Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive.These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art is Mary Kelly’s Post-Partum Document. Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship. Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment. While the ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the ‘good mother’ forms an important part of many works of art relating to the Holocaust, other women’s Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers’ trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors. For example, works by first-generation survivors of the Holocaust such as Ella Liebermann-Shiber and Shoshana Neuman have depicted mothers abandoning and suffocating their children in an effort to stay alive themselves. Increasingly diverse representations of motherhood can be found in contemporary works of art. Catherine Opie’s self-portrait photographs, including of herself nursing, reference the existing Virgin Mary archetype while subverting its norms around sexuality by centering her identity as a lesbian. Rather than attempting to make her experience of motherhood fit into existing norms, Opie’s photographs are “non-traditional and non-apologetic representations”.In her 2020 photography collection, Solana Cain explored the meaning of joy for Black mothers to challenge the lack of images in mainstream media that represent Black motherhood.
Many medications can also affect the development of the fetus, as can alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs.See Environmental toxins and fetal development. See Drugs in pregnancy. Genetic mutations
Genetic mutations can cause a wide variety of fetal malformations, ranging from relatively mild cleft lips to severe and even fatal deformities. Infection
Maternal infection may be transmitted to the fetus; this is called a vertically transmitted infection. The fetus has a weak immune system, so infections that are relatively minor in adults can be very serious in a developing fetus. In addition, some studies suggest that maternal infections increase the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia, in the child. Intrauterine hypoxia
Intrauterine hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation in the womb, can cause serious brain damage in the fetus. It most commonly occurs because of damage to or malformation of the umbilical cord or placenta. Intrauterine hypoxia can cause brain damage, including cerebral palsy and other neurological and psychiatric disorders. Maternal health issues
Certain maternal health issues can cause birth injuries. Gestational diabetes can cause premature birth, macrosomia, or stillbirth. Pregnancy complications
Complications such as placenta previa, placental abruption,  Placenta accreta, Retained placenta, Placental insufficiency, Placental infarcts, anemia, and preeclampsia can limit the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, increasing the risk of birth defects. Severe cases may be fatal to the fetus. Common types of birth injury
Brachial plexus injury
The brachial plexus is the plexus of nerves that lies between the neck and axilla and controls the motion of the arm and hand.