Hemoptysis may also indicate other, potentially fatal, medical conditions.A history of exposure to potential causes and evaluation of symptoms may help in revealing the cause the exacerbation, which helps in choosing the best treatment. A sputum culture can specify which strain is causing a bacterial AECB. An early morning sample is preferred.E-nose showed the ability to smell the cause of the exacerbation.The definition of a COPD exacerbation is commonly described as "lost in translation", meaning that there is no universally accepted standard with regard to defining an acute exacerbation of COPD. Many organizations consider it a priority to create such a standard, as it would be a major step forward in the diagnosis and quality of treatment of COPD. Prevention
Acute exacerbations can be partially prevented. Some infections can be prevented by vaccination against pathogens such as influenza and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Regular medication use can prevent some COPD exacerbations; long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABAs), long-acting anticholinergics, inhaled corticosteroids and low-dose theophylline have all been shown to reduce the frequency of  COPD exacerbations. Other methods of prevention include:

Smoking cessation and avoiding dust, passive smoking, and other inhaled irritants
Yearly influenza and 5-year pneumococcal vaccinations
Regular exercise, appropriate rest, and healthy nutrition
Avoiding people currently infected with e.g. cold and influenza
Maintaining good fluid intake and humidifying the home, in order to help reduce the formation of thick sputum and chest congestion. Treatment
Based on the severity different treatments may be used. Mild exacerbations are treated with short acting bronchodilators (SABDs).
Collagenous colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease affecting the colon specifically with peak incidence in the 5th decade of life, affecting women more than men. Its clinical presentation involves watery diarrhea in the absence of rectal bleeding. It is often classified under the umbrella entity microscopic colitis, that it shares with a related condition, lymphocytic colitis. Signs and symptoms
Microscopic colitis causes chronic watery diarrhea with greater than 10 bowel movements per day. Some patients report nocturnal diarrhea, abdominal pain, urgency, fecal incontinence, fatigue, dehydration and weight loss. Patients report a significantly diminished quality of life. Causes
The cause of collagenous colitis is unknown. Diagnosis
On colonoscopy, the mucosa of the colon typically looks normal, but biopsies of affected tissue usually show deposition of collagen in the lamina propria, which is the area of connective tissue between colonic glands. Radiological tests, such as a barium enema are also typically normal. Treatment
First line treatment for collagenous colitis is the use of budesonide, a steroid that works locally in the colon and is highly cleared by first pass effect. Other medications that can be used are the following:
Bismuth agents, including Pepto-Bismol
5-aminosalicylic acid
Immunosuppressants, including azathioprine
InfliximabPilot-scale studies have shown some evidence of possible benefit for both Boswellia serrata extract and specific strains of probiotics in the treatment of collagenous colitis, although larger sample sizes are needed to confirm the results. See also
Colitis
Lymphocytic colitis
Inflammatory bowel disease
Ulcerative colitis

References


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