Racial differences
Research on racial or cultural differences on the prevalence or presentation of conduct disorder is limited. However, according to studies on American youth, it appears that African-American youth are more often diagnosed with conduct disorder, while Asian-American youth are about one-third as likely to develop conduct disorder when compared to White American youth. It has been widely theorized for decades that this disparity is due to unconscious bias in those who give the diagnosis. References
Citations
Bibliography
Bernstein, N. (2000). Treating the unmanageable adolescent: A guide to oppositional defiant and conduct disorder. New York: Jason Aronson, Inc.
Decety J.; Moriguchi Y. (2007). "The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions". BioPsychoSocial Medicine. 1: 22–65. doi:10.1186/1751-0759-1-22. PMC 2206036. PMID 18021398. Eddy, J. (2006). Conduct disorders: The latest assessment and treatment strategies (4th Edition). Kansas City, MO: Compact Clinicals. Eyberg S. M.; Nelson M. M.; Boggs S. R. (2008). "Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent with disruptive behavior". Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 37 (1): 215–237. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.595.3142. doi:10.1080/15374410701820117. PMID 18444059. S2CID 53345. Hughes, T. (2010). Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Conduct Disorder at School (Development and Psychopathology at School). New York: Springer. Lahey, B.B., Moffitt, T.E.,& Caspi, A. (eds.). Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford Press. Matthys, W. (2010). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in children. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. McIntosh, K., & Livingston, P. (2008). Youth with conduct disorder: In trouble with the world. New York: Mason Crest Publishers. Raine A (2002).
Family functioning and parent-child interactions also play a substantial role in childhood aggression and conduct disorder, with low levels of parental involvement, inadequate supervision, and unpredictable discipline practices reinforcing youths defiant behaviors. Peer influences have also been related to the development of antisocial behavior in youth, particularly peer rejection in childhood and association with deviant peers. Peer rejection is not only a marker of a number of externalizing disorders, but also a contributing factor for the continuity of the disorders over time. Hinshaw and Lee (2003) also explain that association with deviant peers has been thought to influence the development of conduct disorder in two ways: 1) a “selection” process whereby youth with aggressive characteristics choose deviant friends, and 2) a “facilitation” process whereby deviant peer networks bolster patterns of antisocial behavior. In a separate study by Bonin and colleagues, parenting programs were shown to positively affect child behavior and reduce costs to the public sector. Wider contextual factors
In addition to the individual and social factors associated with conduct disorder, research has highlighted the importance of environment and context in youth with antisocial behavior. However, it is important to note that these are not static factors, but rather transactional in nature (e.g., individuals are influenced by and also influence their environment). For instance, neighborhood safety and exposure to violence have been studied in conjunction with conduct disorder, but it is not simply the case that youth with aggressive tendencies reside in violent neighborhoods.