Socioeconomic inequalities are commonly measured by the Cartairs-Morris score, Index of Multiple Deprivation, Townsend deprivation index, and the Jarman score. The Jarman score, for example, considers "unemployment, overcrowding, single parents, under-fives, elderly living alone, ethnicity, low social class and residential mobility". In Vos meta-analysis these indices are used to view the effect of low SES neighborhoods on maternal health. In the meta-analysis, data from individual studies were collected from 1985 up until 2008. Vos concludes that a correlation exists between prenatal adversities and deprived neighborhoods. Other studies have shown that low SES is closely associated with the development of the fetus in utero and growth retardation. Studies also suggest that children born in low SES families are "likely to be born prematurely, at low birth weight, or with asphyxia, a birth defect, a disability, fetal alcohol syndrome, or AIDS". Bradley and Corwyn also suggest that congenital disorders arise from the mothers lack of nutrition, a poor lifestyle, maternal substance abuse and "living in a neighborhood that contains hazards affecting fetal development (toxic waste dumps)". In a meta-analysis that viewed how inequalities influenced maternal health, it was suggested that deprived neighborhoods often promoted behaviors such as smoking, drug and alcohol use. After controlling for socioeconomic factors and ethnicity, several individual studies demonstrated an association with outcomes such as perinatal mortality and preterm birth.
A callosity is another name for callus, a piece of skin that has become thickened as a result of repeated contact and friction. Primates
All Old World monkeys, gibbons, and some chimpanzees have pads on their rears known as ischial callosities. Ischial relates to the ischium: it forms the lower and back part of the hip bone. The pads enable the monkeys to sleep sitting upright on thin branches, beyond reach of predators, without falling. The ischial callosities are one of the most distinctive pelvic features which separates Old World monkeys from New World monkeys. Right whales
In whales, the term callosity refers to the rough, calcified skin patches found on the heads of the three species of right whales. These callosities are a characteristic feature of the whale genus Eubalaena; because they are found on the head of the whale and appear white against the dark background of the whales skin, they make it very easy to identify these species. The callosities themselves are grey; the white appearance is due to large colonies of whale lice, whale barnacles and parasitic worms which reside on them. Young whales and diseased individuals are often infested with a different species of cyamid, which gives an orange hue rather than white on these whales.