Research has indicated that teratogens (substances known to cause birth defects), trypan blue (a stain used to color dead tissues or cells blue), and arsenic may damage the developing fetus and cause encephaloceles.Proper levels of folic acid have been shown to help prevent such defects when taken before pregnancy, and early in pregnancy.Occipital encephaloceles are frequently accompanied by hydrocephalus, as seen in 60-90% of patients. Diagnosis
Usually encephaloceles are noticeable deformities and are diagnosed immediately after birth, but a small encephalocele in the nasal or forehead region can go undetected. Various physical and mental developmental delays can indicate the presence of encephaloceles. Classifications
Encephaloceles of the face are generally classified as nasofrontal, nasoethmoidal, or naso-orbital, however, there can be some overlap in the type of encephalocele. They can also appear along any part of the cranial vault, as they result from abnormal closure of cranial bones; the most common location for encephaloceles is the occipital region. If the bulging portion contains only cerebrospinal fluid and the overlying membrane, it may be called a meningocele. If brain tissue is present, it may be referred to as a meningoencephalocele. When the head size or occipitofrontal circumference is smaller than the herniating sac, then it is termed as giant encephalocele.Separation of the neural and surface ectoderm causes apoptosis in the midline. A disturbance in this separation process at the final closure due to the lack of apoptosis is considered to be a critical aspect of nasofrontal and nasoethmoidal encephalocele.
Endobronchial valves are one-way valves that may be used in those with severe hyperinflation resulting from advanced emphysema; a suitable target lobe, and no collateral ventilation are required for this procedure. The placement of one or more valves in the lobe induces a partial collapse of the lobe that ensures a reduction in residual volume that improves lung function, the capacity for exercise, and quality of life.The placement of nitinol coils instead of valves is recommended where there is collateral ventilation that would prevent the use of valves. Nitinol  is a biocompatible shape-memory alloy. Both of these techniques are associated with adverse effects including persistent air leaks and cardiovascular complications. Bronchoscopic thermal vapor ablation has an improved profile. Heated water vapor is used to target affected lobe regions which leads to permanent fibrosis and volume reduction. The procedure is able to target individual lobe segments, can be carried out regardless of collateral ventilation, and can be repeated with the natural advance of emphysema. Other surgeries
Lung transplantation – the replacement of either a single lung or both (bilateral) may be considered in end-stage disease. A bilateral transplant is the preferred choice as complications can arise in a remaining single native lung; complications can include hyperinflation, pneumonia, and the development of lung cancer. Careful selection as recommended by the National Emphysema Treatment Trial (NETT) for transplant surgeries is needed as in some cases there will be an increased risk of mortality.