text: Organoid formation generally requires culturing the stem cells or progenitor cells in a 3D medium. Stem cells have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into various cell subtypes, and they enable understanding the processes of development and disease progression. Therefore organoids derived from stem cells enable studying biology and physiology at the organ level. The 3D medium can be made using an extracellular matrix hydrogel such as Matrigel or Cultrex BME, which is a laminin-rich extracellular matrix that is secreted by the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor line. Organoid bodies can then be made through embedding stem cells in the 3D medium. When pluripotent stem cells are used for the creation of the organoid, the cells are usually, but not all the time, allowed to form embryoid bodies. Those embryoid bodies are then pharmacologically treated with patterning factors to drive the formation of the desired organoid identity. Organoids have also been created using adult stem cells extracted from the target organ, and cultured in 3D media.
  Biochemical cues have been incorporated in 3D organoid cultures and with exposure of morphogenes, morphogen inhibitors, or growth factors, organoid models can be developed using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or adult stem cells (ASCs). Vascularization techniques can be utilized to embody microenvironments that are close to their counterparts, physiologically. Vasculature systems that can facilitate oxygen or nutrients to the inner mass of organoids can be achieved through microfluidic systems, vascular endothelial growth factor delivery systems, and endothelial cell-coated modules. With patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and CRISPR/Cas-based genome editing technologies, genome-edited or mutated pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) with altered signaling cues can be generated to control intrinsic cues within organoids.