text: The furnace comprises three distinct zones:
  * Firstly, the preheating zone heats the ore to 800 °C using the hot fumes within the furnace. Ore reduction occurs only if temperatures exceed 900-1,000 °C, while the coal releases its most volatile constituents.
  * Secondly, the reduction zone is situated in the middle of the furnace, where coal and iron oxides combine to produce carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is released from the charge, generating a gaseous layer that shields the charge against the oxidizing air circulating above. As a consequence, this excessive gas is combusted, raising the temperature of the furnace walls, which then transfer the heat back to the charge due to rotary motion. The temperature eventually increases to 800 – 1,200 °C. Subsequently, the iron oxides are gradually altered into ferronickel or metallic iron. The metal produced is in the form of metallic sponge particles that are finely dispersed in the powdery gangue.
  * Reduction is complete by the end of the furnace, and there is a minimal amount of CO produced. This is due to the fact that the charge is no longer protected from oxidation by the air blown in at the base of the furnace. As a result, a violent but shallow reoxidation of the iron occurs. Some of the oxidized iron is returned to the core of the charge by rotation where it is further reduced with residual coal. The remaining material mixes with waste to create a thick slag that cannot blend with the produced metal. This extremely hot reaction melts the non-oxidized iron and nickel, which clump together forming nodules named Luppen.
  Control of temperature is critical in regards to the ores physicochemical characteristics. Overly high temperatures or unsuitable granulometry lead to the creation of rings of sintered material that accumulate on the walls of the furnace. Typically, a ring of iron-poor slag, known as slag, is formed at two-thirds of the distance along the furnace. Similarly, a metal ring usually forms around ten meters from the outlet. These rings disturb the flow of materials and gas, diminishing the furnaces useful capacity, sometimes completely obstructing it. The process's revival is hindered by the formation of a ring, particularly in China. In the early 21st century, industrialists abandoned its adoption after recognizing how critical and challenging managing this parameter was.
  While slag melting consumes energy, it enables us to govern the charges behavior in the furnace. Additionally, we need a minimum of 800 to 1,000 kg of slag per ton of iron to prevent Luppen from growing too big. Slag limits coal segregation as coal is much less dense than ore and would float to the surface of the mixture. It transforms into a paste that guards the metal against oxidation when heated and simplifies both Luppen' processing and furnace cleaning during maintenance shutdowns through vitrification when it gets cold.