It usually resolves within a few days but has been rarely documented to take much longer. Pathophysiology
PDPH is thought to result from a loss of cerebrospinal fluid into the epidural space. A decreased hydrostatic pressure in the subarachnoid space then leads to traction to the meninges with associated symptoms. Diagnosis
Differential diagnosis
Although in very rare cases the headache may present immediately after a puncture, this is almost always due to another cause such as increased intracranial pressure and requires immediate attention. Prevention
Using a pencil point rather than a cutting spinal needle decreases the risk. The size of the pencil point needle does not appear to make a difference, while smaller cutting needles have a low risk compared to larger ones. Modern, atraumatic needles such as the Sprotte or Whitacre spinal needle leave a smaller perforation and reduce the risk for PDPH. However, the evidence that atraumatic needles reduce the risk of post-dural puncture headache (PDPH) without increasing adverse events such as paraesthesia or backache is moderate-quality and further research should be done.Morphine, cosyntropin, and aminophylline appear effective in reducing post dural puncture headaches. Evidence does not support the use of bed rest or intravenous fluids to prevent PDPH. Treatment
Some people require no other treatment than pain medications and bed rest. A 2015 review found tentative evidence to support the use of caffeine. Vigorous hydration is routinely encouraged in postpartum patients as a noninvasive, low-risk therapy.Pharmacological treatments as; gabapentin, pregabalin,  neostigmine/atropine,  methylxanthines, and triptans.
A torus palatinus (pl. tori palatini), or palatal torus (pl. palatal tori), is a bony protrusion on the palate. Palatal tori are usually present on the midline of the hard palate. Most palatal tori are less than 2 cm in diameter, but their size can change throughout life. Types
Sometimes, the tori are categorized by their appearance. Arising as a broad base and a smooth surface, flat tori are located on the midline of the palate and extend symmetrically to either side. Spindle tori have a ridge located at their midline. Nodular tori have multiple bony growths that each have their own base. Lobular tori have multiple bony growths with a common base. Cause
Although some research suggest palatal tori to be an autosomal dominant trait, it is generally believed that palatal tori are caused by several factors. They are more common in early adult life and can increase in size. In some older people, the size of the tori may decrease due to bone resorption. It is believed that tori of the lower jaw are the result of local stresses and not due solely to genetic influences. Treatment
Palatal tori are usually a clinical finding with no treatment necessary. It is possible for ulcers to form on the area of the tori due to repeated trauma. Also, the tori may complicate the fabrication of dentures. If removal of the tori is needed, surgery can be done to reduce the amount of bone present. Surgical removal
A maxillary torus is only removed in instances where it is problematic.