Although the sample size of the studies performed are small due to the rarity of the disease, the findings are indicative of a correlation between the disease and several specific protein biomarkers. Other studies have confirmed the correlation of moyamoya and adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) being increased as compared to normal vascular function counterparts. Furthermore, it has been concluded that the localization of inflammatory cells suggests that the inflammation stimulus itself may be responsible for the proliferation and occlusion in the ICA, ACA, and MCA found in those with moyamoya disease. Treatment
Drugs such as antiplatelet agents (including aspirin) are usually given to prevent clots, but surgery is usually recommended. Because moyamoya tends to affect only the internal carotid artery and nearby sections of the adjacent anterior and middle cerebral arteries, surgeons can direct other arteries, such as the external carotid artery or the superficial temporal artery to replace its circulation. The arteries are either sewn directly into the brain circulation, or placed on the surface of the brain to reestablish new circulation after a few weeks.There are many operations that have been developed for the condition, but currently the most favored are the in-direct procedures EDAS, EMS, and multiple burr holes and the direct procedure STA-MCA. Combined revascularisation procedure, which includes both the direct superficial temporal artery (STA) to middle cerebral artery (MCA) bypass performed with a combination of in-direct procedures, is considered the treatment of choice.
A class-action lawsuit against the Icelandic generic drug maker Actavis was announced two weeks later.On March 31, 2009, the FDA announced another generic digoxin pill recall by posting this company press release on the agencys web site: "Caraco Pharmaceutical Laboratories, Ltd. Announces a Nationwide Voluntary Recall of All Lots of Digoxin Tablets Due to Size Variability". A March 31 press release from Caraco, a generic pharmaceutical company, stated:

[All] tablets of Caraco brand Digoxin, USP, 0.125 mg, and Digoxin, USP, 0.25 mg, distributed prior to March 31, 2009, which are not expired and are within the expiration date of September, 2011, are being voluntarily recalled to the consumer level. The tablets are being recalled because they may differ in size and therefore could have more or less of the active ingredient, digoxin. A 2008 study suggested digoxin has beneficial effects not only for the heart, but also in reducing the risk of certain kinds of cancer. However, comments on this study suggested that digoxin is not effective at reducing cancer risk at therapeutic concentrations of the drug, so the results need further investigation. Brand names
Digoxin preparations are marketed under the brand names Cardigox; Cardiogoxin; Cardioxin; Cardoxin; Coragoxine; Digacin; Digicor; Digomal; Digon; Digosin; Digoxine Navtivelle; Digoxina-Sandoz; Digoxin-Sandoz; Digoxin-Zori; Dilanacin; Eudigox; Fargoxin; Grexin; Lanacordin; Lanacrist; Lanicor; Lanikor; Lanorale; Lanoxicaps; Lanoxin; Lanoxin PG; Lenoxicaps; Lenoxin; Lifusin; Mapluxin; Natigoxin; Novodigal; Purgoxin; Sigmaxin; Sigmaxin-PG; Toloxin. Digoxin and cancer
Cardiac glycosides, particularly digoxin, have been conventionally used for treatment of common cardiac problems, mainly heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias.