Sickle cell retinopathy can be defined as retinal changes due to blood vessel damage in the eye of a person with a background of sickle cell disease. It can likely progress to loss of vision in late stages due to vitreous hemorrhage or retinal detachment. Sickle cell disease is a structural red blood cell disorder leading to consequences in multiple systems. It is characterized by chronic red blood cell destruction, vascular injury, and tissue ischemia causing damage to the brain, eyes, heart, lungs, kidneys, spleen, and musculoskeletal system.People affected by sickle cell disease are commonly of African or Asian descent. Emigration patterns towards the Western Hemisphere have led to increased numbers of persons affected by sickle cell disease in regions where it was previously uncommon. Knowledge and understanding of sickle cell disease and its management are now increasingly relevant in areas such as the European Union. At a young age, a great proportion of people living with sickle cell disease can develop retinal changes. Sickle cell disease consists of several subtypes; however, the Haemoglobin type C (HbSC) subtype carries the gravest prognosis for sickle cell retinopathy and vision changes.Regular retinal examinations can aid in early detection and treatment, thus reducing the impact of the condition and the risk of vision loss. Development and progression of sickle cell retinopathy can be favorably modified through management of the underling sickle cell disease. Treatment of the general disease can ameliorate its systemic effects. Classification
Sickle cell retinopathy can be classified based on retinal changes into non-proliferative and proliferative subtypes.
Between 8 and 12 weeks, human male fetuses become externally distinct as androgens enlarge the phallus and produce a penis with a urethra and scrotum.Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome is a form of pseudohermaphroditism, developed through Müllerian-inhibiting factor defects. In such instances, duct derivatives are present in males, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina. Management
Surgery is sometimes performed to alter the appearance of the genitals. Sex-specific cancers present on the gonads may require surgical removal. History
John Money is perhaps the best-known early researcher in this area. His doctoral thesis was titled Hermaphroditism: An Inquiry into the Nature of a Human Paradox, and awarded by Harvard University in 1952. Terminology
The term "Pseudohermaphroditimus" (pseudohermaphroditism) was coined in German by Edwin Klebs in 1876. Klebs had included the term as a synonym for the earlier coined, "spurious hermaphroditism" (which he referred to as Schein-Zwitter in German).