Alkali citrate is also used to increase urine citrate levels. It can be prescribed or found over-the-counter in pill, liquid or powder form. Diagnosis
Diagnosis of kidney stones is made on the basis of information obtained from the history, physical examination, urinalysis, and radiographic studies. Clinical diagnosis is usually made on the basis of the location and severity of the pain, which is typically colicky in nature (comes and goes in spasmodic waves). Pain in the back occurs when calculi produce an obstruction in the kidney. Physical examination may reveal fever and tenderness at the costovertebral angle on the affected side. Imaging studies
Calcium-containing stones are relatively radiodense, and they can often be detected by a traditional radiograph of the abdomen that includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder (KUB film). KUB radiograph, although useful in monitoring size of stone or passage of stone in stone formers, might not be useful in the acute setting due to low sensitivity. Some 60% of all renal stones are radiopaque. In general, calcium phosphate stones have the greatest density, followed by calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate stones. Cystine calculi are only faintly radiodense, while uric acid stones are usually entirely radiolucent.In people with a history of stones, those who are less than 50 years of age and are presenting with the symptoms of stones without any concerning signs do not require helical CT scan imaging.
Flavoxate is an anticholinergic with antimuscarinic effects. Its muscle relaxant properties may be due to a direct action on the smooth muscle rather than by antagonizing muscarinic receptors. Clinical uses
Flavoxate is used to treat urinary bladder spasms. It is available under the trade name Urispas (Paladin)(india), Genurin (by Recordati, Italy) in Italy and KSA, Uritac by El Saad company in Syria,  under the name Bladderon by Nippon Shinyaku of Japan, or Bladuril in Chile, Utispas ( Apex Pharma) in Nepal. Flavoxate is indicated for symptomatic relief of interstitial cystitis, dysuria, urgency, nocturia, suprapubic pain, frequency and incontinence as may occur in cystitis, prostatitis, urethritis, urethrocystitis/urethrotrigonitis. Side effects
Flavoxate is generally well tolerated, but can potentially cause vomiting, upset stomach, dry mouth or throat, blurred vision, eye pain, and increased sensitivity of the eyes to light. Contraindications
Flavoxate is contraindicated in patients who have any of the following obstructive conditions: pyloric or duodenal obstruction, obstructive intestinal lesions or ileus, achalasia, gastrointestinal hemorrhage and obstructive uropathies of the lower urinary tract. References


== Further reading ==