This is such a rare occurrence that true data is unavailable and reliance must be made on anecdotal reports. However, the vast majority of abdominal pregnancies require intervention well before fetal viability because of the risk of bleeding. With the increase in Cesarean sections performed worldwide, Cesarean section ectopic pregnancies (CSP) are rare, but becoming more common. The incidence of CSP is not well known, however there have been estimates based on different populations of 1:1800–1:2216. CSP are characterized by abnormal implantation into the scar from a previous cesarean section, and allowed to continue can cause serious complications such as uterine rupture and hemorrhage. Patients with CSP generally present without symptoms, however symptoms can include vaginal bleeding that may or may not be associated with pain. The diagnosis of CSP is made by ultrasound and four characteristics are noted: (1) Empty uterine cavity with bright hyperechoic endometrial stripe (2) Empty cervical canal (3) Intrauterine mass in the anterior part of the uterine isthmus, and (4) Absence of the anterior uterine muscle layer, and/or absence or thinning between the bladder and gestational sac, measuring less than 5 mm. Given the rarity of the diagnosis, treatment options tend to be described in case reports and series, ranging from medical with methotrexate or KCl to surgical with dilation and curettage, uterine wedge resection, or hysterectomy. A double-balloon catheter technique has also been described, allowing for uterine preservation. Recurrence risk for CSP is unknown, and early ultrasound in the next pregnancy is recommended.
Research advancements in the field
While it has been commonly known that the influenza virus increases ones chances of contracting pneumonia or meningitis caused by the streptococcus pneumonaie bacteria, new medical research in mice indicates that the flu is actually a necessary component for the transmission of the disease. Researcher Dimitri Diavatopoulo from the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre in the Netherlands describes his observations in mice, stating that in these animals, the spread of the bacteria only occurs between animals already infected with the influenza virus, not between those without it. He says that these findings have only been inclusive in mice, however, he believes that the same could be true for humans. Mechanism of disease manifestation
Three stages can be used to categorize the infection process of pneumococcal pneumonia: transmission, colonization, and invasion. The Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) leave the colonized host via shedding in order to be transmissible to new hosts, and must survive in the environment until infection of a new host (unless direct transmission occurs). Animal models have allowed scientists to have an increased understanding of these stages of infection. Transmission
In order for transmission to occur, there must be close contact with a carrier or amongst carriers. The likelihood of this increases during colder, dryer months of the year. The probability of transmission is shown to proliferate in coordination with other upper respiratory tract (URT) infections. Animal models have allowed for an increased understanding of the transmission stage during infection.