text: Structures built of concrete and reinforced with metal rebar are also subject to damage by oxide jacking. Expansion of corroded rebar causes spalling of the concrete.  Structures exposed to a marine environment, or where salt is used for de-icing purposes, are especially susceptible to this type of damage. This may also be caused by concrete having been installed without sufficient cover for the rebars, allowing moisture to reach the metal and cause oxidation.
  Research in the 1960s showed that 22 percent of concrete bridge decks in Pennsylvania showed signs of spalling due to oxide jacking within four years of construction. Oxide jacking caused widespread damage to concrete council houses built in the United Kingdom in the post World War II era.
  According to an expert in the field, the problem resulted in "intensive worldwide research into the causes and repair of reinforcement corrosion, which in turn led to a vast output of research papers, conferences and publications on the subject."