text: Single reversible solid oxide cells can be arranged in series to form stacks. Single stacks can be then arranged in modules to reach power capabilities in the order of kilowatts or megawatts.
  One of the most challenging aspects in designing large rSOC systems for energy storage purposes is the thermal integration. When the rSOC is operated in electrolysis mode, thermal power is needed for the operation of the system. Thermal power must be provided at two different temperature levels. Heat is needed for water operation, and additional heat at high temperature may be needed if the SOEC modality is endothermic. The latter requirement can be avoided if the rSOC is operated with an exothermic reaction in SOEC modality, with a negative effect on the roundtrip efficiency. On the other hand, when the rSOC is operated in fuel cell mode, the reaction is characterized by a high exothermicity. A number of works in the scientific literature have proposed the exploitation of a Thermal energy storage (TES) to ease the thermal integration of the system.
  Excess heat from the SOFC operation can be recovered and stored in a TES, and later used for the SOEC operation. Thermal energy storage typologies and heat transfer fluids that have been considered for this purpose are those used for Concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies. Diathermic oil can be used to store heat at relatively low temperature (for instance, 180°C) and exploited for water evaporation. Alternatively, phase-change materials characterized by high fusion points can be used to store heat at high temperature and enable the endothermic operation in the electrolysis mode. In this case, usually, rSOCs operate at different temperature levels in the two modalities (for example, 850°C in SOFC mode and 800°C in SOEC mode).
  If carbonaceous chemistries are employed, the beneficial effect of methane synthesis inside the cell can be exploited to reduce the heat request of the electrolysis mode. In this regard, systems operating at high pressure and lower temperature (20 bar and 650°C) have been proposed to reduce or even eliminate the thermal power requirement of the rSOC system. Alternatively, the production of methane can be favored in external reactors. The methanation reaction is exothermic and favored at low temperature.
  The syngas that produced by the co-electrolysis can undergo a further reaction in one or multiple methanation reactors to produce methane and generate low-temperature heat for water evaporation. In addition, the formation of methane in such systems may be beneficial to the size of the tanks used for storing the fuels. In fact, methane is characterized by a higher volumetric energy density than hydrogen in the gaseous form.
  When computing the roundtrip efficiencies of rSOC systems, the definition must take into account the net electric consumption (or additional electric production) of other components inside the system. The set of these component is regarded as balance of plant (BOP), and may comprehend pumps, compressors, expanders or fans, needed for fluid circulation and processing inside the system. Therefore, the system roundtrip efficiency can be defined as:
  where:
  * is the electric power produced in SOFC mode;
  * is the electric power consumed in SOEC mode;
  * is the net electric power consumption (negative) or production (positive) by the BOP in FC mode;
  * is the net electric power consumption (negative) or production (positive) by the BOP in EC mode.
  The roundtrip efficiencies achievable with rSOC systems operating with steam and hydrogen can reach values in the order of 60%. On the other hand, systems exploiting the beneficial effects of methane formation, either inside the rSOC or in external reactors, can reach rountrip efficiencies in the order of 70% and beyond.