text: Froth flotation efficiency is determined by a series of probabilities: those of particle–bubble contact, particle–bubble attachment, transport between the pulp and the froth, and froth collection into the product launder. In a conventional mechanically-agitated cell, the void fraction (i.e. volume occupied by air bubbles) is low (5 to 10 percent) and the bubble size is usually greater than 1 mm. This results in a relatively low interfacial area and a low probability of particle–bubble contact. Consequently, several cells in series are required to increase the particle residence time, thus increasing the probability of particle–bubble contact.