These procedures can be performed by interventional radiologists, interventional cardiologists, vascular surgeons, and thoracic surgeons, among others.Surgery is the last resort; vascular surgeons can perform either endarterectomies on arterial blockages or perform an arterial bypass. However, open surgery poses a host of risks not present with catheter-based interventions. Epidemiology
Atherosclerosis affects up to 10% of the Western population older than 65 years and for intermittent claudication this number is around 5%. Intermittent claudication most commonly manifests in men older than 50 years.One in five of the middle-aged (65–75 years) population of the United Kingdom have evidence of peripheral arterial disease on clinical examination, although only a quarter of them have symptoms. The most common symptom is muscle pain in the lower limbs on exercise—intermittent claudication. See also
Peripheral artery disease

References
Further reading
Burns P, Gough S, Bradbury AW (March 2003). "Management of peripheral arterial disease in primary care". BMJ. 326 (7389): 584–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7389.584. PMC 1125476. PMID 12637405. Shammas NW (2007). "Epidemiology, classification, and modifiable risk factors of peripheral arterial disease". Vasc Health Risk Manag. 3 (2): 229–34. doi:10.2147/vhrm.2007.3.2.229. PMC 1994028. PMID 17580733. External links

Cochrane Peripheral Vascular Diseases Review Group
The contention that methylphenidate acts as a gateway drug has been discredited by multiple sources, according to which abuse is statistically very low and "stimulant therapy in childhood does not increase the risk for subsequent drug and alcohol abuse disorders later in life". A study found that ADHD medication was not associated with increased risk of cigarette use, and in fact stimulant treatments such as Ritalin seemed to lower this risk. People treated with stimulants such as methylphenidate during childhood were less likely to have substance use disorders in adulthood.Among countries with the highest rates of use of methylphenidate medication is Iceland, where research shows that the drug was the most commonly used substance among people who inject drugs. The study involved 108 people who inject drugs and 88% of them had injected methylphenidate within the last 30 days and for 63% of them, methylphenidate was the most preferred substance. Treatment of ADHD by way of methylphenidate has led to legal actions, including malpractice suits regarding informed consent, inadequate information on side effects, misdiagnosis, and coercive use of medications by school systems. Research
Methylphenidate may have benefit as a treatment of apathy in patients with Alzheimers disease. It may be useful in losing weight.Methylphenidate may provide possible protection from methamphetamine-induced dopamine neuron damage and possible protection from Parkinsons disease.Methylphenidate has been studied in the treatment of Parkinsons disease. Replacement therapy
Methylphenidate has shown some benefits as a replacement therapy for individuals who are addicted to and dependent upon methamphetamine.