"Emergence and Disappearance of a Virulent Clone of Haemophilus influenzae Biogroup aegyptius,cause of Brazilian Purpuric Fever". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 21 (4): 599–605. doi:10.1128/CMR.00020-08. PMC 2570154. PMID 18854482. McGillivary, G.; Tomaras, A.P. ; Rhodes, E.R. ; Actis, L.A (2005). "Cloning and sequencing of a genomic island found in the Brazilian Purpuric Fever clone of Haemophilis influenzae Biogroup aegyptius". Infection and Immunity. 73 (4): 1927–1938. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.4.1927-1938.2005. PMC 1087403. PMID 15784532. Rubin, L.G. ; St. Geme III, J.W. (1993). "Role of Lipooligosaccharide in Virulence of the Brazilian Purpuric Fever Clone of Haemophilus influenzaeBiogroup aegyptius for Infant Rats". Infection and Immunity. 61 (2): 650–655. doi:10.1128/IAI.61.2.650-655.1993. PMC 302776. PMID 8093694. External links

CDC
It has recently been shown that the oxidative stress associated with cigarette smoke can inhibit the activity of HDAC2, thereby blocking the anti-inflammatory effects of corticosteroids.) Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
When theophylline is administered intravenously, bioavailability is 100%. Distribution
Theophylline is distributed in the extracellular fluid, in the placenta, in the mothers milk and in the central nervous system. The volume of distribution is 0.5 L/kg. The protein binding is 40%. The volume of distribution may increase in neonates and those suffering from cirrhosis or malnutrition, whereas the volume of distribution may decrease in those who are obese. Metabolism
Theophylline is metabolized extensively in the liver (up to 70%). It undergoes N-demethylation via cytochrome P450 1A2. It is metabolized by parallel first order and Michaelis-Menten pathways. Metabolism may become saturated (non-linear), even within the therapeutic range. Small dose increases may result in disproportionately large increases in serum concentration. Methylation to caffeine is also important in the infant population. Smokers and people with hepatic (liver) impairment metabolize it differently. Both THC and nicotine have been shown to increase the rate of theophylline metabolism. Excretion
Theophylline is excreted unchanged in the urine (up to 10%). Clearance of the drug is increased in children (age 1 to 12), teenagers (12 to 16), adult smokers, elderly smokers, as well as in cystic fibrosis, and hyperthyroidism.