Rabbits and rodents typically present with fever, cough, runny nose, sore eyes and swollen glands. They develop small bumps that fill with yellow fluid and may have patches of hair loss and pneumonia. Spread among animals occurs via the fecal-oral route and through the nose, through wounds and eating infected meat. Death is more likely in baby monkeys. The CDC recommend that animals exposed to monkeypox be quarantined for six weeks. Causes
Monkeypox in both humans and animals is caused by infection with the monkeypox virus – a double-stranded DNA virus in the genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae. The virus was first identified in captive monkeys and is found mainly in tropical rainforest regions of Central and West Africa. The two subtypes of virus are clade I and clade II (formerly Congo Basin and West African clades, matching the geographical areas).In addition to monkeys, the virus has been identified in Gambian pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus), dormice (Graphiurus spp.) and African squirrels (Heliosciurus, and Funisciurus). The use of these animals as food may be an important source of transmission to humans. Transmission
Humans can be infected by an animal via a bite or scratch, bush meat preparation, or by contact with an infected animal’s bodily fluids or lesion material. The virus is thought to enter the body through broken skin, the respiratory tract, or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, or mouth.Once a human is infected, transmission to other humans is common, with family members and hospital staff at particularly high risk of infection.
From 1980 to 1981, Leicier found that the limulus test agglutination reaction of lactulose inhibits endotoxin in vitro, alleviating the liver injury of rats induced by D-amino galactose. He believed that lactulose had anti-endotoxin activity, meaning that and it can be used in the treatment of liver and kidney syndrome. Medical uses
Constipation
Lactulose is used in the treatment of chronic constipation in patients of all ages as a long-term treatment. The dosage of lactulose for chronic idiopathic constipation is adjusted depending on the constipation severity and desired effect, from a mild stool softener to causing diarrhea. Lactulose is contraindicated in case of galactosemia, as most preparations contain the monosaccharide galactose due to its synthesis process.Lactulose may be used to counter the constipating effects of opioids, and in the symptomatic treatment of hemorrhoids as a stool softener.Lactulose is commonly prescribed for children who develop fear of their bowel movements and are withholders. This is because lactulose, when dosed in the proper amount, causes a bowel movement that is impossible to retain for very long. Lactulose is also used for the elderly because of its gentle and consistent results. Hyperammonemia
Lactulose is useful in treating hyperammonemia (high blood ammonia), which can lead to hepatic encephalopathy. Lactulose helps trap the ammonia (NH3) in the colon and bind to it. It does this by using gut flora to acidify the colon, transforming the freely diffusible ammonia into ammonium ions (NH+4), which can no longer diffuse back into the blood.