The theory of fetal growth arrest was proposed by Von Volkmann in 1863, and has been verified by other authors since. According to this theory, intrinsic errors or environmental insults during gestation prevents the correction of a equinovarus to pronated foot. Other researchers hypothesize that clubfoot may derive from external insults during gestation. For example, a research study found an alarming high incidence of club foot and limb contractures associated with iatrogenic amniotic leakage cause by early amniocentesis between the 11th and 12th week of gestation.Intrinsic Factors

Chromosomal abnormalities found in 30% and 2% of complex clubfoot and isolated clubfoot respectively. These include trisomy 18, 13, 21, sex chromosome abnormalities, micro-deletions and duplications. Genetic Syndromes: Larsen, Gordon, Pierre-Robin, Meckel-Gruber, Roberts, Smith-Lemli-Opitz, TARP (Talipes equinovarus, Atrial septal defect, Robin sequence, Persistence of left superior vena cava). Skeletal Dysplasias: Ellis van Creveld syndrome, diastrophic dysplasia, chondrodysplasia punctata, camptomelic dysplasia, atelosteogenesis, and mesomelic dysplasia. Neuromuscular and Neurologic abnormalities: arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, myotonic dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy,  neural tube defects, holoprosencephaly, and hydranencephaly. Genetics
Clubfoot can be diagnosed prenatally as early as 13 weeks of gestation via ultrasound. According to the Society of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, a diagnostic testing for genetic causes is recommended when clubfoot is diagnoses prenatally. If prenatal screening is suspicious for aneuploidy, karyotype analysis or chromosomal microarray (CMA) may be performed. However, if patients decline diagnostic testing, Cell-Free DNA is another screening option to identify high-risk pregnancies for aneuploidy and it is not diagnostic.
Fewer than 5% of the cases assumed to exist have been diagnosed, and most diabetes clinics around the world are checking for KCNJ11 mutations in any persons who developed apparent insulin-dependent diabetes without the typical type 1 antibodies before 6 months of age. At least some of these people have been able to change from insulin to sulfonylurea pills after decades of injections. See also
Transient neonatal diabetes mellitus

References
External links
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Permanent Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus
DiabetesGenes - Information about diagnosis, testing and treatment of neonatal diabetes