text: The expansion of the corrosion products (iron oxides) of carbon steel reinforcement structures may induce internal mechanical stress (tensile stress) that cause the formation of cracks and disrupt the concrete structure. If rebars have been improperly installed or have inadequate concrete cover at surfaces exposed to the elements, oxide jacking and spalling can occur during the structures lifetime: flat fragments of concrete are detached from the concrete mass as a result of the rebars corrosion. 
  Concrete, like most consolidated hard rocks, is a material very resistant to compression but which cannot withstand tension, especially internal tensions. Its tensile strength is about 10 times lower than its compressive strength. In itself carbonated concrete is a very solid material because its compressive strength increases due to its porosity decrease by the precipitation of calcium carbonate (calcite, ). In the absence of steel reinforcement bars and without the formation of expansive reaction products inducing tensile stress inside the concrete matrix, pure concrete is most often a long-lasting material. An illustration of the concrete intrinsic durability is the dome of the Pantheon building in Rome made with Roman concrete more than 2000 years ago. 
  When atmospheric carbon dioxide (), or carbonate ions (,  dissolved in water) diffuse into concrete from its external surface, they react with calcium hydroxide (portlandite, ) and the pH of the concrete pore water progressively decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5 (pH of water in equilibrium with calcite). Below a pH value of about 9.5 – 10, the solubility of iron oxides present at the surface of carbon steel increases and they start to dissolve. As a consequence, they no longer protect the underlying metallic iron against oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and the reinforcement bars are no longer passivated against corrosion. It is the considerable forces internally created by the expansion of the iron corrosion products (about 6 – 7 times less dense than metallic iron, so 6 – 7 times more voluminous) that cause the cracks in the concrete matrix and destroy reinforced concrete. In the absence of iron (and without some harmful chemical degradation reactions also producing expansive products) concrete would probably be one of the most durable materials. However, steel reinforcement bars are necessary to take over the tensile efforts to which concrete is submitted in most engineering structures and stainless steel would be too costly a metal to replace carbon steel. Zinc-galvanization or epoxy-coating can improve the corrosion resistance of rebar, but have also other disadvantages such as their lower surface adhesion to concrete (risk of slip), the possible formation of cathodic and anodic zones conducive to galvanic corrosion if the protective coating is locally punctured or damaged, and their higher costs.