Other
There is evidence that some anticoagulants, particularly warfarin, which inhibit clot formation by interfering with Vitamin K metabolism, may actually promote arterial calcification in the long term despite reducing clot formation in the short term. Also, single peptides such as 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde and protocatechuic aldehyde have shown vasculoprotective effects to reduce risk of atherosclerosis. Epidemiology
Cardiovascular disease, which is predominantly the clinical manifestation of atherosclerosis, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Etymology
The following terms are similar, yet distinct, in both spelling and meaning, and can be easily confused: arteriosclerosis, arteriolosclerosis, and atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis is a general term describing any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of medium or large arteries (from Greek  ἀρτηρία (artēria) artery, and  σκλήρωσις (sklerosis) hardening); arteriolosclerosis is any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of arterioles (small arteries); atherosclerosis is a hardening of an artery specifically due to an atheromatous plaque (from Ancient Greek   ἀθήρα (athḗra) gruel). The term atherogenic is used for substances or processes that cause formation of atheroma. Economics
In 2011, coronary atherosclerosis was one of the top ten most expensive conditions seen during inpatient hospitalizations in the US, with aggregate inpatient hospital costs of $10.4 billion. Research
Lipids
An indication of the role of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) on atherosclerosis has been with the rare Apo-A1 Milano human genetic variant of this HDL protein.
The monoclonal IgM involved in Type I cryoglobulinemic diseases lacks rheumatoid factor activity.More recent high resolution protein electrophoresis methods have detected a small monoclonal immunoglobulin component in type III cryoglobulins and/or a micro-heterogeneous composition of oligo-clonal (i.e., more than one monoclonal) immunoglobulin components or immunoglobulins with structures that do not fit into any classifications in the cryoglobulins of ≈10% of type II and III disease cases. It has been proposed that these cases be termed an intermediate type II-III variant of cryoglobulinemic disease and that some of the type III cases associated with the expression of low levels of a one or more isotypes of circulating monoclonal immunoglobulin(s) are in transition to type II disease. Signs and symptoms
The clinical features of cryoglobulinemic disease can reflect those due not only to the circulation of cryoglobulins but also to any underlying hematological premalignant or malignant disorder, infectious disease, or autoimmune syndrome. The following sections of clinical features focuses on those attributed to the cryoglobulins.