text: Redox conditions are measured according to the redox potential (E) in volts, which represents the tendency for electrons to transfer from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. E can be calculated using half reactions and the Nernst equation.  An E of zero represents the redox couple of the standard hydrogen electrode H/H a positive E indicates an oxidizing environment (electrons will be accepted), and a negative E indicates a reducing environment (electrons will be donated). In a redox gradient, the most energetically favorable chemical reaction occurs at the “top” of the redox ladder and the least energetically favorable reaction occurs at the “bottom” of the ladder.
  E can be measured by collecting samples in the field and performing analyses in the lab, or by inserting an electrode into the environment to collect in situ measurements. Typical environments to measure redox potential are in bodies of water, soils, and sediments, all of which can exhibit high levels of heterogeneity. Collecting a high number of samples can produce high spatial resolution, but at the cost of low temporal resolution since samples only reflect a singular a snapshot in time. In situ monitoring can provide high temporal resolution by collecting continuous real-time measurements, but low spatial resolution since the electrode is in a fixed location.
  Redox properties can also be tracked with high spatial and temporal resolution through the use of induced-polarization imaging, however, further research is needed to fully understand contributions of redox species to polarization.