text: Transfer of thermal energy through direct contact between a closed system and its surroundings, is by the microscopic thermal motions of particles and their associated inter-molecular potential energies. The microscopic description of such processes are the province of statistical mechanics, not of macroscopic thermodynamics. Another kind of energy transfer is by radiation, performing work on the system. Radiative transfer of energy is irreversible in the sense that it occurs only from a hotter to a colder system. There are several forms of dissipative transduction of energy that can occur internally within a system at a microscopic level, such as friction including bulk and shear viscosity chemical reaction, unconstrained expansion as in Joule expansion and in diffusion, and phase change.