13                                            | Damanganga - Pinjal link  |                  |                                           |
| Damanganga and                                |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pinjal                                        |                           |                  |                                           |
| Maharashtra and Gujarat                       | DPR Completed.            |                  |                                           |
| 14                                            | Bedti-Varada link         | Bedti and Varada | Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka |
| PFR Completed. Draft DPR                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| completed                                     |                           |                  |                                           |
| 15                                            | Netravati - Hemavati link |                  |                                           |
| Netravati and                                 |                           |                  |                                           |
| Hemavati                                      |                           |                  |                                           |
| Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala              | PFR Completed.            |                  |                                           |
| 16                                            |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pamba - Achankovil -                          |                           |                  |                                           |
| Vaippar link                                  |                           |                  |                                           |
| Pamba, Achankovil                             |                           |                  |                                           |
| and Vaippar                                   |                           |                  |                                           |
| Kerala and Tamil Nadu                         | FR Completed.             |                  |                                           |

* Integration of Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project of Rajasthan and Parbati - Kalisindh - Chambal link. 

Himalayan Component 1 
Manas-Sankosh-Tista- Ganga(M-S-T-G) link 
Manas, Sankosh, Tista and Ganga 
Bhutan and India (Assam, West Bengal and Bihar) 
FR completed. 
2 
Kosi-Ghaghra link 
Kosi and Ghaghra 
Nepal and India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) 
PFR completed 
3 
Gandak-Ganga link 
Gandak and Ganga 
Nepal and India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) 
FR completed (Indian portion) 
4 
Ghaghra-Yamuna link 
Ghaghra and Yamuna 
Nepal and India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) 
FR completed (Indian portion) 
| 5                                      | Sarda-Yamuna link        | Sarda and Yamuna    |
|----------------------------------------|--------------------------|---------------------|
| Nepal and India (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, |                          |                     |
| Uttarakhand, Haryana and Rajasthan)    |                          |                     |
| 6                                      | Yamuna-Rajasthan link    | Yamuna and Sukri    |
| 7                                      | Rajasthan-Sabarmati link | Sabarmati           |
| 8                                      | Chunar-Sone Barrage link | Ganga and Sone      |
| 9                                      |                          |                     |
| Sone Dam - Southern                    |                          |                     |
| Tributaries of Ganga link              |                          |                     |
| Sone and Badua                         | Bihar and Jharkhand      | PFR completed       |
| 10                                     |                          |                     |
| Ganga (Farakka)- Damodar-              |                          |                     |
| Subernarekha link                      |                          |                     |
| Ganga, Damodar                         |                          |                     |
| and Subernarekha                       |                          |                     |
| West Bengal, Odisha and Jharkhand      |                          |                     |
| FR completed; DPR in                   |                          |                     |
| progress                               |                          |                     |
| 11                                     |                          |                     |
| Subernarekha- Mahanadi                 |                          |                     |
| link                                   |                          |                     |
| Subernarekha and                       |                          |                     |
| Mahanadi                               |                          |                     |
| West Bengal and Odisha                 | FR completed             |                     |
| 12                                     | Kosi-Mechi Link          | Kosi and Mechi      |
| 13                                     |                          |                     |
| Ganga (Farakka)-                       |                          |                     |
| Sunderbans link                        |                          |                     |
| Ganga and                              |                          |                     |
| Ichhamati                              |                          |                     |
| West Bengal                            | FR completed             |                     |
| 14                                     |                          |                     |
| Jogighopa-Tista-Farakka link           |                          |                     |
| (Alternative to M-S- T-G)              |                          |                     |
| Manas, Tista and                       |                          |                     |
| Ganga                                  |                          |                     |
| Assam, Bihar and West Bengal           | Dropped                  |                     |

Source: Unstarred Question No. 1608, Lok Sabha, Ministry of Jal Shakti, answered on December 15, 2022; PRS. 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
1 About Us, Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, accessed on February 12, 2023, https://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/about-us/functions. 

2 About Us, Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, accessed on February 12, 2023, https://jalshaktiddws.gov.in/en/about-us. 

3 History, Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, accessed on February 12, 2023, https://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/about-us/history. 4 Demand No. 62, Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Union Budget 2023-24, https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe62.pdf; 5 Demand No. 63, Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Union Budget 2023-24, https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe63.pdf. ddws.gov.in/sites/default/files/JJM_note.pdf. 

FR completed (Indian portion) 

 
35 Finance Commission in Covid Times, Report for 2021-26, 15th Finance Commission, October 2020, https://fincomindia.nic.in/writereaddata/html_en_files/fincom15/Reports/XVFC%20VOL%20I%20Main%20Report.pdf. 36 National Floodplains Zoning Policy, Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Jal Shakti, March 14, 2022, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1805812#:~:text=A%20model%20draft%20bill%20for,of%20use%20of%20flood%20plain. 37 'What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?', United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, accessed on February 16, 2023, https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework. 38 Unstarred Question No. 1193, Rajya Sabha, Ministry of Jal Shakti, answered on February 13, 2023, https://pqars.nic.in/annex/259/AU1193.pdf. 39 Report No. 39 of 2017 (Performance Audit), 'Rejuvenation of River Ganga (Namami Gange)', Comptroller and Auditor General of India, https://cag.gov.in/en/audit-report/details/34506. 40 Unstarred Question No. 1608, Lok Sabha, Ministry of Jal Shakti, answered on December 15, 2022, https://pqals.nic.in/annex/1710/AU1608.pdf. DISCLAIMER: This document is being furnished to you for your information. You may choose to reproduce or redistribute this report for noncommercial purposes in part or in full to any other person with due acknowledgement of PRS Legislative Research ("PRS"). The opinions expressed herein are entirely those of the author(s). PRS makes every effort to use reliable and comprehensive information, but PRS does not represent that the contents of the report are accurate or complete. PRS is an independent, not-for-profit group. This document has been prepared without regard to the objectives or opinions of those who may receive it. 