Hematuria or haematuria is defined as the presence of blood or red blood cells in the urine. “Gross hematuria” occurs when urine appears red, brown, or tea-colored due to the presence of blood. Hematuria may also be subtle and only detectable with a microscope or laboratory test. Blood that enters and mixes with the urine can come from any location within the urinary system, including the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra, and in men, the prostate. Common causes of hematuria include urinary tract infection (UTI), kidney stones, viral illness, trauma, bladder cancer, and exercise. These causes are grouped into glomerular and non-glomerular causes, depending on the involvement of the glomerulus of the kidney. But not all red urine is hematuria. Other substances such as certain medications and foods (e.g. blackberries, beets, food dyes) can cause urine to appear red. Menstruation in women may also cause the appearance of hematuria and may result in a positive urine dipstick test for hematuria. A urine dipstick test may also give an incorrect positive result for hematuria if there are other substances in the urine such as myoglobin, a protein excreted into urine during rhabdomyolysis. A positive urine dipstick test should be confirmed with microscopy, where hematuria is defined by three of more red blood cells per high power field. When hematuria is detected, a thorough history and physical examination with appropriate further evaluation (e.g. laboratory testing) can help determine the underlying cause.
However, if no underlying cause is discovered, the hematuria should be re-evaluated with urinalysis and urine microscopy within 12 months. Additionally, for all risk categories, if a nephrologic origin is suspected, consultation of a nephrologist should be made. Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of hematuria can often be explained by damage to the structures of the urinary system, including the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra, and in men, the prostate. Common mechanisms include structural disruption to the glomerular basement membrane and mechanical or chemical erosion of the mucosal surfaces of the genitourinary tract. Management
Medical Emergency: Acute clot retention
Acute clot retention is one of three emergencies that can occur with hematuria. The other two are anemia and shock. Blood clots can prevent urine outflow through either ureter or the bladder. This is known as acute urinary retention. Blood clots that remain in the bladder are digested by urinary urokinase producing fibrin fragments. These fibrin fragments are natural anticoagulants and promote ongoing bleeding from the urinary tract. Removing all blood clots prevents the formation of this natural anticoagulant. This in turns facilitates the cessation of bleeding from the urinary tract.The acute management of obstructing clots is the placement of a large (22-24 French) urethral Foley catheter. Clots are evacuated with a Toomey syringe and saline irrigation. If this does not control the bleeding, management should escalate to continuous bladder irrigation (CBI) via a three-port urethral catheter. If both a large urethral Foley catheter and CBI fail, an urgent cystoscopy in the operating room will be necessary.