Two studies in mice have shown no increased incidence of cancer. One of these used regular injections of copper compounds, including cupric oxide. One study of two strains of mice fed copper compounds found a varying increased incidence of reticulum cell sarcoma in males of one strain, but not the other (there was a slightly increased incidence in females of both strains). These results have not been repeated. Pathophysiology
Indian childhood cirrhosis
One manifestation of copper toxicity, cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian childhood cirrhosis), has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a genetic defect is associated with this particular cirrhosis. Wilson disease
An inherited condition called Wilsons disease causes the body to retain copper, since it is not excreted by the liver into the bile. This disease, if untreated, can lead to brain and liver damage, and bis-choline tetrathiomolybdate is under investigation as a therapy against Wilsons disease. Menkes disease
An X-linked recessive trait that is inherited named Menkes disease causes disruption of connective tissue due to mutations in genes. If severely affected the approximate span of life is three years. One treatment used to correct the mutation is copper-histidine treatment. Alzheimers disease
Elevated free copper levels exist in Alzheimers disease, which has been hypothesized to be linked to inorganic copper consumption. Copper and zinc are known to bind to amyloid beta proteins in Alzheimers disease. This bound form is thought to mediate the production of reactive oxygen species in the brain.
A Jefferson fracture is a bone fracture of the anterior and posterior arches of the C1 vertebra, though it may also appear as a three- or two-part fracture. The fracture may result from an axial load on the back of the head or hyperextension of the neck (e.g. caused by diving), causing a posterior break, and may be accompanied by a break in other parts of the cervical spine.It is named after the British neurologist and neurosurgeon Sir Geoffrey Jefferson, who reported four cases of the fracture in 1920 in addition to reviewing cases that had been reported previously. Signs and symptoms
Individuals with Jefferson fractures usually experience pain in the upper neck but no neurological signs. The fracture may also cause damage to the arteries in the neck, resulting in lateral medullary syndrome, Horners syndrome, ataxia, and the inability to sense pain or temperature.In rare cases, congenital abnormality may cause the same symptoms as a Jefferson fracture. Cause
Jefferson fracture is often caused by an impact or load on the back of the head, and are frequently associated with diving into shallow water, impact against the roof of a vehicle and falls, and in children may occur due to falls from playground equipment. Less frequently, strong rotation of the head may also result in Jefferson fractures.Jefferson fractures are extremely rare in children, but recovery is usually complete without surgery. Diagnosis
Treatment
The use of surgery to treat a Jefferson fracture is somewhat controversial.