
## Demand For Grants 2019-20 Analysis Human Resource Development

The Ministry of Human Resource Development consists of two departments: (i) school education and literacy, and (ii) higher education.  In 2019-20, the Ministry has been allocated Rs 94,854 crore, the sixth highest allocation among all Ministries.  The allocation constitutes 3% of the central government's estimated expenditure for 2019-20. This note presents the trends in expenditure, and discusses some of the issues related to the education sector.  
The Department of School Education and Literacy under the Ministry is broadly responsible for education imparted between the ages of 6 to 18 years, i.e., school education.   

 
Elementary education is imparted up to class 8 for children between 6-14 years of age.  The government is mandated to provide elementary education to all children under the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009.   
 
Secondary education is imparted between classes 9 to 12 for children between 14-18 years of age.   
In 2019-20, this Department has been allocated Rs 56,537 crore, accounting for 60% of the Ministry's total allocation.   
The **Department of Higher Education** is responsible for higher and technical education, and training for students above 18 years of age.   

 
Higher education includes undergraduate and postgraduate courses, doctoral degrees, and certificates following the completion of 12 
years of schooling or equivalent.    
In 2019-20, the Department has been allocated Rs 38,317 crore, accounting for 40% of the Ministry's total allocation.   

## Overview Of Finances Budget Estimates 2019-20

The Ministry has been allocated Rs 94,854 crore in 
2018-19.  This is a 13.4% increase over the revised 
estimate of 2018-19.1   
                                                                 Note: Samagra Shiksha subsumes three existing schemes, 
                                                                 namely: (i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, (ii) Rashtriya Madhyamik 
                                                                 Shiksha Abhiyan, and (iii) Teacher Education.  The category 
                                                                 'Others' includes other schemes and programmes under the 
                                                                 Ministry which have an allocation of less than 5% of the total 
                                                                 expenditure.  
                                                                 Sources: Expenditure Budget, Vol. 2, Ministry of Human 
                                                                 Resource Development, 2019-20; PRS. 

Expenditure on education by the centre and the states as a proportion of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been around 3% between 2013- 14 and 2018-19.2  The Draft National Education Policy released in May 2019 proposes 6% of GDP as the minimum expenditure on education.3   
PRS Legislative Research  Institute for Policy Research Studies  
3rd Floor, Gandharva Mahavidyalaya  212, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Marg  New Delhi - 110002 
Tel: (011) 2323 4801-02, 4343 4035-36 
www.prsindia.org Table 1 provides the budget related figures for the Ministry.  For further details on the budgetary allocations, refer to the Annexure. 

Table 1: Budget allocations for the MHRD (2019-20) (in Rs crore) 
% 
RE 
BE 
Department 
Actuals 
2017-18 
2018-19 
2019-20 
change 
(RE to 
BE) 
46,600 
50,114 
56,537 
12.8% 
School Education & Literacy Higher Education 
33,614 
33,512 
38,317 
14.3% 
Total 
80,215 
83,626 
94,854 
13.4% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate; RE - Revised Estimates. Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2019-20; PRS. 

Figure 1 depicts the major heads under which the 
Ministry spends its funds (as a percentage of its 
total allocation).  The Department of School 
Education and Literacy has seen a 12.8% increase 
in its allocation (Rs 56,537 crore) over the revised 
estimates of 2018-19 (Rs 50,114 crore).  For the 
Department of Higher Education, it was a 14.3% 
increase at Rs 38,317 crore over the revised 
estimate (Rs 33,512 crore). 

## Budget Speech Highlights 2019-20

 
A new National Education Policy will be released. The new Policy proposes major changes in both school education and higher education.   
 
A National Research Foundation will be established to fund, coordinate, and promote research in the country.  The National Research Foundation will accumulate funds by all ministries and use it to prioritise and avoid duplication of research. 
 
A draft legislation for setting up a single regulator for higher education called the Higher Education Commission of India, would be presented in the year ahead. 
 
The government will start a programme, 'Study in India', that will focus on bringing foreign students to 
study in Indian higher educational institutions. 

## Department Of School Education And Literacy

In 2019-20, the Department of School Education and Literacy has been allocated Rs 56,537 crore, a 12.8% increase over the revised estimates of 2018- 19.1  Figure 2 shows the allocation of the Department of School Education and Literacy over the past 10 years (2009-19). In the last 10 years, apart from 2019-20, the highest allocation was given in 2014-15 at Rs 55,115 crore. Note that in 2015-16, the allocation was reduced by 25%.  This may be on account of a greater devolution of funds to the states in pursuance of the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission. The allocation has been on an upward trajectory since then.  Since 2009-10, the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) has been 7%.  CAGR is the annual growth rate over a certain period of time.  

% change

Note: Revised estimates have been used for 2018-19 and budget estimates for 2019-20. Sources: Union Budgets, 2009-19 PRS. 

Figure 3 provides the major heads of financial allocation under this Department for 2019-20.  Note 

that, in July 2018, the Ministry of Human Resource 
Development launched a scheme 'Samagra 
Shiksha', which seeks to provide holistic education 
from preschool to senior secondary levels.  It 
subsumes three existing schemes, namely: (i) Sarva 
Shiksha Abhiyan (class 1-8), (ii) Rashtriya 
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (class 9-12), and (iii) 
Teacher Education.  

In 2019-20, expenditure on centrally sponsored 
schemes (Samagra Shiksha and Mid-Day Meal 
Programme in Schools) constitute 83% of the 
estimated spending of the Department of School 
Education and Literacy.   

Note:  Autonomous bodies include NCERT, Kendriya 
Vidyalayas and Navodaya Vidyalayas.   
Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource 
Development, Union Budget, 2019-20; PRS. 

Table 2 indicates the actual allocation of the 
Department compared with the budget estimates of 
that year.  The utilisation in the last three years has 
been over 99% of the budget estimates as seen in 
the Table.  

the actual expenditure  (2010-18) (in Rs crore) 
Year 
Budget 
estimate 
Actuals 
Actuals/BE (%) 
2010-11 
33,214 
36,433 
110% 
2011-12 
41,451 
40,641 
98% 
2012-13 
48,781 
45,631 
94% 
2013-14 
52,701 
46,856 
89% 
2014-15 
55,115 
45,722 
83% 
2015-16 
42,220 
41,800 
99% 
2016-17 
43,554 
42,989 
99% 
2017-18 
46,356 
46,600 
101% 
2018-19 
50,000 
50,114* 
100% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate. *Revised Estimate Sources: Union Budgets, 2015-19; PRS. 

% 
2018-
Major Head 
2017-18 
Actuals 
2019-
20 BE 
19  
RE 
change 
(RE to 
BE) 
Samagra Shiksha  
 
 
36,322  
- 
23,484  
26,129  
  
- 
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 
4,033  
4,164  
  
- 
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan 
691  
541  
125  
-76.8% 
Teachers Training and Adult Education 
9,092  
9,949  
11,000  
10.6% 
National Programme of Mid-Day Meal in Schools 
8,568  
8,591  
8,290  
-3.5% 
Autonomous bodies (such as NCERT) Scholarships 
558  
556  
468  
-15.7% 
Others 
174  
184  
331  
79.7% 
Total 
46,600  
50,114  
56,537  
12.8% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate; RE - Revised Estimates. Samagra Shiksha subsumes three existing schemes, namely: (i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, (ii) Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, and (iii) Teacher Education. Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget 2019-20; PRS.  

 
Samagra Shiksha:  Samagra Shiksha 
subsumes three existing schemes, namely: (i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, (ii) Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, and (iii) 
Teacher Education.  The scheme has been allocated Rs 36,322 crore for 2019-20.  This amount is for overall school education. 
 
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA):  There exist 
gaps between demand of the Ministry and the budgetary allocation for SSA under the RTE.4 For example, the allocation of Rs 26,129 crore in 2019-20 is against a demand of Rs 37,048 crore.  The Standing Committees have recommended increased funding for the SSA and sufficient allocations for states requiring additional resources.5,6  Note that, there is no allocation for SSA in 2019-20. 
 
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan 
(RMSA):  It aims to enable universal access to 
secondary education by 2017 and universal retention by 2020.7  It has been recommended that RMSA should be aligned with SSA and ensure 100% transition of every child from the upper primary to secondary stage. 8   Note that, 

there is no allocation for RMSA in 2019-20.  
Table 4 captures the expenditure for SSA and 
RMSA.  The amount of funds being spent on 
elementary education (class 1-8) is 
significantly higher than the expenditure on 
secondary education (class 9-12). 

Year 
SSA 
RMSA 
2014-15 
24,123 
3,398 
2015-16 
21,590 
3,562 
2016-17 
21,678 
3,699 
2017-18 
19,319 
3,602 
2018-19 
26,129 
4,164 

Note:  Numbers for 2018-9 are revised estimates.   
Source:  Report no. 350: "Demands for Grants 2018-19 
(Demand No. 57) of the Department of School Education & 
Literacy", Standing Committee on Human Resource 
Development, March 2018; PRS. 

 
Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS):  
Expenditure on Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS) increased by about 11% n 2019-20 from the revised estimates of 2018-19.  The MDMS targets children in the same age group as covered by the SSA (6 to 14 years).  In addition to promoting enrolment, retention and attendance by incentivising the children to come to school for meals, the scheme also aims to improve nutritional levels among children.  In 2018-19, about 9.1 crore children were covered under the scheme.9  
 
Autonomous bodies:  Autonomous bodies like 
the National Council of Educational Research and Training, and Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan saw a decrease in their allocation by 3.5% (from the revised estimates of last year) 
and were allocated Rs 8,290 crore in 2019-20. 
 
Scholarships:  Scholarships saw a decrease of 
15.7% in its allocation in 2019-20. Scholarships provided by the Ministry include provisions of Rs 6,000 per year to one lakh meritorious students of economically weaker sections.  The aim is to reduce drop-out of students in class eight and encourage them to continue schooling till class 12.   

## Issues In School Education Enrolment, Transition And Dropout Rates

Enrolment:  The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is 
the student enrolment as a proportion of the 
corresponding eligible age group in a given year.  
GER in classes 1-5 reduced from 114% in 2008-09 
to 99.2% in 2015-16.10  The above-100% enrolment 
rate in 2008-09 indicates that students enrolled in 
classes 1-5 included those younger than six or older 
than 10 years.  In 2015-16, enrolment in classes 1-5 

was about 99.2%, which signals a more age appropriate (six to 10 years) class composition (see Figure 4).  
India's enrolment rate in primary education (class 
1-5) is comparable to that of developed countries. However, it falls behind these countries after class 6 (see Figure 5). 

Between 2008-09 and 2014-15, the proportion of students enrolled in class 1-8 in government schools declined from 71% to 62%, implying an increasing preference for private schools.11   
Attendance:  Attendance is the ratio of the number of persons in the official age group attending a particular class-group to the total number persons enrolled in school in that age-group.  The attendance for both boys and girls falls as the level of education rises in school education.  As Figure 6 indicates there is negligible difference between the attendance of boys and girls.  
Sources:  Key Indicators of Social Consumption in India: Education, NSSO, 2014; PRS. 

Transition and dropouts: The dropout rate peaks 
at the secondary level (class 9-10) at 17% as 
compared to 4% in elementary school (class 1-8) 
and 2% in upper secondary school (class 11-12) 
(see Figure 7).  This is also reflected in the 
transition rates in school education where the 
lowest transition rate is at the secondary level 
(class 10 to 11) at 66%.   Note that a transition rate 
below 100% indicates that the students are held 
back or have dropped out of school.   

## 15) (%)

According to NSSO data (2014) on reasons for 
dropping out (for the age group 5-29 years), the 
key reasons for females dropping out is to engage 
in domestic activities (30%), lack of interest in 
education (16%), and marriage (14%).   On the 
other hand, the key reasons for males dropping out 
is to engage in economic activities (31%), lack of 
interest in education (24%), and financial 
constraints (24%).11 

Till 2019, a child could be expelled or detained 
until the completion of elementary education (until 
class 8) due to provisions under the RTE Act.  This 
might explain the differential trends between the 
enrolment, dropout, and transition rates for 
elementary education and secondary education.  
However, RTE Act was amended in 2019 to 

remove the provision related to no- detention to address low learning outcomes. Note that, the Draft National Education Policy (2019) recommends that the amendments to the RTE Act on continuous and comprehensive evaluation and the no detention policy must be reviewed.  It states that there should be no detention of children till class eight. Instead, schools must ensure that children are achieving age appropriate learning levels.3 

## Quality Of Learning

Elementary education:  Over the years, expert committees have made some adverse observations regarding the learning outcomes of children.  The Central Advisory Board on Education (CABE, 2014), National Achievement Survey (2012 and 2017), and the Economic Survey (2016-17) observed declining learning levels in elementary education even after the implementation of the RTE 
Act.12,13,14,15   
As per the National Achievement Survey (2017), the performance of students in 2017 was better than in 2015.  In 2017, on average, Class 5 students obtained 57%  marks in reading comprehension, and 53% in mathematics.14  Whereas, in 2015, on an average, Class 5 students obtained 45% marks in reading comprehension, and 46% in mathematics. 16 Under the RTE Act, children are enrolled in the class that corresponds to their age, irrespective of their learning levels.  This results in a situation where in the same class, depending on when they are enrolled in school, children may have different learning requirements.  It has been recommended that special training be organised and is of flexible duration to enable the child to be at par with other children and to ensure his integration with the class.17    
Secondary education:  In the National Achievement Survey (2015) for class 10, in the English subject, 24% students were in the range of 0-35% score and 61% students were in the range of 36-50% score.  Further, 35% students were in 0- 35% scores, and 49% students were in the range of 36-50% scores in Mathematics.18 
Nature of assessment:  Under the RTE Act, the Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is the evaluation mechanism for elementary education.  CCE (e.g., paper-pencil test, drawing and reading pictures, and expressing orally) does not mean absence of evaluation, but it means an evaluation of a different kind from the traditional system of examinations.  CCE has not been adequately implemented or monitored.12  It has been recommended that proper design of assessment and using this information can help improve the quality and innovation in terms of teaching and learning.19  The Draft National 

Education Policy (2019) noted that the current 
education system solely focuses on rote learning of 
facts and procedures. Hence, it recommends that 
the curriculum load in each subject should be 
reduced to its essential core content. This would 
make space for holistic, discussion and analysis-
based learning.3 

Note that the RTE Act 2009 has been amended 
state that a regular examination will be held in class 
5 and class 8 at the end of every academic year.  If 
a child fails the exam, he will be given additional 
instruction, and take a re-examination.  If he fails in 
the re-examination, the relevant central or state 
government may decide to allow schools to detain 
him.    

## Other Issues

Teachers related issues:  Experts have identified 
various issues with regard to the role of teachers to 
address the challenges confronting elementary 
education.3,20,17  These include: (i) low teacher 
accountability and appraisal, (ii) poor quality of the 
content of teacher-education and changes required 
in the curriculum of B. Ed and D. Ed courses, (iii) 
need for continuous in-service teacher training and 
upgradation of skill set, (iv) inadequate pupil 
teacher ratio and deployment of teachers for non-
educational purposes, (v) teacher vacancies, and 
(vi) excessive recruitment of contract/para teachers.    

In 2017, nine lakh posts of teachers were vacant in 
elementary schools.4  Further, more than one lakh 
teacher posts were vacant in secondary schools.  
The draft National Education Policy (2019) 
recommends that teachers should be deployed with 
a particular school complex (comprising one 
secondary school and all the public schools in its 
neighbourhood) for at least five to seven years.  
Further, teachers should not be allowed to 
participate in any non-teaching activities (such as 
cooking mid-day meals or participating in 
vaccination campaigns) during school hours that 
could affect their teaching capacities. 

For teacher training, the Policy recommends that 
existing B.Ed. programme be replaced by a four-
year integrated B.Ed. programme that combines 
high-quality content, pedagogy, and practical 
training.  An integrated continuous professional 
development will also be developed for all subjects. 
Teachers will be required to complete a minimum 
of 50 hours of continuous professional development 
training every year. 

The Right to Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act):  
Currently, the RTE Act provides for free and 
compulsory education to all children from the age 
of six to 14 years. The draft National Education 
Policy (2019) recommended extending the ambit of 
the RTE Act to include early childhood education 
and secondary school education.  

School accountability:  In 2014, CABE 
recommended introducing a performance management system for all teachers, school leaders, and department officials, with performance measures linked with student learning outcomes.12   
Such measures of school accountability exist in other countries. For example, in the United States, under the No Child Left Behind Act, schools are required to do annual assessment of learning outcomes in reading and mathematics for students from classes 3 to 8.  If the school fails to achieve minimum test scores then the consequences include removal from service of teachers or the headmaster, school restructuring or closure, and an option for students to transfer to another school.21  
 

## Department Of Higher Education

The Department of Higher Education has been allocated Rs 38,317 crore in 2019-20, a 14.3% increase over the revised estimate of 2018-19. Figure 8 depicts the allocation to the Department of Higher Education since 2008-09.   
Table 5 indicates the actual allocation of the Department compared to the budget estimates of that year.  The utilisation has been over 95% of the budget estimates in the last three years as seen in the table.  In 2016-17 and 2017-18, it even crossed 100% utilisation.  

the actual expenditure (2010-18) (in Rs crore) 
Year 
Budget 
Estimate 
Actuals 
Actuals/BE (%) 
2010-11 
16,690 
15,472 
93% 
2011-12 
21,912 
19,505 
89% 
2012-13 
25,275 
20,423 
81% 
2013-14 
26,750 
24,465 
91% 
2014-15 
27,656 
23,152 
84% 
2015-16 
26,855 
25,439 
95% 
2016-17 
28,840 
29,026 
101% 
2017-18 
33,330 
33,614  
101% 
2018-19 
35,010  
    33,512*  
96% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate. *Revised Estimate Sources: Union Budgets, 2010-19 PRS. 

Figure 9 provides the major heads of financial allocation under the Department for 2019-20. 

Improvement in salary of 
Grants to 
Central 

 
Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget, 2019-20; PRS. 

 
About 48% of the Department's expenditure has been allocated to central universities (as grants), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), and statutory and regulatory bodies (University Grants Commission (UGC) and All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)) (see
 Table 6).  The allocation to UGC and AICTE 
at Rs 5,059 crore, saw a 2% decrease over the 
revised estimate of 2018-19.   Central 
universities and IITs registered an increase in 
their allocation over the revised estimates of 
2018-19 by 5% and 12% respectively.  In 
2019-20, they have been 
allocated Rs 6,843 crore and Rs 6,410 crore respectively. 

 
The bulk of the enrolment in higher education is handled by state universities and their 
affiliated colleges.  However, these state 
universities receive very small amounts of grants from the Union Budget.  Nearly 65% of the University Grants Commission (UGC) budget is utilised by the central universities and their colleges while state universities and their affiliated colleges get only the remaining 35%.22   The Standing Committee on Human Resource Development has recommended that the mobilisation of funds in state universities should be explored through other means such as endowments, contributions from industry, alumni, etc.22 

% 
Major Heads 
2017-18 
Actuals 
2018-
19 RE 
2019-
20 BE 
chang
e (RE 
to BE) 
Grants to Central Universities 
7,286  
6,499  
6,843  
5% 
IITs 
8,337  
5,715  
6,410  
12% 
UGC and AICTE 
5,122  
5,139  
5,059  
-2% 
NITs 
3,452  
3,721  
3,787  
2% 
Student Financial Aid 
2,218  
2,155  
2,306  
7% 
250  
2,750  
2,100  
-24% 
Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) RUSA 
1,203  
1,500  
2,100  
40% 
Improvement in salary of teachers 
671  
469  
2,000  
326% 
IISERs 
780  
650  
899  
38% 
Research and Innovation 
254  
244  
609  
150% 
Digital India-elearning 
336  
511  
579  
13% 
IIMs 
821  
372  
446  
20% 
IIITs 
271  
440  
375  
-15% 
Others 
2,614  
3,347  
4,805  
-15% 
Grand Total 
33,614  
33,512  
38,317  
14% 

Sources: Expenditure Budget, Vol. 2, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget 2019-20; PRS.  

 
Student Financial Aid has seen an increase and has been allocated Rs 2,306 crore, a 7% increase over the revised estimates of 2018-19. The allocation on Research and Innovation received an increase by about 150% (over revised estimates) at Rs 609 crore. 
 
Expenditure on improvement of salary of university and college teachers has been estimated at Rs 2,000 crore, which is a 326% increase from the revised estimate of 2018-19. 
 
The funding allocation for Rashtriya Uchchtar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) has increased by 40% at Rs 2,100 crore (from the 2018-19 

revised estimates).  RUSA aims to improve the 
overall quality of existing state higher 
educational institutions by ensuring conformity 
to prescribed norms and standards.    

 
The Higher Education Financing Agency 
(HEFA) has been allocated Rs 2,100 crore for 2019-20, a 24% decrease over the revised estimates of 2018-19.  HEFA is tasked with the creation of high quality infrastructure in premier educational institutions.  All the centrally funded higher educational institutions are eligible for joining as members of the HEFA.23  Note that HEFA is jointly promoted by Canara Bank and the Ministry of Human Resource Development with an authorised capital of Rs 10,000 crore.  The HEFA has been tasked to mobilise Rs 1,00,000 crore to meet the infrastructure needs of higher educational institutions by 2022.  So far, the HEFA has approved projects of higher and medical educational institutions amounting to Rs 24,430 crore.24 
 
Expenditure on education (centre and states) as a proportion of GDP has been around 3 per cent during the period 2014-15 to 2018-19.2 Out of this figure, roughly 1% is spent on higher education in India.  However, there is a lack of data available on private sector spending in this sector.  Comparatively, in terms of public expenditure, USA spends about 1% of its GDP on higher education, Canada spends 1.3%, Chile spends 0.8% and Indonesia spends 0.5%.25 

## Issues In The Higher Education Sector Enrolment Levels

In India, GER in higher education has almost 
tripled over a period of 15 years, going from 9% 
in 2002-03 to 26% in 2017-18 (see Figure 
10).26,27   

## Figure 10: Ger In Higher Education (2010-18)

A GER of 25.8% implies that 25.8% of people in the target age-group are enrolled in universities.  The GER for higher education in India is fairly low compared to other countries such as the UK and USA, as seen in Figure 11. The draft National Education Policy (2019) stated that it aims to increase GER to 50% by 
2035 from the current level of about 25.8%.3   
Sources:  Education statistics at a glance, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2018; PRS. 

Student enrolment is highest at the UG level (79.2%) followed by PG (11.2%).  The recent AISHE 2017-18 report reveals that the student enrolment decreases as one goes further higher from the undergraduate level of education.27  

## Regulatory Issues In Higher Education

It has been noted by the National Knowledge Commission and the Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education (Chair: Prof Yashpal) that the Indian higher education landscape is characterised by a multiplicity of regulatory agencies, with overlapping mandates.28  This reduces the autonomy of higher educational institutions and creates an environment of dependency and centralised decision making.3   Stating that the system is overregulated and under governed, various committees have highlighted the need for an overarching body such as the Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education or the National Commission for Higher Education and Research by subsuming the multiple existing regulatory bodies.28,29  Such a body would be responsible for monitoring standards and licensing accreditation bodies. The Draft National Education Policy (2019) proposed setting up of the National Higher Education Regulatory Authority (NHERA).3  This independent authority would replace the existing individual regulators in higher education, including professional and vocational education.  This implies that the role of all professional councils such as AICTE and the Bar Council of India would be limited to setting standards for professional practice. The role of the University Grants Commission (UGC) will be limited to providing grants to higher educational institutions.3 

Note that the government released the draft Higher 
Education Commission of India (Repeal of 
University Grants Commission Act) Bill 2018.  It 
seeks to replace the University Grants Commission 
and set up a Higher Education Commission.30  

## Quality Standards In Higher Education

There are two accrediting institutions– namely 
National Board of Accreditation (NBA) established 
by AICTE and the National Assessment and 
Accreditation Council (NAAC) established by 
UGC.  It has been noted that only 10% of all 
institutions had been accredited.29  In terms of the 
quality of universities, out of 323 universities 
accredited by the NAAC in the most recent cycle, 
only 23 universities have been given an 'A+' 
grade.31 

The Standing Committee (2016) noted that 
accreditation of higher educational institutions 
needs to be at core of the regulatory arrangement in 
higher education.  Further, quality assurance 
agencies should guarantee basic minimum 
standards of technical education to meet the 
industry demand for quality manpower.  Credit 
rating agencies, reputed industry associations, and 
professional bodies should be encouraged to rate 
Indian universities and institutions.32   

## Lack Of Employable Skills

Lack of employable skills in students of technical 
education has been observed by the Standing 
Committee (2017) .22  Identification of skill gaps in 
different sectors and offering courses for enhancing 
employability in them has been recommended.  
Some strategies in this regard can include: (i) 
Industry Institute Student Training Support, (ii) 
Industrial Challenge Open Forum, (iii) Long Term 
Student Industry Placement Scheme, and (iv) 
Industrial Finishing Schools.22 

## Private Sector And Profit Motive In Higher Education

A UGC report in 2012 noted that the distribution of 
public and private institutions in India is skewed.  
This is because enrolment in public universities is 
largely concentrated in conventional disciplines 
(arts and sciences) whereas in private institutions, 
more students are enrolled in market-driven 
disciplines (engineering, management, etc.).33 Thus, 
with a rise in private universities, there is a 
mismatch of the demand and supply of subject 
disciplines in the private sector education. 

It has been noted that while private investment is 
high in the disciplines of engineering, medicine and 
management; majority of enrolment is still taking 
place in the traditional disciplines like arts.29   

Committees have stated that the private sector should not confine itself to the commercially viable sectors such as management, accountancy, medicine, etc., as this leads to the responsibility of the government to maximise enrolment.28  

## Fee Structure

It has been observed that many private institutions of higher education charge exorbitant fees.  In the absence of well-defined norms, fees charged by such universities have remained high.32  UGC regulates fees for courses offered in deemed universities, to an extent.  They state that the fees charged shall be directly linked to the cost of running the course and the institution shall ensure non-commercialisation of education.  In 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that the fees charged by private unaided educational institutes could be regulated.34  Also, while banning capitation fee (fees exceeding the tuition fee), it allowed institutes to charge a reasonable surplus. AICTE had constituted a Committee in 2014 under Justice Srikrishna to recommend the fee to be charged by the private technical educational institutes in the country.35  The Committee recommended the maximum tuition and development fee to be charged. 

## 

6  "Report no. 285: Action Taken Report on 280th Report on Demands for Grants 2016-17", Department of School Education and Literacy, Standing Committee on Human Resource Development, December 16, 2016, http://164.100.47.5/newcommittee/reports/EnglishCommittees/C ommittee%20on%20HRD/285.pdf. 7  Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, Ministry of Human Resource Development, http://rmsaindia.gov.in/en/component/rmsastates/?view=rmsastat es&Itemid=130&id=india 8  Fourth Joint Review Mission, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, 2014, 

## Teacher Related Issues

According to UGC, out of the total teaching posts 
of 17,425 in various UGC funded Central 
Universities, 6,141 (35%) teaching posts are lying 
vacant.36  Further, in 20 Indian Institute of 
Management (IIMs), out of total sanctioned 
teaching posts of 1,004, 253 posts are lying 
vacant;37 and in 7 IISERs and IISc, Bangalore, the 
total number of sanctioned teaching posts is 1,117 
and 153 are lying vacant.38 

The Standing Committee on Human Resource 
Development (2017) reasoned that this could be 
due to two reasons: (i) young students don't find 
the teaching profession attractive; or (ii) the 
recruitment process is long and involves too many 
procedural formalities.22  In 2008, the Bhargava 
Committee observed that the government 
determined pay of the faculty has been a deterrent 
in attracting adequate faculty at IIMs.39   

The Committee recommended that the recruitment 
process should start well before a post is vacated.39  
In addition, to make the profession of teaching 
more lucrative, faculty should be encouraged to 
undertake consultancy projects and be provided 
financial support for start-ups.  The Standing 
Committee did not consider that raising the age of 
faculty to 65 is a desired and permanent measure 
which will help strengthening the faculty position 
in central universities.32 

http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_docume
nt/4th%20JRM%20AM%202014%2008%2023%20FINAL%20
_2_.pdf. 
9 Lok Sabha, Unstarred Question No. 1528, Ministry of Human 
Resource Development, July 1, 2019, 
http://164.100.24.220/loksabhaquestions/annex/171/AU1528.pdf
. 
10 Educational Statistics at a Glance 2018, Ministry of Human 
Resource Development, 
https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-
new/ESAG-2018.pdf. 
11 Key Indicators of Social Consumption in India: Education 
(2014), NSS (71st Round), 
http://mail.mospi.gov.in/index.php/catalog/160. 
12. "Report of CABE Sub Committee on Assessment on 
implementation of CCE and no detention provision", 2015, 
Ministry of Human Resource 
Development, http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/d
ocument-reports/AssmntCCE.pdf.     
13 A summary of India's National Achievement Survey, Class 
VIII, 2012, National Council of Educational Research and 
Training, 
http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_docume
nt/11-March-National-Summary-Report-NAS-Class-VIII.pdf. 
14 National Achievement Survey 2017, Dashboard, 
http://nas.schooleduinfo.in/dashboard/nas_ncert#/. 
15  Economic Survey, 2016-17, http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2016-
17/echapter_vol2.pdf. 
16  "What students of class V know and can do", National 
Achievement Survey, Class V (Cycle 4), 2015, 
http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/esd/pdf/NAS_Class_V_
(Cycle%204)_Summary_Report_National.pdf.  
17 "Report to the People on Education", 2011-12, Ministry of 
Human Resource Development, 

http://164.100.24.220/loksabhaquestions/annex/16/AU4262.pdf. 

25  "Education at a glance", OECD, 2017, https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2017_eag-2017-en#page182 26  All India Survey on Higher Education, 2014-15, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Department of Higher Education, http://aishe.nic.in/aishe/viewDocument.action?documentId=206. 27 All India Survey on Higher Education, 2017-18, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Department of Higher Education, http://aishe.nic.in/aishe/viewDocument.action?documentId=245. http://www.ugc.ac.in/ugcpdf/740315_12FYP.pdf. http://164.100.47.190/loksabhaquestions/annex/14/AS33.pdf. DISCLAIMER: This document is being furnished to you for your information.  You may choose to reproduce or redistribute this report for non-commercial purposes in part or in full to any other person with due acknowledgement of PRS Legislative Research ("PRS").  The opinions expressed herein are entirely those of the author(s).  PRS makes every effort to use reliable and comprehensive information, but PRS does not represent that the contents of the report are accurate or complete.  PRS is an independent, not-for-profit group.  This document has been prepared without regard to the objectives or opinions of those who may receive it. 


Change 
2018-19 
2018-19 
2019-20 
Major Heads 
2017-18 
Actuals 
BE 
RE 
BE 
% Change 
RE (2018-
19)/Actuals 
(2017-18) 
between RE 
2018-19 and 
BE 2019-20 
Department of School Education and Literacy 
46,600  
50,000  
50,114  
7.5% 
56,537  
12.8% 
Scholarships 
558  
556  
556  
-0.3% 
468  
-15.7% 
Autonomous bodies 
8,568  
7,548  
8,591  
0.3% 
8,290  
-3.5% 
Samagra Shiksha 
  
  
  
  
36,322  
  
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 
23,484  
26,129  
26,129  
11.3% 
  
-100.0% 
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan 
4,033  
4,213  
4,164  
3.2% 
  
-100.0% 
Teachers Training and Adult Education 
691  
871  
541  
-21.7% 
125  
-76.8% 
National Programme of Mid-Day Meal in Schools 
9,092  
10,500  
9,949  
9.4% 
11,000  
10.6% 
Others 
174  
184  
184  
5.7% 
331  
79.7% 
Department of Higher Education 
33,614  
35,010  
33,512  
-0.3% 
38,317  
14.3% 
Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) 
250  
2,750  
2,750  
1000.0% 
2,100  
-23.6% 
Student Financial Aid 
2,218  
2,600  
2,155  
-2.8% 
2,306  
7.0% 
Digital India-e-learning 
336  
456  
511  
52.2% 
579  
13.2% 
Research and Innovation 
254  
350  
244  
-4.0% 
609  
149.9% 
Statutory and regulatory bodies (UGC and AICTE) 
5,122  
5,208  
5,139  
0.3% 
5,059  
-1.6% 
Grants to Central Universities 
7,286  
6,445  
6,499  
-10.8% 
6,843  
5.3% 
Indian Institutes of Technology 
8,337  
6,326  
5,715  
-31.5% 
6,410  
12.2% 
Indian Institutes of Management 
821  
1,036  
372  
-54.7% 
446  
19.8% 
National Institutes of Technology 
3,452  
3,203  
3,721  
7.8% 
3,787  
1.8% 
Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research (IISERs) 
780  
689  
650  
-16.6% 
899  
38.3% 
Indian Institutes of Information Technology(IIITs) 
271  
364  
440  
62.7% 
375  
-14.9% 
Rashtriya Uchhatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) 
1,203  
1,400  
1,500  
24.7% 
2,100  
40.0% 
Improvement in Salary Scale of University and College Teachers 
671  
950  
469  
-30.0% 
2,000  
326.3% 
Others 
2,614  
3,233  
3,347  
28.0% 
4,805  
43.6% 
 Total  
80,215  
85,010  
83,626  
4.3% 
94,854  
13.4% 

Sources:  Demand for Grants, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget, 2019-20; PRS. 


## Indicators On School And Higher Education

GER in Secondary 
GER in Elementary Education 
Education 
GER in Higher 
(Classes 1-8) 
(Classes 9-12) 
State/ UT 
Education  
Total 
(Beyond class 12) 
Primary 
Upper 
Primary 
Elementary 
Secondary 
Higher 
Secondary 
Andhra Pradesh 
82.8 
82.4 
82.5 
76.3 
50.6 
30.9 
Arunachal Pradesh 
106.2 
119.9 
110.4 
85.9 
51.6 
29.7 
Assam 
107.4 
96.7 
103.7 
78.6 
39.7 
18.2 
Bihar 
98.1 
103.9 
99.9 
76.7 
28.8 
13.0 
Chhattisgarh 
97.1 
100.8 
98.5 
87.7 
54.5 
18.4 
Goa 
101.3 
97.1 
99.7 
99.3 
78.7 
28.0 
Gujarat 
95.0 
97.2 
95.8 
74.5 
43.2 
20.1 
Haryana 
93.9 
94.4 
94.1 
86.3 
60.8 
28.7 
Himachal Pradesh 
97.9 
103.0 
99.8 
103.9 
92.0 
37.9 
Jammu & Kashmir 
77.1 
66.2 
73.0 
61.7 
52.9 
27.7 
Jharkhand 
96.6 
91.8 
95.0 
63.5 
37.1 
18.0 
Karnataka 
103.7 
2.9 
99.7 
84.4 
41.9 
27.8 
Kerala 
95.1 
93.6 
94.6 
99.4 
79.4 
36.2 
Madhya Pradesh 
92.1 
89.7 
91.3 
80.2 
47.1 
21.2 
Manipur 
120.6 
119.3 
120.2 
86.5 
64.4 
31.8 
Maharashtra 
97.5 
98.7 
97.9 
91.7 
70.7 
31.1 
Meghalaya 
129.1 
128.0 
128.8 
83.3 
40.6 
24.7 
Mizoram 
115.7 
127.5 
119.3 
95.9 
54.6 
22.9 
Nagaland 
81.7 
90.4 
84.4 
61.8 
36.3 
17.8 
Odisha 
100.2 
94.6 
98.1 
79.9 
40.1 
22.0 
Punjab 
99.3 
97.7 
98.7 
87.1 
72.2 
30.3 
Rajasthan 
97.8 
92.0 
95.8 
76.6 
60.3 
21.7 
Sikkim 
92.0 
136.8 
106.9 
112.0 
64.2 
37.4 
Tamil Nadu 
102.0 
93.4 
98.6 
93.9 
83.7 
48.6 
Telangana 
98.6 
86.9 
94.1 
81.8 
50.6 
35.7 
Tripura 
102.4 
126.4 
110.0 
112.3 
41.9 
21.2 
Uttar Pradesh 
87.2 
72.7 
82.1 
67.8 
59.0 
25.9 
Uttarakhand 
96.4 
86.7 
92.7 
84.4 
77.1 
36.3 
West Bengal 
96.3 
96.3 
96.3 
78.6 
50.9 
18.7 
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 
86.9 
83.1 
85.4 
84.1 
72.8 
21.8 
Chandigarh 
80.1 
95.6 
85.8 
89.7 
83.2 
56.4 
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 
82.9 
91.6 
86.0 
91.2 
51.8 
9.1 
Daman & Diu 
84.0 
81.1 
82.9 
73.3 
34.6 
5.2 
Delhi 
109.2 
129.0 
115.9 
114.4 
74.2 
46.3 
Lakshadweep 
70.0 
81.4 
79.8 
105.7 
97.9 
7.6 
Puducherry 
85.6 
84.8 
85.3 
87.5 
74.2 
45.4 
India 
95.1 
90.7 
93.6 
79.4 
55.4 
25.8 

Note: Enrolment rate can exceed 100% due to early or late school entrance and grade repetition, or for example, children not in the 6-14 age group still being enrolled in elementary school.  Data for higher education is of 2017. Sources: Flash Statistics, DISE 2016-17; AISHE 2017-18, Ministry of Human Resource Development; PRS. 

 

Pupil Teacher Ratio 
Higher 
State/UT 
Primary  
Secondary 
(Classes 1-5) 
Upper Primary 
(Classes 6-8) 
(Classes 9-10) 
secondary 
(Classes 11-
Higher 
(Beyond 
class 12) 
12) 
Andhra Pradesh 
21 
16 
20 
71 
13 
Arunachal Pradesh 
12 
7 
22 
37 
31 
Assam 
21 
13 
14 
20 
22 
Bihar 
36 
24 
66 
59 
50 
Chhattisgarh 
20 
17 
33 
27 
20 
Goa 
20 
16 
13 
18 
15 
Gujarat 
19 
13 
34 
29 
25 
Haryana 
20 
13 
15 
15 
17 
Himachal Pradesh 
12 
10 
18 
14 
19 
Jammu & Kashmir 
9 
6 
15 
29 
21 
Jharkhand 
27 
19 
62 
78 
48 
Karnataka 
19 
13 
16 
30 
13 
Kerala 
18 
14 
17 
21 
13 
Madhya Pradesh 
20 
18 
39 
38 
21 
Maharashtra 
24 
17 
23 
44 
20 
Manipur 
12 
8 
12 
19 
19 
Meghalaya 
21 
13 
12 
21 
21 
Mizoram 
14 
6 
9 
15 
15 
Nagaland 
10 
6 
15 
21 
14 
Odisha 
17 
14 
20 
45 
20 
Punjab 
18 
12 
16 
26 
15 
Rajasthan 
17 
10 
21 
32 
24 
Sikkim 
5 
5 
17 
15 
12 
Tamil Nadu 
18 
15 
21 
25 
13 
Telangana 
23 
15 
22 
47 
14 
Tripura 
10 
8 
28 
11 
26 
Uttar Pradesh 
39 
31 
56 
97 
34 
Uttarakhand 
18 
17 
16 
25 
20 
West Bengal 
25 
27 
39 
57 
32 
Andaman & Nicobar Islands  
8 
6 
14 
16 
20 
Chandigarh 
13 
9 
13 
28 
22 
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 
17 
13 
30 
30 
27 
Daman & Diu 
26 
14 
17 
13 
16 
Delhi 
24 
17 
30 
21 
19 
Lakshadweep 
7 
7 
7 
12 
13 
Puducherry 
14 
9 
11 
17 
9 
All India 
23 
17 
27 
37 
20 

Sources: Education Statistics at a Glance 2018, Ministry of Human Resource Development; PRS 