The term is mostly used in a human context; however, the same phenomenon can occur in all species of placental mammals. Constricted umbilical cord
When the umbilical cord is constricted (q.v. "accidents" above), the fetus experiences periods of hypoxia, and may respond by unusually high periods of kicking or struggling, to free the umbilical cord. These are sporadic if constriction is due to a change in the fetus or mothers position, and may become worse or more frequent as the fetus grows. Extra attention should be given if mothers experience large increases in kicking from previous childbirths, especially when increases correspond to position changes.Regulating high blood pressure, diabetes and drug use may reduce the risk of a stillbirth. Umbilical cord constriction may be identified and observed by ultrasound, if requested.Some maternal factors are associated with stillbirth, including being age 35 or older, having diabetes, having a history of addiction to illegal drugs, being overweight or obese, and smoking cigarettes in the three months before getting pregnant. Treatment
Fetal death in utero does not present an immediate health risk to the pregnant woman, and labour will usually begin spontaneously after two weeks, so the pregnant woman may choose to wait and bear the fetal remains vaginally. After two weeks, the pregnant woman is at risk of developing blood clotting problems, and labor induction is recommended at this point. In many cases, the pregnant woman will find the idea of carrying the dead fetus traumatizing and will elect to have labor induced.
Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy is an epileptic disorder that causes frequent violent seizures during sleep. These seizures often involve complex motor movements, such as hand clenching, arm raising/lowering, and knee bending. Vocalizations such as shouting, moaning, or crying are also common. ADNFLE is often misdiagnosed as nightmares. Attacks often occur in clusters and typically first manifest in childhood. There are four known loci for ADNFLE, three with known causative genes. These genes, CHRNA4, CHRNB2, and CHRNA2, encode various nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α and β subunits. Signs and symptoms
ADNFLE is a partial epilepsy disorder characterized by brief violent seizures during sleep. Seizures are complex, consisting of arm and leg movements, fist clenching, and vocalizations such as yelling and moaning. These seizures often occur in clusters and can first manifest in childhood. Diagnosis is often initially incorrectly made as nightmares, night terrors, parasomnias and various psychiatric disorders. Causes
While not well understood, it is believed that malfunction in thalamocortical loops plays a vital role in ADNFLE. The reasons for this belief are threefold. Firstly, thalamocortical loops are important in sleep and the frontal cortex is the origin of ADNFLE seizures. Secondly, both the thalamus and cortex receive cholinergic inputs and acetylcholine receptor subunits comprise the three known causative genes for ADNFLE. Thirdly, K-complex are almost invariably present at the start of seizures. It is thought that epilepsy is caused because these receptor subunits are expressed presynaptically by neurons that release the inhibitory transmitter GABA.