text: The surface of a metal oxide consists of ordered arrays of acid–base centres. The cationic metal centres act as Lewis acid sites while the anionic oxygen centres act as Lewis bases. Surface hydroxyl groups can serve as Brønsted acid or base sites as they can give up or accept a proton. The surface of most metal oxides will be, to some extent, hydroxylated under normal conditions when water vapor is present. The strength and the amount of Lewis And Brønsted acid–base sites will determine the catalytic activity of many metal oxides. Due to this there is a great need to develop standard methods for the characterization of the strength, concentration, and distribution of surface acid–base sites.
  The concepts of Lewis acid–base theory and Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory may be applied to surfaces, however there is no general theory that serves to determine surface acidity or basicity. The qualitative treatment of Brønsted acid base theory is based on the thermodynamic equilibrium constant (K) of acid–base reactions between individual molecules in homogeneous systems. This treatment requires measurement of equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products. The presence of two phases also provides a problem for the quantitative acid–base determination of solids. When an acid or base is adsorbed on to an oxide surface it will perturb neighbouring acid–base sites. This perturbation will inevitably influence the relaxation of the surface and make it impossible to have acid–base reactions at the surface which only involve a single surface site.