One common type of vertigo is benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, when an otolith is displaced from the ventricles to the semicircular canal. The displaced otolith rests on the cupola, causing a sensation of movement when there is none. Ménières disease, labyrinthitis, strokes, and other infective and congenital diseases may also result in the perception of vertigo. Injury
Outer earInjuries to the external ear occur fairly frequently, and can leave minor to major deformity. Injuries include: laceration, avulsion injuries, burn and repeated twisting or pulling of an ear, for discipline or torture. Chronic damage to the ears can cause cauliflower ear, a common condition in boxers and wrestlers in which the cartilage around the ears becomes lumpy and distorted owing to persistence of a haematoma around the perichondrium, which can impair blood supply and healing. Owing to its exposed position, the external ear is susceptible to frostbite as well as skin cancers, including squamous-cell carcinoma and basal-cell carcinomas. Middle earThe ear drum may become perforated in the event of a large sound or explosion, when diving or flying (called barotrauma), or by objects inserted into the ear. Another common cause of injury is due to an infection such as otitis media. These may cause a discharge from the ear called otorrhea, and are often investigated by otoscopy and audiometry. Treatment may include watchful waiting, antibiotics and possibly surgery, if the injury is prolonged or the position of the ossicles is affected.
The underfill theory involves activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, which leads to an increase in absorption of sodium from the kidney tubule (termed renal sodium avidity) mediated by aldosterone, which acts on mineralocorticoid receptors in the distal convoluted tubule. This is believed to be a key step in the pathogenesis of ascites in cirrhotics as well. It has been hypothesized that the progression from ascites to hepatorenal syndrome is a spectrum where splanchnic vasodilation defines both resistance to diuretic medications in ascites (which is commonly seen in type 2 HRS) and the onset of kidney vasoconstriction (as described above) leading to hepatorenal syndrome. Prevention
The risk of death in hepatorenal syndrome is very high; consequently, there is a significant emphasis on the identification of patients who are at risk for HRS, and prevention of triggers for onset of HRS. As infection (specifically spontaneous bacterial peritonitis) and gastrointestinal hemorrhage are both complications in individuals with cirrhosis, and are common triggers for HRS, specific care is made in early identification and treatment of cirrhotics with these complications  to prevent HRS. Some of the triggers for HRS are induced by treatment of ascites and can be preventable. The aggressive use of diuretic medications should be avoided. In addition, many medications that are either used to treat cirrhotic complications (such as some antibiotics) or other conditions may cause sufficient impairment in kidney function in the cirrhotic to lead to HRS.