All these factors have been shown to be important in several types of violence. Finally, the fourth level looks at the broad societal factors that help to create a climate in which violence is encouraged or inhibited: the responsiveness of the criminal justice system, social and cultural norms regarding gender roles or parent-child relationships, income inequality, the strength of the social welfare system, the social acceptability of violence, the availability of weapons, the exposure to violence in mass media, and political instability. Child-rearing
While studies showing associations between physical punishment of children and later aggression cannot prove that physical punishment causes an increase in aggression, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. Cross-cultural studies have shown that greater prevalence of corporal punishment of children tends to predict higher levels of violence in societies. For instance, a 2005 analysis of 186 pre-industrial societies found that corporal punishment was more prevalent in societies which also had higher rates of homicide, assault, and war. In the United States, domestic corporal punishment has been linked to later violent acts against family members and spouses. The American family violence researcher Murray A. Straus believes that disciplinary spanking forms "the most prevalent and important form of violence in American families", whose effects contribute to several major societal problems, including later domestic violence and crime. Psychology
The causes of violent behavior in people are often a topic of research in psychology.
Oculopharyngodistal myopathy is a rare genetic disorder characterized by progressive muscle weakness affecting various parts of the body. Signs and symptoms
People with this condition exhibit symptoms susch as progressive muscle weakness affecting the eyes, face, and pharynx which consequently results in blepharoptosis, ophthalmoparesis, atrophy of the facial muscles, dysphagia, dysarthria, and muscle weakness and atrophy of the upper and lower distal limbs. These symptoms usually start during adulthood.On rare cases, hearing loss, severe proximal weakness and/or unilateral muscle weakness. Complications
Complications vary depending on the symptoms and their severity, for example, muscle weakness might leave people unable to work on manual labor jobs. Diagnosis
This condition can be diagnosed through physical examination and sequencing of the genes associated with the condition. Genetics
There are four known genetic causes of this disorder:
1. Trinucleotide repeat expansion located in the 5-prime untranslated region of the LRP12 gene. (CGG)2. Trinucleotide repeat expansion located in the 5-prime untranslated region of the G1PC gene. (GGC)3. Trinucleotide repeat expansion located in the non-coding region of the NOTCH2NLC gene. (CGG)4. Trinucleotide repeat expansion located in the 5-prime untranslated region of the RILPL1 gene.All of these mutations are inherited/expressed in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that for a person to exhibit the symptoms of this condition, they must inherit a copy of the mutated allele from at least one parent, although in other cases, the mutation might not have been inherited, but rather the result of a spontaneous error.