Mutations on the GNPTAB, GNPTG, and NAGPA have been found to disrupt the signal that directs enzymes to target locations in the brain and cause stuttering in vocal and linguistic processes. Cluttering
Cluttering (Tachyphemia) is a fluency disorder that can co-occur with stuttering but may also occur individually. When someone is experiencing cluttering disorder their conversation segments may be perceived as too fast, too irregular or both. Other symptoms may include stuttering, language or phonological errors, and attention deficits. It may result from disorganized speech planning or being unsure of what to say. Both cluttering and stuttering are forms of fluency disorders that develop beyond the key years of about ages 2–6. During these ages, dysfluency is mainly just considered to be developmental dysfluency. Cluttering, unlike stuttering, can be distinguished by little to no physical structure, little to no secondary behaviors, decreased awareness of speech problems and the aforementioned typical dysfluencies such as revisions and interjections. Both stuttering and cluttering both have a genetic component. About 1/3 of those who stutter will also clutter which can prove even more difficult to overcome with Speech therapy. A consequence of cluttering is individuals may not be willing to attempt to repair breakdowns in communication which may result in less effective social integration and interactions that can lead to a sense of isolation, anxiety, and depression. Differences between disorders and developmental dysfluency
There are several warning signs of speech delays that are not considered developmentally normal.
No  treatment or prevention methods are established, but patients with upper-extremity PTS may wear a compression sleeve for persistent symptoms. Epidemiology
PTS can affect 23 to 60% of patients in the two years following DVT of the leg. Of those, 10% may go on to develop severe PTS, involving venous ulcers. Society and culture
Treatment of PTS adds significantly to the cost of treating DVT. The annual health care cost of PTS in the United States has been estimated at $200 million, with costs over $3800 per patient in the first year alone, and increasing with disease severity. PTS also causes lost work productivity: people with severe PTS and venous ulcers lose up to 2 work days per year. Research directions
The field of PTS still holds many unanswered questions that are important targets for more research. Those include

Fully defining the pathophysiology of PTS, including the role of inflammation and residual thrombus after completion of an appropriate duration of anticoagulant therapy
Developing a PTS risk prediction model
Role of thrombolytic ("clot-busting") drugs in PTS prevention
Defining the true efficacy of elastic compression stockings for PTS prevention (and if effective, elucidating the minimum compression strength necessary and the optimal timing and duration of compression therapy)
Whether PTS prevention methods are necessary for patients with asymptomatic or distal DVT
Additional treatment options for PTS with demonstrated safety and efficacy (compression and pharmacologic therapies)

References


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