These bills have grown in popularity across party lines since needle exchanges were first introduced in Amsterdam in 1983. In addition, AB-186 Controlled substances: overdose prevention program was introduced to operate safe injection sites in the City and County of San Francisco. The bill was vetoed on September 30, 2018, by California Governor Jerry Brown. The legality of these sites are still in discussion, so there are no such sites in the United States yet. However, there is growing international evidence for successful safe injection facilities. See also
Questionnaires

References
External links

American Society of Addiction Medicine website
Health-EU Portal – Drugs
people, drug addicts
Trips Beyond Addiction | Living Hero Radio Show and Podcast special. With Dimitri Mobengo Mugianis, Bovenga Na Muduma, Clare S. Wilkins, Brad Burge, Tom Kingsley Brown, Susan Thesenga, Bruce K. Alexander, PhD ~ the voices of ex-addicts, researchers from The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies and Ibogaine/Iboga/Ayahuasca treatment providers sharing their experiences in breaking addiction with native medicines. January 2013
A social history of Americas most popular drugs. National Institute on Drug Abuse: "NIDA for Teens: Brain and Addiction". "WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence – WHO Technical Report Series, No. 915 – Thirty-third Report". apps.who.int. 2003. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2015. - pdf
Velopharyngeal inadequacy is a malfunction of a velopharyngeal mechanism which is responsible for directing the transmission of sound energy and air pressure in both the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. When this mechanism is impaired in some way, the valve does not fully close, and a condition known as velopharyngeal inadequacy can develop. VPI can either be congenital or acquired later in life. Presentation
Relationship to cleft palate
A cleft palate is one of the most common causes of VPI. Cleft palate is an anatomical abnormality that occurs in utero and is present at birth. This malformation can affect the lip and palate, or the palate only. A cleft palate can affect the mobility of the velopharyngeal valve, thereby resulting in VPI. Causes
While cleft is the most common cause of VPI, other significant etiologies exist. These other causes are outlined in the chart below:

Diagnosis
Classification
The most frequent types of cleft palates are overt, submucous, and occult submucous. Treatment
A common method to treat Velopharyngeal insufficiency is pharyngeal flap surgery, where tissue from the back of the mouth is used to close part of the gap. Other ways of treating velopharyngeal insufficiency is by placing a posterior nasopharyngeal wall implant (commonly cartilage or collagen) or type of soft palate lengthening procedure (i.e. VY palatoplasty). Inadequacy, insufficiency and incompetency
Velopharyngeal insufficiency or incompetency are related labels for this phenomenon, in addition to most common generic- velopharyngeal inadequacy. Velopharyngeal insufficiency is the inability of the velopharyngeal sphincter to sufficiently separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity during speech.