text: HABs occur naturally off coasts all over the world. Marine dinoflagellates produce ichthyotoxins. Where HABs occur, dead fish wash up on shore for up to two weeks after a HAB has been through the area. In addition to killing fish, the toxic algae contaminate shellfish. Some mollusks are not susceptible to the toxin, and store it in their fatty tissues. By consuming the organisms responsible for HABs, shellfish can accumulate and retain saxitoxin produced by these organisms. Saxitoxin blocks sodium channels and ingestion can cause paralysis within 30 minutes.
  In addition to directly harming marine animals and vegetation loss, harmful algal blooms can also lead to ocean acidification, which occurs when the amount of carbon dioxide in the water is increased to unnatural levels. Ocean acidification slows the growth of certain species of fish and shellfish, and even prevents shell formation in certain species of mollusks. These subtle, small changes can add up over time to cause chain reactions and devastating effects on whole marine ecosystems.
  Other animals that eat exposed shellfish are susceptible to the neurotoxin, which may lead to neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and sometimes even death. Most mollusks and clams filter feed, which results in higher concentrations of the toxin than just drinking the water. Scaup, for example, are diving ducks whose diet mainly consists of mollusks. When scaup eat the filter-feeding shellfish that have accumulated high levels of the HAB toxin, their population becomes a prime target for poisoning. However, even birds that do not eat mollusks can be affected by simply eating dead fish on the beach or drinking the water.
  The toxins released by the blooms can kill marine animals including dolphins, sea turtles, birds, and manatees. The Florida Manatee, a subspecies of the West Indian Manatee, is a species often impacted by red tide blooms. Florida manatees are often exposed to the poisonous red-tide toxins either by consumption or inhalation. There are many small barnacles, crustaceans, and other [https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/SG188 epiphytes] that grow on the blades of seagrass. These tiny creatures filter particles from the water around them and use these particles as their main food source. During red tide blooms, they also filter the toxic red tide cells from the water, which then becomes concentrated inside them. Although these toxins do not harm epiphytes, they are extremely poisonous to marine creatures who consume (or accidentally consume) the exposed epiphytes, such as manatees. When manatees unknowingly consume exposed epiphytes while grazing on sea grass, the toxins are subsequently released from the epiphytes and ingested by the manatees. In addition to consumption, manatees may also become exposed to air-borne Brevetoxins released from harmful red-tide cells when passing through algal blooms.
  Manatees also have an immunoresponse to HABs and their toxins that can make them even more susceptible to other stressors. Due to this susceptibility, manatees can die from either the immediate, or the after effects of the HAB. In addition to causing manatee mortalities, red-tide exposure also causes severe [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271274562_Sublethal_red_tide_toxin_exposure_in_free-ranging_manatees_Trichechus_manatus_affects_the_immune_system_through_reduced_lymphocyte_proliferation_responses_inflammation_and_oxidative_stress sublethal health problems among Florida manatee populations]. Studies have shown that red-tide exposure among free-ranging Florida manatees has been shown to negatively impact immune functioning by causing increased inflammation, a reduction in lymphocyte proliferation responses, and oxidative stress.
  Fish such as Atlantic herring, American pollock, winter flounder, Atlantic salmon, and cod were dosed orally with these toxins in an experiment, and within minutes the subjects started to exhibit a loss of equilibrium and began to swim in an irregular, jerking pattern, followed by paralysis and shallow, arrhythmic breathing and eventually death, after about an hour. HABs have been shown to have a negative effect also in the memory functions of sea lions.