text: Secondary sulfides—those formed by supergene secondary enrichment—are resistant (refractory) to sulfuric leaching. Secondary copper sulfides are dominated by the mineral chalcocite; a mineral formed from primary sulfides, like chalcopyrite, that undergo chemical processes such as oxidation or reduction. Typically, secondary sulfide ores are concentrated using froth flotation. Other extraction processes like leaching are effectively used for the extraction of secondary copper sulfides, but as demand for copper rises, extraction processes tailored for low-grade ores are required, due to the depletion of copper resources. Processes including in situ, dump, and heap leaching are cost-effective methods that are suitable for extracting copper from low-grade ores.
  Extraction processes for secondary copper sulfides and low-grade ores includes the process of heap bioleaching. Heap bioleaching presents a cost efficient extraction method that requires a less intensive energy input resulting in a higher profit. This extraction process can be applied to large quantities of low-grade ores, at a lower capital cost with minimal environmental impact.
  Generally, direct froth flotation is not used to concentrate copper oxide ores, as a result of the largely ionic and hydrophilic structure of the copper oxide mineral surface. Copper oxide ores are typically treated via chelating-reagent flotation and fatty-acid flotation, which use organic reagents to ensure adsorption onto the mineral surface through the formation of hydrophobic compounds on the mineral surface.
  Some supergene sulfide deposits can be leached using a bacterial oxidation heap leach process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with sulfuric acid to produce a copper sulfate solution. For oxide ores, solvent extraction and electrowinning technologies are used to recover the copper from the pregnant leach solution. To ensure the best recovery of copper, it is important to acknowledge the effect copper dissolution, acid consumption, and gangue mineral composition has on the efficacy of extraction.
  Supergene sulfide ores rich in native copper are refractory to treatment with sulfuric acid leaching on all practicable time scales, and the dense metal particles do not react with froth flotation media. Typically, if native copper is a minor part of a supergene profile it will not be recovered and will report to the tailings. When rich enough, native copper ore bodies may be treated to recover the contained copper by gravity separation. Often, the nature of the gangue is important, as clay-rich native copper ores prove difficult to liberate. This is because clay minerals interact with flotation reagents used in extraction processes, that are then consumed, which results in minimal recovery of a high grade copper concentrate.