Activates inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)
Induces the production of IgG2a and IgG3 from activated plasma B cells
Causes normal cells to increase expression of class I MHC molecules as well as class II MHC on antigen-presenting cells—to be specific, through induction of antigen processing genes, including subunits of the immunoproteasome (MECL1, LMP2, LMP7), as well as TAP and ERAAP in addition possibly to the direct upregulation of MHC heavy chains and B2-microglobulin itself
Promotes adhesion and binding required for leukocyte migration
Induces the expression of intrinsic defense factors—for example, with respect to retroviruses, relevant genes include TRIM5alpha, APOBEC, and Tetherin, representing directly antiviral effects
Primes alveolar macrophages against secondary bacterial infections.IFN-γ is the primary cytokine that defines Th1 cells: Th1 cells secrete IFN-γ, which in turn causes more undifferentiated CD4+ cells (Th0 cells) to differentiate into Th1 cells
, representing a positive feedback loop—while suppressing Th2 cell differentiation. (Equivalent defining cytokines for other cells include IL-4 for Th2 cells and IL-17 for Th17 cells.) NK cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells also produce IFN-γ. IFN-γ suppresses osteoclast formation by rapidly degrading the RANK adaptor protein TRAF6 in the RANK-RANKL signaling pathway, which otherwise stimulates the production of NF-κB. Activity in granuloma formation
A granuloma is the bodys way of dealing with a substance it cannot remove or sterilize. Infectious causes of granulomas (infections are typically the most common cause of granulomas) include tuberculosis, leprosy, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, and toxoplasmosis.
Thalidomide, sold under the brand names Contergan and Thalomid among others, is a medication used to treat a number of cancers (including multiple myeloma), graft-versus-host disease, and a number of skin conditions including complications of leprosy. While it has been used in a number of HIV-associated conditions, such use is associated with increased levels of the virus. It is administered orally.Common side effects include sleepiness, rash, and dizziness. Severe side effects include tumor lysis syndrome, blood clots, and peripheral neuropathy. Use in pregnancy may harm the fetus, including resulting in malformation of the limbs. In males who are taking the medication, contraception is essential if a partner could become pregnant. It is an immunomodulatory medication and works by a number of mechanisms, including stimulating T cells and decreasing TNF-α production.Thalidomide was first marketed in 1957 in West Germany, where it was available over the counter. When first released, thalidomide was promoted for anxiety, trouble sleeping, "tension", and morning sickness. While it was initially thought to be safe in pregnancy, concerns regarding birth defects arose until the medication was removed from the market in Europe in 1961. The total number of infants affected by use during pregnancy is estimated at 10,000, of whom about 40% died around the time of birth. Those who survived had limb, eye, urinary tract, and heart problems. Its initial entry into the US market was prevented by Frances Kelsey, a reviewer at the FDA.