It has been suggested that in the absence of exposure to cold and damp, COVID-19 should be considered as a possible cause of chilblains.In a study at the dermatology department of Saint-Louis Hospital in Paris, researchers found that most of their study participants carried high levels of autoantibodies, proteins generated by the immune system that inadvertently attack the bodys own tissues. Compared with healthy individuals, the participants showed high activity of proteins called type 1 interferons, which switch on pathogen-fighting genes in immune cells. See also
Equestrian perniosis
Erythrocyanosis crurum
Raynauds disease

References
External links

DermAtlas 1683395337
Cold stress, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
However, in contrast to peripheral breast abscess which often resolves after antibiotics and incision and drainage, subareaolar breast abscess has a tendency to recur, often accompanied by the formation of fistulas leading from inflammation area to the skin surface. In many cases, in particular in patients with recurrent subareolar abscess, the excision of the affected lactiferous ducts is indicated, together with the excision of any chronic abscess or fistula. This can be performed using radial or circumareolar incision.There is no universal agreement on what should be the standard way of treating the condition. In a recent review article, antibiotics treatment, ultrasound evaluation and, if fluid is present, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the abscess with an 18 gauge needle, under saline lavage until clear, has been suggested as initial line of treatment for breast abscess in puerperal and non-puerperal cases including central (subareolar) abscess (see breast abscess for details). Elsewhere, it has been stated that treatment of subareolar abscess is unlikely to work if it does not address the ducts as such.Duct resection has been traditionally used to treat the condition; the original Hadfield procedure has been improved many times but long-term success rate remains poor even for radical surgery. Petersen even suggests that damage caused by previous surgery is a frequent cause of subareolar abscesses. Goepel and Pahnke and other authors recommend performing surgeries only with concomitant bromocriptine treatment.