text: Many important engineered systems involve heat transfer. Some examples are the heating and cooling of process streams, phase changes, distillation, etc. The basic principle is the Fourier's law which is expressed as follows for a static system:
  The net flux of heat through a system equals the conductivity times the rate of change of temperature with respect to position.
  For convective transport involving turbulent flow, complex geometries, or difficult boundary conditions,  the heat transfer may be represented by a heat transfer coefficient.
  where A is the surface area,  is the temperature driving force, Q is the heat flow per unit time, and h is the heat transfer coefficient.
  Within heat transfer, two principal types of convection can occur:
  * Forced convection can occur in both laminar and turbulent flow. In the situation of laminar flow in circular tubes, several dimensionless numbers are used such as Nusselt number, Reynolds number, and Prandtl number. The commonly used equation is .
  * Natural or free convection is a function of Grashof and Prandtl numbers. The complexities of free convection heat transfer make it necessary to mainly use empirical relations from experimental data.
  Heat transfer is analyzed in packed beds, nuclear reactors and heat exchangers.