Criticism of opposition
Tolerance versus human rights
Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of cultural colonialism, and have been criticized in turn for their moral relativism and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights. According to critics of the eradicationist position, the biological reductionism of the opposition to FGM, and the failure to appreciate FGMs cultural context, serves to "other" practitioners and undermine their agency—in particular when parents are referred to as "mutilators".Africans who object to the tone of FGM opposition risk appearing to defend the practice. The feminist theorist Obioma Nnaemeka, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice female genital mutilation had introduced "a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the Wests relevance (even indispensability) in purging [it]". According to Ugandan law professor Sylvia Tamale, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also dry sex, polygyny, bride price and levirate marriage, required correction. African feminists "take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women", she wrote in 2011. Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of womens bodies as exhibits. Examples include images of womens vulvas after FGM or girls undergoing the procedure.
Amastia refers to a rare clinical anomaly in which both internal breast tissue and the visible nipple are absent on one or both sides. It affects both men and women. Amastia can be either isolated (the only medical condition) or comorbid with other syndromes, such as ectodermal dysplasia, syndactaly (Polands syndrome) and lipoatrophic diabetes. This abnormality can be classified into various types, and each could result from different pathologies. Amastia differs from amazia and athelia. Amazia is the absence of one or both mammary glands but the nipples remain present, and athelia is the absence of one or both nipples, but the mammary gland remains.Amastia is presumably due to failure of embryologic (before birth) mammary ridge development or incomplete involution. People with amastia often suffer from ectodermal defects, which include various syndromes such as cleft palate, isolated pectoral muscle and abnormal formation of the arms.Treatment for female amastia particularly includes psychological guidance and breast reconstruction. Because there is no breast tissue, breastfeeding is not possible. If amastia only appears on one side, then it is possible to breastfeed on the other side. Often, people with amastia decide against treatment. Classification
Amastia can be either iatrogenic or congenital. The congenital amastia are further divided into syndromic type and non-syndromic type respectively. As the definition suggests, syndromic amastia is often associated with obvious symptoms. The common case is hypoplasia of ectodermal tissue, such as hair and skin defects. On the other hand, non-syndromic amastia, shows no defects in body parts other than breast.