Find the set $S$ of primes such that $p \in S$ if and only if there exists an integer $x$ such that $x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \equiv p^{2010} \pmod{p^{2011}}$.

[i]Brian Hamrick.[/i]
1. **Claim**: The set \( S \) of primes \( p \) such that there exists an integer \( x \) satisfying \( x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \equiv p^{2010} \pmod{p^{2011}} \) is given by \( S = \{ p : p \equiv 1 \pmod{2011} \land p \in \mathbb{P} \} \).

2. **Initial Condition**: Given \( x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \equiv p^{2010} \pmod{p^{2011}} \), we can rewrite the left-hand side as a geometric series:
   \[
   \frac{x^{2011} - 1}{x - 1} \equiv p^{2010} \pmod{p^{2011}}
   \]
   This implies:
   \[
   x^{2011} - 1 \equiv 0 \pmod{p^{2010}(x - 1)}
   \]

3. **Valuation Argument**: We need \( v_p\left(\frac{x^{2011} - 1}{x - 1}\right) = v_p(x^{2011} - 1) - v_p(x - 1) \geq 2010 \). If \( p \mid x - 1 \), then by the Lifting The Exponent (LTE) lemma:
   \[
   v_p(x^{2011} - 1) = v_p(2011) + v_p(x - 1)
   \]
   Since \( v_p(2011) = 0 \) (because 2011 is prime and \( p \neq 2011 \)), we get:
   \[
   v_p(x^{2011} - 1) = v_p(x - 1)
   \]
   This leads to a contradiction because \( v_p(x^{2011} - 1) - v_p(x - 1) = 0 \geq 2010 \). Thus, \( p \nmid x - 1 \).

4. **Order Argument**: Since \( p \nmid x - 1 \), we have \( v_p(x^{2011} - 1) \geq 2010 \). This implies \( p \mid x^{2011} - 1 \), so the order of \( x \) modulo \( p \) must divide 2011. Given \( p \nmid x - 1 \), the order of \( x \) modulo \( p \) must be exactly 2011. Therefore, \( 2011 \mid p - 1 \).

5. **Reverse Direction**: Suppose \( p \equiv 1 \pmod{2011} \). We need to show that there exists an \( x \) such that \( x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \equiv p^{2010} \pmod{p^{2011}} \). Start with:
   \[
   x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \equiv 0 \pmod{p}
   \]
   This holds if \( x^{2011} \equiv 1 \pmod{p} \) and \( p \nmid x - 1 \).

6. **Primitive Root Argument**: Let \( g \) be a primitive root modulo \( p \). Then \( x = g^a \) for \( 0 \leq a < p - 1 \). We need:
   \[
   g^{2011a} \equiv 1 \pmod{p}
   \]
   This implies \( 2011a \equiv 0 \pmod{p - 1} \), or \( a \equiv 0 \pmod{\frac{p - 1}{2011}} \). There are exactly 2011 such \( a \), but \( x \equiv 1 \pmod{p} \) is one of them, leaving 2010 solutions.

7. **Hensel's Lemma**: Define \( f(x) = x^{2010} + x^{2009} + \cdots + 1 \). We need to find a solution \( a \) such that \( f'(a) \not\equiv 0 \pmod{p} \). Assume for contradiction that \( f'(a) \equiv 0 \pmod{p} \) for all solutions \( a \). The degree of \( f'(x) \) is 2009, so by Lagrange's Theorem, it has at most 2009 solutions. This contradicts the existence of 2010 solutions, thus proving the existence of a suitable \( a \).

\(\blacksquare\)

The final answer is \( \boxed{ S = \{ p : p \equiv 1 \pmod{2011} \land p \in \mathbb{P} \} } \)