text: Metallacycles often arise by cyclization of arene-containing donor ligands, e.g. aryl phosphines and amines. An early example is the cyclization of IrCl(PPh) to give the corresponding Ir(III) hydride containing a four-membered IrPCC ring. Palladium(II) and platinum(II) have long been known to ortho-metalate aromatic ligands such as azobenzene, benzylamines, and 2-phenylpyridines. These reactions are strongly influenced by substituent effects, including the Thorpe-Ingold effect.  Ligands that lack aryl substituents will sometimes cyclometalate via activation of methyl groups, an early example being the internal oxidative addition of methylphosphine ligands. Metallacycle formation interferes with intermolecular C-H activation processes.  For this reason, specialized "pincer ligands" ligands have been developed that resist ortho-metalation.