In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association recognized the disorder, while categorizing it as an atypical somatoform disorder, in the third edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Classifying it as a distinct somatoform disorder, the DSM-IIIs 1987 revision switched the term to body dysmorphic disorder.Published in 1994, DSM-IV defines BDD as a preoccupation with an imagined or trivial defect in appearance, a preoccupation causing social or occupational dysfunction, and not better explained as another disorder, such as anorexia nervosa. Published in 2013, the DSM-5 shifts BDD to a new category (obsessive–compulsive spectrum), adds operational criteria (such as repetitive behaviors or intrusive thoughts), and notes the subtype muscle dysmorphia (preoccupation that ones body is too small or insufficiently muscular or lean).The term "dysmorphic" is derived from the Greek word, dismorfia - meaning abnormal or apart, and morpho meaning shape. Morselli described people who felt a subjective feeling of ugliness as people who were tormented by a physical deficit. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the Austrian founder of psychoanalysis, once described his patients as a "Wolf Man," as he was experiencing classical symptoms of BDD. The person he was referring to was a wealthy Russian aristocrat named Sergei Pankejeff (1886-1979). Signs and symptoms
Dislike of ones appearance is common, but individuals with BDD have extreme misperceptions about their physical appearance. Whereas vanity involves a quest to aggrandize the appearance, BDD is experienced as a quest to normalize the appearance merely.
Walker–Warburg syndrome (WWS), also called Warburg syndrome, Chemke syndrome, HARD syndrome (Hydrocephalus, Agyria and Retinal Dysplasia), Pagon syndrome, cerebroocular dysgenesis (COD) or cerebroocular dysplasia-muscular dystrophy syndrome (COD-MD), is a rare form of autosomal recessive congenital muscular dystrophy. It is associated with brain (lissencephaly, hydrocephalus, cerebellar malformations) and eye abnormalities. This condition has a worldwide distribution. The overall incidence is unknown but a survey in North-eastern Italy has reported an incidence rate of 1.2 per 100,000 live births. It is the most severe form of congenital muscular dystrophy with most children dying before the age of three years. Presentation
The clinical manifestations present at birth are generalized hypotonia, muscle weakness, developmental delay with mental retardation and occasional seizures. The congenital muscular dystrophy is characterized by hypoglycosylation of α-dystroglycan. Those born with the disease also experience severe ocular and brain defects. Half of all children with WWS are born with encephalocele, which is a gap in the skull that will not seal. The meninges of the brain protrude through this gap due to the neural tube failing to close during development. A malformation of the a babys cerebellum is often a sign of this disease. Common ocular issues associated with WWS are abnormally small eyes and retinal abnormalities cause by an underdeveloped light-sensitive area in the back of the eye. Genetics
Several genes have been implicated in the etiology of Walker–Warburg syndrome, and others are as yet unknown.