Surgery is sometimes required in severe cases of CIPO. Medical treatment
Prucalopride, pyridostigmine, metoclopramide, cisapride, erythromycin and octreotide are medications that aim to enhance intestinal motility. Intestinal stasis, which may lead to bacterial overgrowth and subsequently, diarrhea or malabsorption, is treated with antibiotics. Nutritional deficiencies are treated by encouraging patients to avoid foods that increase distention and are difficult to digest (e.g. those high in fat and fibre), consuming small frequent meals (5–6 per day), focusing on liquids and soft food. Reducing intake of poorly absorbed sugar alcohols may be of benefit. Referral to an accredited dietitian is recommended. If dietary changes are unsuccessful in meeting nutritional requirements and energy needs, enteral nutrition is used. Many patients eventually require parenteral nutrition.Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) is a form of long-term nutritional treatment reserved for patients that have severe pseudo-obstruction. TPN dependent patients require frequent checkups to monitor catheter function, check liver enzyme levels, and evaluate for signs of blood infections. TPN format is typically changed depending on loss/gain of weight and bloodwork results, and is specially formulated to meet each individual patients needs. Procedures
Intestinal decompression by tube placement in a small stoma can also be used to reduce distension and pressure within the gut. The stoma may be a gastrostomy, jejunostomy, ileostomy or cecostomy. These may be used for feed (e.g. gastrostomy and jejunostomy) or to flush the intestines. Colostomy or ileostomy can bypass affected parts if they are distal to (come after) the stoma. For instance, if only the colon is affected, an ileostomy may be helpful.
The negative intrathoracic pressure may cause the left atrium to expand and stretch its walls during each OSA event. Over time, the repetitive stretching of the left atrium  may result in a persistent left atrial enlargement. Diagnosis

LAE is suggested by an  electrocardiogram (ECG)  that has a pronounced notch in the P wave. However, if atrial fibrillation is present, a P wave would not be present. In any case, LAE can  be diagnosed and measured using an echocardiogram (ECHO) by measuring the left atrial volume (LAVI). Characterizing the size of the left atrium according to its volume is preferred over a single linear dimension since enlargement can be different for different directions. For example, because of the smaller distance in the thoracic cavity between the sternum and spine, compared to the other directions, less  room exists for enlargement of the left atrium along the anteroposterior axis. By approximating the shape of the left atrium as an ellipsoid, its volume can be calculated from measurements of its dimensions along  three perpendicular directions.Indexing the left atrial volume to body surface area (volume/BSA) is recommended by the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Echocardiography. The values for volume/BSA in the following table are the best validated, and are the same for both men and women. == References ==