Diagnosis
Treatments
Treatment may consist of surgery in the case of tumors, lower doses of estrogen in the case of exogenously-mediated estrogen excess, and estrogen-suppressing medications like gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues and progestogens. In addition, androgens may be supplemented in the case of males. See also
Aromatase deficiency
Aromatase excess syndrome
Estrogen insensitivity syndrome
High-dose estrogen
Hyperandrogenism
Hypergonadism
Hypergonadotropic hypergonadism
Hypoandrogenism
Hypoestrogenism
Hypogonadism


== References ==
Brindley and Rushton (1974) used the phosphenes to create a visual prosthesis, in this case by using the phosphenes to depict Braille spots. In recent years, researchers have successfully developed experimental brain–computer interfaces or neuroprostheses that stimulate phosphenes to restore vision to people blinded through accidents. Notable successes include the human experiments by William H. Dobelle and Mark Humayun and animal research by Dick Normann. A noninvasive technique that uses electrodes on the scalp, transcranial magnetic stimulation, has also been shown to produce phosphenes.Experiments with humans have shown that when the visual cortex is stimulated above the calcarine fissure, phosphenes are produced in the lower part of the visual field, and vice versa. Others
Phosphenes have been produced by intense, changing magnetic fields, such as with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). These fields can be positioned on different parts of the head to stimulate cells in different parts of the visual system. They also can be induced by alternating currents that entrain neural oscillation as with transcranial alternating current stimulation. In this case they appear in the peripheral visual field. This claim has been disputed. The alternative hypothesis is that current spread from the occipital electrode evokes phosphenes in the retina. Phosphenes created by magnetic fields are known as magnetophosphenes. Astronauts exposed to radiation in space have reported seeing phosphenes. Patients undergoing radiotherapy have reported seeing blue flashes of light during treatment; the underlying phenomenon has been shown to resemble Cherenkov radiation.Phosphenes can be caused by some medications, such as Ivabradine.