Versus normal personality
The issue of the relationship between normal personality and personality disorders is one of the important issues in personality and clinical psychology. The personality disorders classification (DSM-5 and ICD-10) follows a categorical approach that views personality disorders as discrete entities that are distinct from each other and from normal personality. In contrast, the dimensional approach is an alternative approach that personality disorders represent maladaptive extensions of the same traits that describe normal personality. Thomas Widiger and his collaborators have contributed to this debate significantly. He discussed the constraints of the categorical approach and argued for the dimensional approach to the personality disorders. Specifically, he proposed the Five Factor Model of personality as an alternative to the classification of personality disorders. For example, this view specifies that Borderline Personality Disorder can be understood as a combination of emotional lability (i.e., high neuroticism), impulsivity (i.e., low conscientiousness), and hostility (i.e., low agreeableness). Many studies across cultures have explored the relationship between personality disorders and the Five Factor Model. This research has demonstrated that personality disorders largely correlate in expected ways with measures of the Five Factor Model and has set the stage for including the Five Factor Model within DSM-5.In clinical practice, individuals are generally diagnosed by an interview with a psychiatrist based on a mental status examination, which may take into account observations by relatives and others. One tool of diagnosing personality disorders is a process involving interviews with scoring systems.
Pathogenesis
The exact pathogenesis of iniencephaly is still unknown though there are proposed theories, most of which view the neural tube malformation from the primary neural anomaly standpoint. Marin-Padilla and MarinPadilla have proposed that the cause for the abnormalities has to do with a deficiency in the primary mesoderm. P. Erdinçler, et al. suggests from their findings that the cause of the anomaly is actually a defect in the occipital bone and rachischisis of the posterior vertebral arches leading to herniation of neural tissue through the opening in the bone during gestation. Diagnosis
The most accurate method of diagnosis is prenatal screening through real-time fetal images. However, since maternal body habitus leads to diagnostic difficulties using this method, MRI and sonography are the most commonly used technique since there is no exposure to ionizing radiation. At the beginning of the second trimester, the central nervous system (CNS) and anatomic structures of the fetus can be clearly visualized and the characteristic malformations of iniencephaly, such as a shortened trunk, marked lordosis in the cervicothoracic vertebrae, absence or partial absence of the occipital squama, abnormal fusion of vertebrae, closed vertebral arches, formation of an encephalocele (for iniencephaly apertus), and dorsiflexion of the head in respect to the spine, can be precisely diagnosed as well as the severity and location established. Once established, further decisions can be made with regard to terminating the pregnancy or providing a plan of adequate postnatal care.