text: A scoring matrix or a table of values is required for evaluating the significance of a sequence alignment, such as describing the probability of a biologically meaningful amino-acid or nucleotide residue-pair occurring in an alignment. Typically, when two nucleotide sequences are being compared, all that is being scored is whether or not two bases are the same at one position. All matches and mismatches are respectively given the same score (typically +1 or +5 for matches, and -1 or -4 for mismatches). But it is different for proteins. Substitution matrices for amino acids are more complicated and implicitly take into account everything that might affect the frequency with which any amino acid is substituted for another. The objective is to provide a relatively heavy penalty for aligning two residues together if they have a low probability of being homologous (correctly aligned by evolutionary descent). Two major forces drive the amino-acid substitution rates away from uniformity:  substitutions occur with the different frequencies, and lessen functionally tolerated than others. Thus, substitutions are selected against.
  Commonly used substitution matrices include the blocks substitution (BLOSUM)   and point accepted mutation (PAM)   matrices. Both are based on taking sets of high-confidence alignments of many homologous proteins and assessing the frequencies of all substitutions, but they are computed using different methods.
  Scores within a BLOSUM are log-odds scores that measure, in an alignment, the logarithm for the ratio of the likelihood of two amino acids appearing with a biological sense and the likelihood of the same amino acids appearing by chance. The matrices are based on the minimum percentage identity of the aligned protein sequence used in calculating them. Every possible identity or substitution is assigned a score based on its observed frequencies in the alignment of related proteins. A positive score is given to the more likely substitutions while a negative score is given to the less likely substitutions.
  To calculate a BLOSUM matrix, the following equation is used: 
  Here,  is the probability of two amino acids  and  replacing each other in a homologous sequence, and  and  are the background probabilities of finding the amino acids  and  in any protein sequence. The factor  is a scaling factor, set such that the matrix contains easily computable integer values.