text: The largest and one of the fastest growing human impacts on the carbon cycle and biosphere is the extraction and burning of fossil fuels, which directly transfer carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is also produced and released during the calcination of limestone for clinker production. Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.
  , about 450 gigatons of fossil carbon have been extracted in total; an amount approaching the carbon contained in all of Earth's living terrestrial biomass.  Recent rates of global emissions directly into the atmosphere have exceeded the uptake by vegetation and the oceans. These sinks have been expected and observed to remove about half of the added atmospheric carbon within about a century. Nevertheless, sinks like the ocean have evolving saturation properties, and a substantial fraction (20–35%, based on coupled models) of the added carbon is projected remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia.