text: Inner sphere complex is a type of surface complex that refers to the surface chemistry changing a water-surface interface to one without water molecules bridging a ligand to the metal ion. Formation of inner sphere complexes occurs when ions bind directly to the surface with no intervening water molecules. These types of surface complexes are restricted to ions that have a high affinity for surface sites and include specifically adsorbed ions that can bind to the surface through covalent bonding.
  Inner sphere complexes describe active surface sites that are involved in nucleation, crystal growth, redox processes, soil chemistry, alongside other reactions taking place between a cation and surface. This affinity to surface sites can be attributed to covalent bonding.
  When compared to outer sphere complexes that have water molecules separating ions from ligands, inner sphere complexes have surface hydroxyl groups that function as -donor ligands, increasing the coordinated metal ion's electron density. This is an example of competitive complex formation, in which ligands will compete for space on an activation site of a metal ion.
  Surface structures are able to reduce and oxidize ligands, whereas transport phenomena do not. Therefore, surface structure serves an important role in surface reactivity, with the coordination environment at the solid-water interface changing intensity or rate of a reaction.