This is in contrast with mammals, some of which have mutations that show no tyrosinase or DOPA oxidase activity in albinos. The albino phenotype of the pond frog (Pelophylax nigromaculatus) has been attributed to one of three mutations that created a dysfunctional tyrosinase. Two of those mutations involve an insertion of a thymine (T), a frameshift mutation, resulting in a truncated isoform of the TYR protein that is defective. The other mutation involves the deletion of a codon, three nucleotides that code for a lysine (Lys). In the wrinkled frog (Glandirana rugosa) and in the rice frog (Fejervarya kawamurai), a substitution from a guanine (G) to an adenine (A) creates a missense mutation, in which a glycine (Gly) changes to an aspartic acid (Asp) and an arginine (Arg), respectively. These changes in the polypeptide chain causes a dysfunctional tyrosinase. In invertebrates
Albinism in molluscs has been recognized to be a hereditary phenomenon at least since 1900. Albinism in molluscs can exist to a variable degree. Sometimes an individual snail has a normally pigmented body, but the shell is completely without the normal pigmentation because of a defect in the cells of the mantle. Shells of certain mollusc species can be translucent when they lack the normal pigmentation. In insects
The neurohormone [His7]-corazonin induces darkening of the cuticle of Locusta migratoria. The Okinawa strain of this species is deficient in [His7]-corazonin and is albino. One of the typical features of Locusta migratoria is that they are gregarious locusts.
One of the studies identified three factors contributing to patients going abroad seeking treatment: a loss of faith in the Canadian health system when it did not provide access to CCSVI treatment in Canada, hope in the new treatment as a solution for their worsening health, and trust in the MS community and the organizations, clinics and doctors facilitating or providing the desired operation. Conversely, the other study concluded that sense of community and cooperation (from family, MS groups and the general population) was a key motivating factor. Other motivating factors included media reports, perception of approval from their health providers, the apparent low risk of the operation, or accessibility of the hospital that offered the procedure directly or through a medical tourism company. On the other hand, hesitating factors included the cost and effort required for the operation, the mistrust of foreign health systems, the underlying rationale for the operation, or advice against the procedure from trusted health providers.In 2013, a case-control study found evidence against the involvement of chronic cerebrospinal venous abnormalities in MS. Later in 2013 a study found that vein narrowing appears to be present equally in those with and without MS on ultrasound and catheter venography. The results of the study were described as a "death knell" for Zambonis theory. Another study released by the University of British Columbia in 2017 was described as a "definitive debunking" of liberation therapy.