
## Demand For Grants 2020-21 Analysis Human Resource Development

The Ministry of Human Resource Development consists of two departments: (i) school education and literacy, and (ii) higher education.  In 2020- 21, the Ministry has been allocated Rs 99,312 crore, the sixth highest allocation among all Ministries.  The allocation constitutes 3% of the central government's estimated expenditure for 
2020-21.   This note presents the trends in expenditure, and discusses some of the issues related to the education sector.  
The Department of School Education and Literacy under the Ministry is broadly responsible for education imparted between the ages of six to 18 years, i.e., school education.  Under the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 the government is mandated to provide elementary education to all children between six to 14 years of age. Secondary education is imparted between classes nine to 12 for children between 14-18 years of age. In 2020-21, this Department has been allocated Rs 59,845 crore, accounting for 60% of the Ministry's total allocation.   
The **Department of Higher Education** is responsible for higher education, and training for students above 18 years of age.  Higher education includes undergraduate and postgraduate courses, doctoral degrees, and certificates following the completion of 12 years of schooling or equivalent. In 2020-21, the Department has been allocated Rs 39,467 crore, accounting for 40% of the Ministry's total allocation.   

## Overview Of Finances Budget Estimates 2020-21

The Ministry has been allocated Rs 99,312 crore in 2020-21.  This is a 4.7% increase over the revised estimate of 2019-20.1   

## Table 1: Budget Allocations For The Mhrd (2020-21) (In Rs Crore)

% 
RE 
BE 
Department 
Actuals 
2018-19 
2019-20 
2020-21 
chang
e (RE 
to BE) 
48,441 
56,537 
59,845 
5.9% 
School Education & Literacy Higher Education 
31,904 
38,317 
39,467 
3.0% 
Total 
80,345 
94,854 
99,312 
4.7% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate; RE - Revised Estimates. Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource Tel: (011) 2323 4801, 4343 4035; www.prsindia.org 

Table 2 depicts the major heads under which the 
Ministry spends its funds (as a percentage of its 
total allocation).  In 2020-21, expenditure on 
centrally sponsored schemes (Samagra Shiksha 
and Mid-Day Meal Programme in Schools) 
constitute 50% of the estimated spending of the 
Ministry.  This is followed by expenditure towards 
autonomous bodies such as the Kendriya 
Vidyalaya Sangathan (9%) and grants to central 
universities (8%).   

Ministry (2020-21) (in %) 
| Expenditure head               | Allocation (%)    |
|--------------------------------|-------------------|
| Samagra Shiksha                | 39%               |
| Mid-Day Meal Programme         | 11%               |
| Autonomous Bodies              | 9%                |
| Grants to Central Universities | 8%                |
| IITs                           | 7%                |
| UGC and AICTE                  | 5%                |
| Others                         | 20%               |
| Total                          | 100%              |

Note: Autonomous Bodies include Kendriya Vidyalaya and 
Sangathan, Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti. 
 'Others' includes other schemes and programmes under the 
Ministry each with an allocation of less than 5% of the total 
expenditure.  
Sources: Expenditure Budget, Vol. 2, Ministry of Human 
Resource Development, 2020-21; PRS. 

## Budget Speech Highlights 2019-20

 
A new National Education Policy will be released. The new Policy proposes major changes in both school education and higher education.   
 
To ensure greater inflow of finance in education, steps will be taken to enable sourcing external commercial borrowings and Foreign Direct Investment in India.   
 
About 150 higher educational institutions will start apprenticeship embedded degree and diploma courses by March 2021. 
 
As part of the 'Study in India' which focuses on bringing foreign students to study in Indian higher educational institutions, the government will hold Ind- SAT in Asian and African countries.   

## Department Of School Education And Literacy

In 2020-21, the Department has been allocated Rs 
59,845 crore, a 5.9% increase over the revised estimates of 2019-20.1  Figure 1 shows the allocation of the Department of School Education and Literacy over the past 10 years (2010-20).  
Note: Revised estimates have been used for 2019-20 and Budget estimates for 2020-21. Sources: Union Budgets, 2010-20; PRS. 

Note that in 2015-16, the allocation was reduced by 9%.  Since then, the allocation has been on an upward trajectory.  Between 2010-11 and 2020-21, allocation to the Department has grown at an average annual rate of 5%.  Table 3 compares actual allocation of the Department with the budget estimates.  The utilisation in the last three years has been over 97% of the budget estimates. 

the actual expenditure  (2010-19) (in Rs crore) 
Year 
Budget 
estimate 
Actuals 
Actuals/BE 
(%) 
2010-11 
33,214 
36,433 
110% 
2011-12 
41,451 
40,641 
98% 
2012-13 
48,781 
45,631 
94% 
2013-14 
52,701 
46,856 
89% 
2014-15 
55,115 
45,722 
83% 
2015-16 
42,220 
41,800 
99% 
2016-17 
43,554 
42,989 
99% 
2017-18 
46,356 
46,600 
101% 
2018-19 
50,000 
        48,441  
97% 
2019-20 
  56,537  
      56,537*  
*100% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate. *Revised Estimate Sources: Union Budgets, 2012-20; PRS. 

Table 4 presents the details of the Department's 
allocation in 2020-21.  In July 2018, the Ministry 
launched the 'Samagra Shiksha' scheme, which 
subsumed three schemes, namely: (i) Sarva 
Shiksha Abhiyan (class 1-8), (ii) Rashtriya 
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (class 9-12), and 
(iii) Teacher Education.  

In 2020-21, expenditure on centrally sponsored 
schemes (Samagra Shiksha and Mid-Day Meal 
Programme in Schools) constitute 87% of the 
estimated spending of the Department of School 
Education and Literacy.   

% 
2018-
Major Head 
19 
2019-
20 RE 
2020-
21 BE 
Actuals 
change 
(RE to 
BE) 
29,437  
36,292  38,861  
7.1% 
National Education Mission  
Samagra Shiksha  
  
36,274  38,751  
6.8% 
25,616  
  
  
  
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 
3,399  
  
  
  
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan 
422  
18  
110  
514.5% 
Teachers Training and Adult Education 
9,514  
9,912  11,000  
11.0% 
National Programme of Mid-Day Meal in Schools Autonomous bodies 
8,588  
9,754  
9,205  
-5.6% 
Scholarships 
484  
423  
483  
14.2% 
Others 
418  
155  
297  
91.3% 
Total 
48,441  
56,537  59,845  
5.9% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate; RE - Revised Estimates. Sources: Expenditure Budget, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget 2020-21; PRS.  

 
Samagra Shiksha has been allocated Rs 
38,751 crore in 2020-21.  This is an increase of 6.8% from the revised estimates of 2019- 20.  Note that, Teacher Training and Adult Education (subsumed under Samagra Shiksha) has been allocated Rs 110 crore in 2020-21.  This is an increase of 515% from the revised estimates of 2019-20.  However, the Department had budgeted to spend Rs 125 crore in 2019-20 which was revised down to Rs 18 crore.  
 
Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS):  
Expenditure on Mid-Day Meal Scheme 

(MDMS) increased by about 11% in 2020-21 
from the revised estimates of 2019-20.  The 
MDMS targets children in the same age 
group as covered by the SSA (6 to 14 years).  

 
Autonomous bodies:  Autonomous bodies 
like the National Council of Educational Research and Training, and Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan saw a decrease in their allocation by 5.6% (from the revised estimates of last year) and were allocated Rs 9,205 crore in 2020-21. 
 
Scholarships:  Scholarships saw an increase 
of 14.2% in its allocation in 2020-21. Scholarships provided by the Ministry include provisions of Rs 6,000 per year to one lakh meritorious students of economically weaker sections.  The aim is to reduce drop-out of students in class eight and encourage them to 
continue schooling till class 12.   

## Issues In School Education Enrolment, Transition And Dropout Rates

Enrolment:  Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is the student enrolment as a proportion of the corresponding eligible age group in a given year. In 2015-16, enrolment in classes 1-5 was about 99.2%, which signals a more age appropriate (six to 10 years) class composition (see Figure 2).2 
The GER at the upper primary (92.8%), secondary (80%) and senior secondary (56.2 %) levels have increased in the last few years.  Note that, while enrolment has gone up at the secondary level, overall there is a decline in the number of children staying in school (See Figure 7). Also, the amount of funds being spent on elementary education (class 1-8) has been significantly higher than the expenditure on secondary education (class 9-12). Table 5 captures the expenditure for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan since 2014-15.   

| Year    | SSA    | RMSA    | Total    |
|---------|--------|---------|----------|
| 2014-15 | 24,123 | 3,398   | 27,521   |
| 2015-16 | 21,590 | 3,562   | 25,152   |
| 2016-17 | 21,678 | 3,699   | 25,377   |
| 2017-18 | 19,319 | 3,602   | 22,921   |
| Year    |        |         |          |
| Samagra |        |         |          |
| Shiksha |        |         |          |
| 2018-19 | 29,294 |         |          |
| 2019-20 | 25,404 |         |          |

Note:  Numbers for 2019-20 are as of January 1, 2020.  SSA 
and RMSA subsumed under Samagra Shiksha in 2018-19. 
Source: Lok Sabha, Unstarred Question No. 205, Ministry of 
Human Resource Development, February 3, 2020; PRS. 

India's enrolment rate in primary education (class 
1-5) is comparable to that of developed countries.  
However, it falls behind these countries after class 
6 (see Figure 3). 

Attendance:  Attendance is the ratio of the 
number of persons in the official age group 
attending a particular class-group to the total 
number persons enrolled in school in that age-
group.  The attendance for both boys and girls 
falls as the level of education rises in school 
education.  As Figure 4 indicates there is 
negligible difference between the attendance of 
boys and girls.  

Sources:  Key Indicators of Social Consumption in India: Education, NSSO, 2018; PRS. 

Transition and dropouts: The dropout rate peaks at the secondary level (class 9-10) at 17% as compared to 4% in elementary school (class 1- 8) and 2% in upper secondary school (class 11-
12) (see Figure 5).  This is also reflected in the transition rates in school education where the lowest transition rate is at the secondary level (class 10 to 11) at 66%.  Note that a transition rate below 100% indicates that the students are held back or have dropped out of school. According to NSSO data (2018), the key reasons for females dropping out is to engage in domestic activities (30%), lack of interest in education (15%), and marriage (13%).  On the other hand, the key reasons for males dropping out is to engage in economic activities (37%), financial constraints (24%), and lack of interest in education (19%).3 Till 2019, under the RTE Act, a child could not be expelled or detained until the completion of elementary education (until class 8). However, RTE Act was amended in 2019 to remove the provision related to no-detention to address low learning outcomes.  Note that, the Draft National Education Policy (2019) recommends that the amendments to the RTE Act on continuous and comprehensive evaluation and the no detention policy must be reviewed.  It states that there should be no detention of children till class eight. Instead, schools must ensure that children are achieving age appropriate learning levels.4   

## Quality Of Learning

Elementary education:  Over the years, expert committees have made some adverse observations regarding the learning outcomes of children.  The Central Advisory Board on Education (CABE, 2014), National Achievement Survey (2012 and 2017), and the Economic Survey (2016-17) observed declining learning levels in elementary education even after the implementation of the RTE Act.5,6,7,8   
As per the Annual Status of Education Report, between 2014 to 2018, there has been a gradual improvement in both basic literacy and numeracy 

for class three students but still only 25% of them 
are at grade level (ability to read and do basic 
operations like subtraction of class two level).  
The report also shows that one out of four children 
leaving class eight are without basic reading skills 
(ability to read at least at class two level).9  

Under the RTE Act, children are enrolled in the 
class that corresponds to their age, irrespective of 
their learning levels.  This results in a situation 
where in the same class, depending on when they 
are enrolled in school, children may have different 
learning requirements.  It has been recommended 
that special training be organised and is of flexible 
duration to enable the child to be at par with other 
children and to ensure his integration with the 
class.10   Note that, the RTE Rules were amended 
in February 2017 to include class-wise, subject-
wise learning outcomes till class eight.11  

Secondary education:  In the National 
Achievement Survey (2015) for class 10, in the 
English subject, 24% students were in the range of 
0-35% score and 61% students were in the range 
of 36-50% score.  Further, 35% students were in 
0-35% scores, and 49% students were in the range 
of 36-50% scores in Mathematics.12 

Nature of assessment:  Under the RTE Act, the 
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) 
method is used for evaluating learning levels in 
elementary education.  It includes paper-pencil 
tests, drawing and reading pictures, and expressing 
orally, and is different than the traditional system 
of examinations.  However, CCE has not been 
adequately implemented or monitored.5  It has 
been recommended that proper design of 
assessment and using this information can help 
improve the quality and innovation in terms of 
teaching and learning.13   

Note that the RTE Act 2009 has been amended 
state that a regular examination will be held in 
class 5 and class 8 at the end of every academic 
year.  If a child fails the exam, he will be given 
additional instruction, and take a re-examination.  
If he fails in the re-examination, the relevant 
central or state government may decide to allow 
schools to detain the child.    

The Draft National Education Policy (2019) noted 
that the current education system solely focuses on 
rote learning of facts and procedures.  Hence, it 
recommends that the curriculum load in each 
subject should be reduced to its essential core 
content.  This would make space for holistic, 
discussion and analysis-based learning.4 

## Other Issues

Teachers related issues:  Experts have identified 
various issues with regard to the role of teachers to 
address the challenges confronting elementary 
education.4,14,10  These include: (i) low teacher 

accountability and appraisal, (ii) poor quality of the content of teacher-education and changes required in the curriculum of B. Ed and D. Ed courses, (iii) need for continuous in-service teacher training and upgradation of skill set, (iv) 
inadequate pupil teacher ratio and deployment of teachers for non-educational purposes, (v) teacher vacancies, and (vi) excessive recruitment of contract/para teachers. In 2017, nine lakh posts of teachers were vacant in elementary schools.15  Further, more than one lakh teacher posts were vacant in secondary schools. The draft National Education Policy (2019) recommends that teachers should be deployed with a particular school complex (comprising one secondary school and all the public schools in its neighbourhood) for at least five to seven years. Further, teachers should not be allowed to participate in any non-teaching activities (such as cooking mid-day meals or participating in vaccination campaigns) during school hours that could affect their teaching capacities. For teacher training, the draft Policy recommends that existing B.Ed. programme be replaced by a four-year integrated B.Ed. programme that combines high-quality content, pedagogy, and practical training.  An integrated continuous professional development will also be developed for all subjects.  Teachers will be required to complete a minimum of 50 hours of continuous professional development training every year. 

The Right to Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act):  
Currently, the RTE Act provides for free and compulsory education to all children from the age of six to 14 years. The draft National Education Policy (2019) recommended extending the ambit of the RTE Act to include early childhood education and secondary school education.  
School accountability:  In 2014, CABE 
recommended introducing a performance management system for all teachers, school leaders, and department officials, with performance measures linked with student learning outcomes.5  Such measures of school accountability exist in other countries.  For example, in the United States, under the No Child Left Behind Act, schools are required to do annual assessment of learning outcomes in reading and mathematics for students from classes 3 to 8.  If the school fails to achieve minimum test scores then the consequences include removal of teachers or the headmaster from service, school restructuring or closure, and an option for students to transfer to another school.16  

## Department Of Higher Education

The Department of Higher Education has been 
allocated Rs 39,467 crore in 2020-21, a 3% 
increase over the revised estimate of 2019-20.   
Figure 6 depicts the allocation to the Department 
of Higher Education since 2010-11.   

Expenditure on education by the centre and the 
states as a proportion of the Gross Domestic 
Product (GDP) has been around 3%  between 
2014-15 to 2018-19.17  Out of this figure, roughly 
1% is spent on higher education in India.   

Note: Revised estimates have been used for 2019-20 and budget estimates for 2020-21. 

Sources: Union Budgets, 2008-20; PRS.      

Table 6 indicates the actual allocation of the 
Department compared to the budget estimates of 
that year.  The utilisation has been over 90% of the 
budget estimates in the last three years as seen in 
the table.  In 2016-17 and 2017-18, the 
Department exceeded its budget estimates, i.e., 
crossed 100% utilisation. 

Table 6: Comparison of budget estimates and the actual expenditure (2010-19) (in Rs crore) 
Year 
Budget 
Estimate 
Actuals 
Actuals/BE (%) 
2010-11 
16,690 
15,472 
93% 
2011-12 
21,912 
19,505 
89% 
2012-13 
25,275 
20,423 
81% 
2013-14 
26,750 
24,465 
91% 
2014-15 
27,656 
23,152 
84% 
2015-16 
26,855 
25,439 
95% 
2016-17 
28,840 
29,026 
101% 
2017-18 
33,330 
33,614  
101% 
2018-19 
35,010 
31,904  
91% 
2019-20 
38,317  
38,317*  
100% 

Note: BE - Budget Estimate. *Revised Estimate Sources: Union Budgets, 2010-20 PRS. 

 

Higher Education in 2020-21 (in Rs crore) 
% 
2019-20 
2020-21 
Major Heads 
2018-19 
Actuals 
RE 
BE 
change 
(RE to 
BE) 
Grants to Central Universities 
6,599  
8,287  
7,643  
-8% 
IITs 
5,590  
6,560  
7,332  
12% 
UGC and AICTE 
5,114  
4,857  
  5,109  
5% 
NITs 
3,389  
3,547  
3,885  
10% 
Student Financial Aid 
1,897  
2,321  
2,316  
0% 
2,263  
2,100  
2,200  
5% 
Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) Improvement in salary of teachers 
469  
1,800  
1,900  
6% 
IISERs 
620  
841  
896  
7% 
IIMs 
351  
501  
476  
-5% 
Digital India-elearning 
455  
541  
444  
-18% 
World Class Institutions 
127 
325 
400 
23% 
IIITs 
428  
375  
393  
5% 
Research and Innovation 
205  
340  
307  
-10% 
1,393  
1,380  
300  
-78% 
 Rashtriya Uchhatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) Others 
3,005  
4,543  
5,864  
29% 
Grand Total 
31,904  
38,317  
39,467  
3% 

Sources: Expenditure Budget, Vol. 2, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget 2020-21; PRS.  
Key allocation trends are as follows: 

 
About 51% of the Department's expenditure has been allocated to central universities (as grants), IITs, and statutory and regulatory 
bodies (University Grants Commission (UGC) and All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)).   
 
The bulk of the enrolment in higher education is handled by state universities and their affiliated colleges.  However, these state universities receive small amounts of grants from the Union Budget.  Nearly 65% of the UGC's budget is utilised by the central universities and their colleges while state universities and their affiliated colleges get only the remaining 35%.18  The Standing Committee on Human Resource Development (2016) recommended that the mobilisation of funds in state universities should be explored through other means such as endowments, and contributions from industry and alumni.18 
 
The Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) has been allocated Rs 2,200 crore for 2020-21, a 5% decrease over the revised 

estimates of 2019-20.  HEFA is tasked with 
the creation of high quality infrastructure in 
premier educational institutions.  All the 
centrally funded higher educational 
institutions are eligible for joining as 
members of the HEFA.19  Note that HEFA is 
jointly promoted by Canara Bank and the 
Ministry of Human Resource Development 
with an authorised capital of Rs 10,000 crore.  
HEFA has been tasked to mobilise one lakh 
crore rupees to meet the infrastructure needs 
of higher educational institutions by 2022.  So 
far, the HEFA has approved 75 projects of 
higher and medical educational institutions 
amounting to Rs 25,565 crore.20 

 
Allocation to World Class Institutions in 2020-21 is Rs 400 crore, an increase of 23% from the revised estimates of 2019-20.  The government has selected ten private institutions and eight public institutions as institutes of eminence.21  These institutions will have greater autonomy in admitting foreign students, fixing fees, and recruiting foreign faculty.  Further, each public institution declared as an institute of eminence will get financial assistance of up to Rs 1,000 crore over the period of five years. 
 
The funding allocation for Rashtriya Uchchtar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) has significantly decreased by 78% at Rs 300 crore (from the 2019-20 revised estimates).  RUSA aims to improve the overall quality of existing state higher educational institutions by ensuring conformity to prescribed norms and standards. Note that, in 2018, the Union Cabinet approved the continuation of the scheme till March 31, 2020. 

## Issues In The Higher Education Sector Enrolment Levels

In India, GER in higher education has almost 
tripled over a period of 15 years, going from 
9% in 2002-03 to 26% in 2017-18 (see Figure 
7).22,23   

A GER of 26% implies that 26% of people in the target age-group are enrolled in universities.  The GER for higher education in India is fairly low compared to other countries such as the UK and USA (Figure 8).  The Draft National Education Policy (2019) states that it aims to increase GER to 50% by 2035.4 
Sources:  Education Statistics at a Glance, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2018; PRS. 

Student enrolment is highest at the UG level (79.2%) followed by PG (11.2%).  The recent AISHE 2017-18 report reveals that student enrolment decreases as one goes further higher from the undergraduate level of education.23  

## Regulatory Issues In Higher Education

Over the years, several expert bodies such as the National Knowledge Commission (2009), the Yashpal Committee (2010), and the Committee for Evolution of the New Education Policy (2016) have suggested measures to reform higher education to address issues related to access, quality, funding and governance.24,25,26    Noting that the current system is overregulated but under governed, they recommended consolidating all existing regulators under an independent regulator.  This body was envisaged to perform its regulatory functions without interfering with the academic and institutional autonomy of higher educational institutions.4 The Draft National Education Policy (2019) proposed setting up of the National Higher Education Regulatory Authority (NHERA).4  This independent authority would replace the existing individual regulators in higher education, including professional and vocational education. This implies that the role of all professional councils such as the Bar Council of India would be limited to setting standards for professional practice.  UGC's role would be limited to providing grants to higher education institutions. Note that the government had released the draft Higher Education Commission of India (Repeal of University Grants Commission Act) Bill, 2018 in June 2018.  It seeks to replace the UGC and set up a Higher Education Commission.27  

## Quality Standards In Higher Education

Currently, there are two accrediting institutions - 
(i) the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) 
established by AICTE, and (i) the National 
Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) 
established by UGC.  In terms of the quality of 
universities, out of 323 universities accredited by 
the NAAC in the most recent cycle, only 23 
universities have been given an 'A+' grade.28 

The Standing Committee on Human Resource 
Development (2016) noted that accreditation of 
higher educational institutions needs to be at core 
of the regulatory arrangement in higher education.  
Credit rating agencies, reputed industry 
associations, and professional bodies should be 
encouraged to rate Indian universities and 
institutions.29   

The Draft National Education Policy (2019) 
recommended separating NAAC from the UGC 
into an independent and autonomous body.4  In its 
new role, NAAC will function as the top level 
accreditor, and will issue licenses to different 
accreditation institutions, who will assess higher 
educational institutions once every five to seven 
years.  All existing higher education institutions 
should be accredited by 2030.  

## Private Sector And Profit Motive In Higher Education

A UGC report in 2012 noted that the distribution 
of public and private institutions in India is 
skewed.  This is because enrolment in public 
universities is largely concentrated in conventional 
disciplines (arts and sciences) whereas in private 
institutions, more students are enrolled in market-
driven disciplines (engineering, management, 
etc.).30  Thus, with a rise in private universities, 
there is a mismatch of the demand and supply of 
subject disciplines in the private sector education. 

The National Knowledge Commission noted that 
while private investment is high in the disciplines 
of engineering, medicine and management; 
majority of enrolment is still taking place in the 
traditional disciplines like arts.25  The Yashpal 
Committee further noted have stated that the 
private sector should not confine itself to the 
commercially viable sectors such as management, 
accountancy, and medicine as this leads to the 
responsibility of the government to maximise 
enrolment in general subjects.24  

## Fee Structure

The Standing Committee on Human Resource Development (2011) has been observed that many private institutions of higher education charge exorbitant fees. 31  In the absence of well-defined norms, fees charged by such universities have remained high.  UGC regulates fees for courses offered in deemed universities, to an extent.  They state that the fees charged shall be directly linked to the cost of running the course and the institution shall ensure non-commercialisation of education. In 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that the fees charged by private unaided educational institutes could be regulated.32  Also, while banning capitation fee (fees exceeding the tuition fee), it allowed institutes to charge a reasonable surplus. AICTE had constituted a Committee in 2014 under Justice Srikrishna to recommend the fee to be charged by the private technical educational institutes in the country.33  The Committee recommended the maximum tuition and development fee to be charged. 

## Teacher Related Issues

According to UGC, out of the total teaching posts of 17,425 in various UGC funded Central Universities, 6,141 (35%) teaching posts are lying vacant.34  Further, in 20 Indian Institute of 
                                                 
1 Expenditure Budget, Vol. 2, Union Budget 2020-21, https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe58.pdf; https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe59.pdf. 2 Educational Statistics at a Glance 2018, Ministry of Human Resource Development, https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statisticsnew/ESAG-2018.pdf. 3 Key Indicators of Household Social Consumption on Education in India, NSS 75th Round, June 2018, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, http://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/
KI_Education_75th_Final.pdf. 

4  "Draft National Education Policy", Ministry of Human Resource Development, May 31, 2019, https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/Draft_NEP_2 019_EN_Revised.pdf . 5. "Report of CABE Sub Committee on Assessment on implementation of CCE and no detention provision", 2015, Ministry of Human Resource Development, http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/ document-reports/AssmntCCE.pdf. 6 A summary of India's National Achievement Survey, Class VIII, 2012, National Council of Educational Research and Training, http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_docum ent/11-March-National-Summary-Report-NAS-Class-VIII.pdf. 7 National Achievement Survey 2017, Dashboard, http://nas.schooleduinfo.in/dashboard/nas_ncert#/. 8  Economic Survey, 2016-17, http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2016- 17/echapter_vol2.pdf. 9  Economic Survey, 2018-19, Ministry of Finance, https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/doc/vol2chapt er/echap10_vol2.pdf. reports/RPE_2011-12.pdf. 

Management (IIMs), out of the 1,004 total 
sanctioned teaching posts, 253 posts are lying 
vacant;35 and in 7 IISERs and IISc, Bangalore, the 
total number of sanctioned teaching posts is 1,117 
and 153 are lying vacant.36 

The Standing Committee on Human Resource 
Development (2017) reasoned that this could be 
due to two reasons: (i) young students don't find 
the teaching profession attractive; or (ii) the 
recruitment process is long and involves too many 
procedural formalities.18   

The Draft National Educational Policy (2019) 
observed that poor service conditions and heavy 
teaching loads at higher education institutions 
have resulted in low faculty motivation.4  Further, 
lack of autonomy and no clear career progression 
system are also major impediments to faculty 
motivation.  It recommended development of a 
Continuous Professional Development programme 
and introduction of a permanent employment 
(tenure) track system for faculty in all higher 
education institutions by 2030.  Further, a 
desirable student-teacher ratio of not more than 
30:1 must be ensured. 

https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_docum
ent/RTE_Amendment_2017.pdf. 
12 National Achievement Survey (2015), Class X, National 
Council of Educational Research and Training, 
http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/esd/pdf/NASSummary
.pdf. 
13  World Development Report, 2018, World Bank, 
http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2018.  
14 "Implementation of Right of Children to Free and 
Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009", Comptroller and 
Auditor General of India, July 21, 2017, 
http://www.cag.gov.in/content/report-no23-2017-compliance-
audit-union-government-implementation-right-children-free-
and. 
15 Lok Sabha, Unstarred Question No. 76, Ministry of Human 
Resource Development, February 3, 2020, 
http://164.100.24.220/loksabhaquestions/annex/173/AU76.pdf. 
16  K-12 Education: Highlights of the No Child Left Behind Act 
of 2001, Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, 
February 28, 2005, 
https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc824710/m1/1/. 
17  'Social Infrastructure, Employment, and Human 
Development',  Chapter 10, Economic Survey, 2019-20, 
Ministry of Finance, 
https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/doc/vol2chapt
er/echap10_vol2.pdf. 
18 "Report no. 284: Issues and Challenges before the Higher 
Educational Sector in India", Standing Committee on on 
Human Resource Development, December 14, 2016, 
http://164.100.47.5/newcommittee/reports/EnglishCommittees/
Committee%20on%20HRD/284.pdf. 
19 "Cabinet approves establishment of Higher Education 
Financing Agency for creating capital assets in higher 
educational institutions", Press Information Bureau, Cabinet, 
September 12, 2016. 
20 Year End Revie 2019- Ministry of Human Resource 
Development Press Information Bureau, January 6, 2020. 
21 Lok Sabha, Unstarred Q No. 44, Ministry of Human 
Resource Development, Answered on November 18, 2019, 
http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Questions/QResult15.aspx?qref=6362
&lsno=17. 

 DISCLAIMER: This document is being furnished to you for your information.  You may choose to reproduce or redistribute this report for non-commercial purposes in part or in full to any other person with due acknowledgement of PRS Legislative Research ("PRS").  The opinions expressed herein are entirely those of the author(s).  PRS makes every effort to use reliable and comprehensive information, but PRS does not represent that the contents of the report are accurate or complete.  PRS is an independent, not-for-profit group.  This document has been prepared without regard to the objectives or opinions of those who may receive it. 


| Change                                     | Change    |
|--------------------------------------------|-----------|
| Major Heads                                |           |
| 2018-19                                    |           |
| Actuals                                    |           |
| 2019-20                                    |           |
| Budgeted                                   |           |
| 2019-20                                    |           |
| Revised                                    |           |
| 2020-21                                    |           |
| Budgeted                                   |           |
| between BE                                 |           |
| 2019-20 and                                |           |
| RE 2019-20                                 |           |
| between RE                                 |           |
| 2019-20 and                                |           |
| BE 2020-21                                 |           |
| Department of School Education and         |           |
| Literacy                                   |           |
| 48,441                                     |           |
| Scholarships                               | 484       |
| Autonomous bodies                          | 8,588     |
| National Education Mission                 | 29,437    |
| Samagra Shiksha                            |           |
| Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan                      | 25,616    |
| Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha                |           |
| Abhiyan                                    |           |
| 3,399                                      |           |
| Teachers Training and Adult                |           |
| Education                                  |           |
| 422                                        | 125       |
| National Programme of Mid-Day Meal         |           |
| in Schools                                 |           |
| 9,514                                      | 11,000    |
| Others                                     | 418       |
| Department of Higher Education             | 31,904    |
| Higher Education Financing Agency          |           |
| (HEFA)                                     |           |
| 2,263                                      | 2,100     |
| Student Financial Aid                      | 1,897     |
| Digital India-e-learning                   | 336       |
| Research and Innovation                    | 205       |
| Statutory and regulatory bodies (UGC and   |           |
| AICTE)                                     |           |
| 5,114                                      | 5,059     |
| Grants to Central Universities             | 6,599     |
| Indian Institutes of Technology            | 5,590     |
| Indian Institutes of Management            | 351       |
| National Institutes of Technology          | 3,389     |
| Indian Institute of Science, Education and |           |
| Research (IISERs)                          |           |
| 620                                        | 899       |
| Indian Institutes of Information           |           |
| Technology(IIITs)                          |           |
| 428                                        | 375       |
| Rashtriya Uchhatar Shiksha Abhiyan         |           |
| (RUSA)                                     |           |
| 1,393                                      | 2,100     |
| Improvement in Salary Scale of University  |           |
| and College Teachers                       |           |
| 469.17                                     | 2000      |
| World Class Institutions                   | 127       |
| Others                                     |           |
| 3,005                                      | 4,405     |
| 5,864                                      | 29.1%     |
| Total                                      | 80,345    |

Sources:  Demand for Grants, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Union Budget, 2020-21; PRS. 


## Indicators On School And Higher Education

GER in Secondary 
GER in Elementary Education 
Education 
GER in Higher 
(Classes 1-8) 
(Classes 9-12) 
State/ UT 
Education  
Total 
(Beyond class 12) 
Primary 
Upper 
Primary 
Elementary 
Secondary 
Higher 
Secondary 
Andhra Pradesh 
82.8 
82.1 
82.5 
76.3 
60.6 
32.4 
Arunachal Pradesh 
106.2 
119.9 
110.4 
85.9 
51.2 
29.7 
Assam 
107.4 
96.7 
103.7 
78.6 
39.7 
18.7 
Bihar 
98.1 
103.9 
99.9 
76.7 
28.8 
13.6 
Chhattisgarh 
97.1 
100.8 
98.5 
87.7 
54.5 
18.6 
Goa 
101.3 
97.1 
99.7 
99.3 
78.7 
30.1 
Gujarat 
95.0 
97.2 
95.8 
74.5 
43.2 
20.4 
Haryana 
93.9 
94.4 
94.1 
86.3 
60.8 
29.2 
Himachal Pradesh 
97.9 
103.0 
99.8 
103.9 
92.0 
39.6 
Jammu & Kashmir 
77.1 
66.2 
73.0 
61.7 
52.9 
30.9 
Jharkhand 
96.6 
91.8 
95.0 
63.5 
37.1 
19.1 
Karnataka 
103.7 
2.9 
99.7 
84.4 
41.9 
28.8 
Kerala 
95.1 
93.6 
94.6 
99.4 
79.4 
37.0 
Madhya Pradesh 
92.1 
89.7 
91.3 
80.2 
47.1 
21.5 
Manipur 
120.6 
119.3 
120.2 
86.5 
64.4 
33.7 
Maharashtra 
97.5 
98.7 
97.9 
91.7 
70.7 
32.0 
Meghalaya 
129.1 
128.0 
128.8 
83.3 
40.6 
25.8 
Mizoram 
115.7 
127.5 
119.3 
95.9 
54.6 
25.7 
Nagaland 
81.7 
90.4 
84.4 
61.8 
36.3 
18.7 
Odisha 
100.2 
94.6 
98.1 
79.9 
40.1 
22.1 
Punjab 
99.3 
97.7 
98.7 
87.1 
72.2 
29.5 
Rajasthan 
97.8 
92.0 
95.8 
76.6 
60.3 
23.0 
Sikkim 
92.0 
136.8 
106.9 
112.0 
64.2 
53.9 
Tamil Nadu 
102.0 
93.4 
98.6 
93.9 
83.7 
49.0 
Telangana 
98.6 
86.9 
94.1 
81.8 
50.6 
36.2 
Tripura 
102.4 
126.4 
110.0 
112.3 
41.9 
19.2 
Uttar Pradesh 
87.2 
72.7 
82.1 
67.8 
59.0 
25.8 
Uttarakhand 
96.4 
86.7 
92.7 
84.4 
77.1 
39.1 
West Bengal 
96.3 
96.3 
96.3 
78.6 
50.9 
19.3 
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 
86.9 
83.1 
85.4 
84.1 
72.8 
23.2 
Chandigarh 
80.1 
95.6 
85.8 
89.7 
83.2 
50.6 
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 
82.9 
91.6 
86.0 
91.2 
51.8 
9.3 
Daman & Diu 
84.0 
81.1 
82.9 
73.3 
34.6 
5.5 
Delhi 
109.2 
129.0 
115.9 
114.4 
74.2 
46.3 
Lakshadweep 
70.0 
81.4 
79.8 
105.7 
97.9 
7.4 
Puducherry 
85.6 
84.8 
85.3 
87.5 
74.2 
46.4 
India 
95.1 
90.7 
93.6 
79.4 
55.4 
26.3 

Note: Enrolment rate can exceed 100% due to early or late school entrance and grade repetition, or for example, children not in the 6-14 age group still being enrolled in elementary school.  Data for higher education is of 2018. Sources: Flash Statistics, DISE 2016-17; AISHE 2018-19, Ministry of Human Resource Development; PRS. 

 

| Management Type (in %) (2016-17)    | Pupil Teacher Ratio (2015-16)    |
|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Higher                              |                                  |
| State/UT                            |                                  |
| Government                          |                                  |
| Upper                               |                                  |
| Primary                             |                                  |
| Secondary                           |                                  |
| (Classes 9-                         | secondary                        |
| Private                             |                                  |
| schools                             | schools                          |
| Others                              |                                  |
| Primary                             |                                  |
| (Classes 1-5)                       |                                  |
| (Classes 6-8)                       | 10)                              |
| Higher                              |                                  |
| (Beyond                             |                                  |
| class 12)                           |                                  |
| Andhra Pradesh                      | 26.4                             |
| Arunachal                           |                                  |
| Pradesh                             |                                  |
| 13.6                                | 85.2                             |
| Assam                               | 13.7                             |
| Bihar                               | 5.4                              |
| Chhattisgarh                        | 12.5                             |
| Goa                                 | 34.7                             |
| Gujarat                             | 34.9                             |
| Haryana                             | 32.3                             |
| Himachal Pradesh                    | 14.9                             |
| Jammu & Kashmir                     | 18.3                             |
| Jharkhand                           | 5.4                              |
| Karnataka                           | 34.3                             |
| Kerala                              | 61.1                             |
| Madhya Pradesh                      | 18.4                             |
| Maharashtra                         | 37.5                             |
| Manipur                             | 30.8                             |
| Meghalaya                           | 44.8                             |
| Mizoram                             | 31.8                             |
| Nagaland                            | 25.9                             |
| Odisha                              | 14.2                             |
| Punjab                              | 25.9                             |
| Rajasthan                           | 32.3                             |
| Sikkim                              | 33.6                             |
| Tamil Nadu                          | 33.2                             |
| Telangana                           | 30.9                             |
| Tripura                             | 7.08                             |
| Uttar Pradesh                       | 34.4                             |
| Uttarakhand                         | 10.1                             |
| West Bengal                         | 10.7                             |
| Andaman &                           |                                  |
| Nicobar Islands                     |                                  |
|                                     |                                  |
|                                     |                                  |
| 17.1                                | 83.0                             |
| Chandigarh                          | 39.8                             |
| Dadra & Nagar                       |                                  |
| Haveli                              |                                  |
| 12.3                                | 86.7                             |
| Daman & Diu                         | 17.1                             |
| Delhi                               | 51.3                             |
| Lakshadweep                         | -                                |
| Puducherry                          | 42.4                             |
| India                               | 25.2                             |

Note:  Government schools consist of schools run by department of education, tribal/social welfare department, local body, other government and central government.  Private schools consist of private aided and private unaided schools, 'Others' comprises Madrasas and unrecognised schools.  Type of management of schools is for 2016-17. Pupil teacher ratio is for 2015-16, except for higher education which is for 2018-19. Sources: Flash Statistics, U-DISE 2016-17; AISHE 2018-19, Educational Statistics at a Glance 2018; Ministry of Human Resource Development; PRS 