The inflammatory cytokines found in psoriatic nails and joints (in the case of psoriatic arthritis) are similar to those of psoriatic skin lesions, suggesting a common inflammatory mechanism.Gene mutations of proteins involved in the skins ability to function as a barrier have been identified as markers of susceptibility for the development of psoriasis.Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) released from dying cells acts as an inflammatory stimulus in psoriasis and stimulates the receptors on certain dendritic cells, which in turn produce the cytokine interferon-α. In response to these chemical messages from dendritic cells and T cells, keratinocytes also secrete cytokines such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, which signal downstream inflammatory cells to arrive and stimulate additional inflammation.Dendritic cells bridge the innate immune system and adaptive immune system. They are increased in psoriatic lesions and induce the proliferation of T cells and type 1 helper T cells (Th1). Targeted immunotherapy, as well as psoralen and ultraviolet A (PUVA) therapy, can reduce the number of dendritic cells and favors a Th2 cell cytokine secretion pattern over a Th1/Th17 cell cytokine profile. Psoriatic T cells move from the dermis into the epidermis and secrete interferon-γ and interleukin-17. Interleukin-23 is known to induce the production of interleukin-17 and interleukin-22. Interleukin-22 works in combination with interleukin-17 to induce keratinocytes to secrete neutrophil-attracting cytokines. Diagnosis
A diagnosis of psoriasis is usually based on the appearance of the skin. Skin characteristics typical for psoriasis are scaly, erythematous plaques, papules, or patches of skin that may be painful and itch.
History
Estradiol acetate is relatively recent to the market, having been first approved in a vaginal ring formulation as Menoring in the United Kingdom in 2001, followed by a vaginal ring formulation as Femring in the United States in 2002, and finally as an oral preparation as Femtrace in the United States in 2004. Society and culture
Generic names
Estradiol acetate is the generic name of the drug and its USAN. Brand names
Estradiol acetate is marketed under the brand names Femtrace, Femring, and Menoring. Availability
Estradiol acetate is available in the United States and the United Kingdom. == References ==