text: Mass defect (also called "mass deficit") is the difference between the mass of an object and the sum of the masses of its constituent particles. Discovered by Albert Einstein in 1905, it can be explained using his formula E = mc, which describes the equivalence of energy and mass. The decrease in mass is equal to the energy emitted in the reaction of an atoms creation divided by c'. By this formula, adding energy also increases mass (both weight and inertia), whereas removing energy decreases mass. For example, a helium atom containing four nucleons has a mass about 0.8% less than the total mass of four hydrogen atoms (each containing one nucleon). The helium nucleus has four nucleons bound together, and the binding energy which holds them together is, in effect, the missing 0.8% of mass.
  If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The end products must be weighed after they have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is "stored" as potential energy, which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a "property" of the other.
  The latter scenario is the case with nuclei such as helium: to break them up into protons and neutrons, one must inject energy. On the other hand, if a process existed going in the opposite direction, by which hydrogen atoms could be combined to form helium, then energy would be released. The energy can be computed using E = Δmc for each nucleus, where Δm is the difference between the mass of the helium nucleus and the mass of four protons (plus two electrons, absorbed to create the neutrons of helium).
  For lighter elements, the energy that can be released by assembling them from lighter elements decreases, and energy can be released when they fuse. This is true for nuclei lighter than iron/nickel. For heavier nuclei, more energy is needed to bind them, and that energy may be released by breaking them up into fragments (known as nuclear fission). Nuclear power is generated at present by breaking up uranium nuclei in nuclear power reactors, and capturing the released energy as heat, which is converted to electricity.
  As a rule, very light elements can fuse comparatively easily, and very heavy elements can break up via fission very easily; elements in the middle are more stable and it is difficult to make them undergo either fusion or fission in an environment such as a laboratory.
  The reason the trend reverses after iron is the growing positive charge of the nuclei, which tends to force nuclei to break up. It is resisted by the strong nuclear interaction, which holds nucleons together.  The electric force may be weaker than the strong nuclear force, but the strong force has a much more limited range: in an iron nucleus, each proton repels the other 25 protons, while the nuclear force only binds close neighbors. So for larger nuclei, the electrostatic forces tend to dominate and the nucleus will tend over time to break up.
  As nuclei grow bigger still, this disruptive effect becomes steadily more significant. By the time polonium is reached (84 protons), nuclei can no longer accommodate their large positive charge, but emit their excess protons quite rapidly in the process of alpha radioactivity—the emission of helium nuclei, each containing two protons and two neutrons. (Helium nuclei are an especially stable combination.) Because of this process, nuclei with more than 94 protons are not found naturally on Earth (see periodic table). The isotopes beyond uranium (atomic number 92) with the longest half-lives are plutonium-244 (80 million years) and curium-247 (16 million years).