Etymology
The term derives from the Ancient Greek poliós (πολιός), meaning "grey", myelós (µυελός "marrow"), referring to the grey matter of the spinal cord, and the suffix -itis, which denotes inflammation, i.e., inflammation of the spinal cords grey matter, although a severe infection can extend into the brainstem and even higher structures, resulting in polioencephalitis, resulting in inability to breathe, requiring mechanical assistance such as an iron lung. Research
The Poliovirus Antivirals Initiative was launched in 2007 with the aim of developing antiviral medications for polio, but while several promising candidates were identified, none have progressed beyond Phase II clinical trials. Pocapavir (a capsid inhibitor) and V-7404 (a protease inhibitor) may speed up viral clearance and are being studied for this purpose. References
Further reading
Kluger Jefferey (2004). Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons. ISBN 978-0-399-15216-0. Oshinsky DM (2005). Polio: An American story. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515294-4. polio. Shaffer MM, Bernard S (2005). The death of a disease: a history of the eradication of poliomyelitis. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3677-4. Shell M (2005). Polio and its aftermath: the paralysis of culture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01315-5. polio. Wilson DJ (2005). Living with polio: the epidemic and its survivors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90103-9. Wilson DJ, Silver J (2007). Polio voices: an oral history from the American polio epidemics and worldwide eradication efforts. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-99492-1.
Obstetric: Pseudo-sinusoidal fetal heart rhythm.Other possible, but rare side effects include speech difficulty, urinary urgency, blurred vision, flushing and warmth. A 2014 Cochrane Systematic Review by Schnabel et al., concluded that due to limited data, analysis of adverse events for children treated with nalbuphine compared to other opioids or placebo for postoperative pain, could not be definitively reported. Overdose
In case of overdose or adverse reaction, the immediate intravenous administration of naloxone (Narcan) is a specific antidote. Oxygen, intravenous fluids, vasopressors and other supportive measures should be used as indicated. Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Nalbuphine is a semisynthetic mixed agonist/antagonist opioid modulator of the phenanthrene or morphinan series. It is structurally related to the widely used opioid antagonists naloxone and naltrexone, and to the potent opioid analgesic oxymorphone. Nalbuphine binds with high affinity to the MOR and KOR, and has relatively low affinity for the DOR. It behaves as a moderate-efficacy partial agonist (or mixed agonist/antagonist) of the MOR and as a high-efficacy partial agonist of the KOR. Nalbuphine has weak or no affinity for the sigma receptor(s) (e.g., Ki > 100,000 nM).Nalbuphine is said to be more morphine-like at lower doses. However at higher doses, it produces more sedation, drunkenness, dysphoria, and dissociation. As such, its effects are dose-dependent. Such effects include sedation (21–36%), dizziness or vertigo (5%), lightheadedness (1%), anxiety (<1%), dysphoria (<1%), euphoria (<1%), confusion (<1%), hallucinations (<1%), depersonalization (1%), unusual dreams (<1%), and feelings of "unreality" (<1%).Nalbuphine is a potent analgesic.