Cholera pandemics in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the growth of epidemiology as a science and in recent years it has continued to press advances in the concepts of disease ecology, basic membrane biology, and transmembrane signaling and in the use of scientific information and treatment design. Notes
References
Further reading
Arnold, David (1986). "Cholera and Colonialism in British India". Past & Present. 113 (113): 118–151. doi:10.1093/past/113.1.118. JSTOR 650982. PMID 11617906. Azizi, MH; Azizi, F (January 2010). "History of Cholera Outbreaks in Iran during the 19th and 20th Centuries". Middle East Journal of Digestive Diseases. 2 (1): 51–55. PMC 4154910. PMID 25197514. Bilson, Geoffrey. A Darkened House: Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Canada (U of Toronto Press, 1980). Cooper, Donald B. (1986). "The New Black Death: Cholera in Brazil, 1855-1856". Social Science History. 10 (4): 467–488. doi:10.2307/1171027. JSTOR 1171027. PMID 11618140. Echenberg, Myron (2011). Africa in the Time of Cholera: A History of Pandemics from 1817 to the Present. ISBN 978-0-521-18820-3. Evans, Richard J. (1988). "Epidemics and Revolutions: Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Europe". Past & Present. 120 (120): 123–146. doi:10.1093/past/120.1.123. JSTOR 650924. PMID 11617908. Evans, Richard J. (2005). Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years. ISBN 978-0-14-303636-4. Gilbert, Pamela K. Cholera and Nation: Doctoring the Social Body in Victorian England" (SUNY Press, 2008). Hamlin, Christopher (2009). Cholera: The Biography. Oxford University Press. Huber, Valeska (November 2020). "Pandemics and the politics of difference: rewriting the history of internationalism through nineteenth-century cholera". Journal of Global History. 15 (3): 394–407. doi:10.1017/S1740022820000236. S2CID 228940685. Huber, Valeska (June 2006).
Rectal pain is the symptom of pain in the area of the rectum. A number of different causes (68) have been documented. Differential diagnosis
Anal fissures
One of the most common causes of rectal pain is an anal fissure. It involves a tear in the anal canal probably due to trauma from defecation and are usually treated effectively with sitz baths, stool softeners, and analgesics. LAS and proctalgia fugax
Two more highly common causes of functional anorectal pain are levator ani syndrome (LAS) and proctalgia fugax. Both of these conditions are thought to be caused by muscle spasms of the either the levator ani muscle or the anal sphincter muscle respectively, and may overlap symptomatically with a third less-common condition called coccygodynia which is the result of previous trauma to the coccyx bone. Stress, prolonged sitting, and constipation all seem to be associated with LAS. The majority (90%) of those reporting chronic episodes of such pain are women. Some researchers group these conditions under the medical category of "tension myalgia of the pelvic floor". Less than a third of those experiencing these conditions seek medical treatment for them. Treatment can involve the use of antispasmodic medications as well as the down-training (conscious involvement and relaxation of previously unconscious muscle movements) so that spasms occur less frequently or not at all. Anorectal abscess
An anorectal abscess is an infection that forms a pocket of pus within the tissues around the anus. It is treated surgically by incision and drainage.