Intake in populations
Twelve surveys undertaken in 9 EU countries between 2000 and 2011 estimated choline intake of adults in these countries to be 269–468 milligrams per day. Intake was 269–444 mg/day in adult women and 332–468 mg/day in adult men. Intake was 75–127 mg/day in infants, 151–210 mg/day in 1- to 3-year-olds, 177–304 mg/day in 3- to 10-year-olds and 244–373 mg/day in 10- to 18-year-olds. The total choline intake mean estimate was 336 mg/day in pregnant adolescents and 356 mg/day in pregnant women.A study based on the NHANES 2009–2012 survey estimated the choline intake to be too low in some US subpopulations. Intake was 315.2–318.8 mg/d in 2+ year olds between this time period. Out of 2+ year olds, only 15.6±0.8% of males and 6.1±0.6% of females exceeded the adequate intake (AI). AI was exceeded by 62.9±3.1% of 2- to 3-year-olds, 45.4±1.6% of 4- to 8-year-olds, 9.0±1.0% of 9- to 13-year-olds, 1.8±0.4% of 14–18 and 6.6±0.5% of 19+ year olds. Upper intake level was not exceeded in any subpopulations.A 2013–2014 NHANES study of the US population found the choline intake of 2- to 19-year-olds to be 256±3.8 mg/day and 339±3.9 mg/day in adults 20 and over. Intake was 402±6.1 mg/d in men 20 and over and 278 mg/d in women 20 and over. Deficiency
Signs and symptoms
Symptomatic choline deficiency is rare in humans. Most obtain sufficient amounts of it from the diet and are able to biosynthesize limited amounts of it. Symptomatic deficiency is often caused by certain diseases or by other indirect causes.
Acetylcholine is even present in the placenta and may help control cell proliferation and differentiation (increases in cell number and changes of multiuse cells into dedicated cellular functions) and parturition.Choline uptake into the brain is controlled by a low-affinity transporter located at the blood–brain barrier. Transport occurs when arterial plasma choline concentrations increase above 14 μmol/L, which can occur during a spike in choline concentration after consuming choline-rich foods. Neurons, conversely, acquire choline by both high- and low-affinity transporters. Choline is stored as membrane-bound phosphatidylcholine, which can then be used for acetylcholine neurotransmitter synthesis later. Acetylcholine is formed as needed, travels across the synapse, and transmits the signal to the following neuron. Afterwards, acetylcholinesterase degrades it, and the free choline is taken up by a high-affinity transporter into the neuron again. Uses
Choline chloride and choline bitartrate are used in dietary supplements. Bitartrate is used more often due to its lower hygroscopicity. Certain choline salts are used to supplement chicken, turkey and some other animal feeds. Some salts are also used as industrial chemicals: for example, in photolithography to remove photoresist. Choline theophyllinate and choline salicylate are used as medicines, as well as structural analogs, like methacholine and carbachol. Radiolabeled cholines, like 11C-choline, are used in medical imaging. Other commercially used salts include tricholine citrate and choline bicarbonate. Antagonists and inhibitors
Hundreds of choline antagonists and enzyme inhibitors have been developed for research purposes. Aminomethylpropanol is among the first ones used as a research tool. It inhibits choline and trimethylglycine synthesis.