{\displaystyle \Phi _{N}={\frac {\Delta PAN_{A}}{\sqrt {2\pi MRT}}}.}
secondary to radiation therapy
infection
inflammation
ischemia
neoplasm – in such cases, the stenosis is often said to be "malignant" or "benign", although this attribute actually refers to the neoplasm itself. smoking
ureteral
urethral

Diagnosis
Stenoses of the vascular type are often associated with unusual blood sounds resulting from turbulent flow over the narrowed blood vessel. This sound can be made audible by a stethoscope, but diagnosis is generally made or confirmed with some form of medical imaging. See also
Atresia

References
External links
"Tracheal Stenosis Audio and Video". Archived from the original on 2007-01-12. "Symptoms of Urethral Stricture". 20 May 2011. Archived from the original on July 17, 2016.