Many transcription factors for eye development are also involved in the morphogenesis of forebrain, which may explain why ONH is commonly a part of a syndrome involving brain malformations.ONH impacts all ethnic groups, although in the United States, occurrence is lower in persons of Asian descent. To date, there have been few reports of ONH occurrence in Asian countries, although it is uncertain why this is so. Gestational and exposure history
Although many perinatal and prenatal risk factors for ONH have been suggested, the predominant, enduring, most frequent risk factors are young maternal age and primiparity (the affected child being the first child born to the mother). Increased frequency of delivery by caesarean section and fetal/neonatal complications, preterm labor, gestational vaginal bleeding, low maternal weight gain, and weight loss during pregnancy are also associated with ONH. Diagnosis
ONH is diagnosed by ophthalmoscopic examination. Patients with ONH exhibit an optic nerve that appears smaller than normal and different in appearance from small optic nerves caused by other eye conditions such as optic (nerve) atrophy.DM:DD ratio has proven to be a clinically useful measurement to help diagnose optic nerve hypoplasia. Where "DM" represents the distance from Disk to Macula, and "DD" represents Disc Diameter. The mean disc diameter (DD) is (Vertical diameter of Disc+Horizontal diameter of Disc) divided by 2. The distance between the center of the disc and the macula is DM.
Salpingitis is an infection causing inflammation in the Fallopian tubes (also called salpinges). It is often included in the umbrella term of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), along with endometritis, oophoritis, myometritis, parametritis, and peritonitis. Signs and symptoms
The symptoms usually appear after a menstrual period. The most common are:
an abnormal smell and colour of vaginal discharge, fever, nausea, vomiting, bloating, and frequent urination. Pain may be felt during ovulation, during periods, during sexual intercourse, on both sides of the abdomen, and lower back. Causes
The infection usually has its origin in the vagina and ascends to the Fallopian tube from there. Because the infection can spread via the lymph vessels, infection in one Fallopian tube usually leads to infection of the other. Risk factors
Its been theorized that retrograde menstrual flow and the cervix opening during menstruation allows the infection to reach the Fallopian tubes. Other risk factors include surgical procedures that break the cervical barrier, such as:

endometrial biopsy
curettage
hysteroscopyAnother risk is factors that alter the microenvironment in the vagina and cervix, allowing infecting organisms to proliferate and eventually ascend to the Fallopian tube:

antibiotic treatment
ovulation
menstruation
sexually transmitted disease (STD)Finally, sexual intercourse may facilitate the spread of disease from the vagina to the Fallopian tube. Coital risk factors are:

Uterine contractions
Sperm, carrying organisms upward

Bacterial species
The bacteria most associated with salpingitis are:
N. gonorrhoeae
Chlamydia trachomatis
Mycoplasma
Staphylococcus
StreptococcusHowever, salpingitis is usually polymicrobial, involving many kinds of pathogens such as Ureaplasma urealyticum, and anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. Diagnosis
Salpingitis may be diagnosed by pelvic examination, blood tests, and/or a vaginal or cervical swab.