text: The gal operon of E. coli consists of 4 structural genes: galE (epimerase), galT (galactose transferase), galK (galactokinase), and galM (mutarotase) which are transcribed from two overlapping promoters, PG1 (+1) and PG2 (-5), upstream from galE. GalE encodes for an epimerase that converts UDP-glucose into UDP-galactose. This is required for the formation of UDP-galactose for cell wall biosynthesis, in particular the cell wall component lipopolysaccharide, even when cells are not using galactose as a carbon/energy source. GalT encodes for the protein galactosyltransferase which catalyzes the transfer of a galactose sugar to an acceptor, forming a glycosidic bond. GalK encodes for a kinase that phosphorylates α-D-galactose to galactose 1-phosphate. Lastly, galM catalyzes the conversion of β-D-galactose to α-D-galactose as the first step in galactose metabolism.
  The gal operon contains two operators, O (for external) and O (for internal). The former is just upstream of the promoter, and the latter is just after the galE gene (the first gene in the operon). These operators bind the repressor, GalR, which is encoded from outside the operator region. For this repressor protein to function properly, the operon also contains a histone binding site to facilitate this process.
  An additional site, known as the activating site, is found following the external operator, but upstream of PG2. This site serves as the binding region for the cAMP-CRP complex, which modulates the activity of the promoters and thus, gene expression.