text: Like all fluid dynamics-related disciplines, the modelling of particle-laden flows is an enormous challenge for researchers - this is because most flows of practical interest are turbulent.
  Direct numerical simulations (DNS) for single-phase flow, let alone two-phase flow, are computationally very expensive; the computing power required for models of practical engineering interest are far out of reach. Since one is often interested in modeling only large scale qualitative behavior of the flow, a possible approach is to decompose the flow velocity into mean and fluctuating components, by the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach. A compromise between DNS and RANS is large eddy simulation (LES), in which the small scales of fluid motion are modeled and the larger, resolved scales are simulated directly.
  Experimental observations, as well as DNS indicate that an important phenomenon to model is preferential concentration. Particles (particularly those with Stokes number close to 1) are known to accumulate in regions of high shear and low vorticity (such as turbulent boundary layers), and the mechanisms behind this phenomenon are not well understood. Moreover, particles are known to migrate down turbulence intensity gradients (this process is known as turbophoresis). These features are particularly difficult to capture using RANS or LES-based models since too much time-varying information is lost.
  Due to these difficulties, existing turbulence models tend to be ad hoc, that is, the range of applicability of a given model is usually suited toward a highly specific set of parameters (such as geometry, dispersed phase mass loading and particle reaction time), and are also restricted to low Reynolds numbers (whereas the Reynolds number of flows of engineering interest tend to be very high).