Causality, Causal Inference, Philosophy Of Science, Ethical Ai, Mediation Analysis.
For example, the set of equations corresponding to Figure 1 may look like this: X = f_X(hidden factor, U_X) Z = f_Z(X, U_Z) Y = f_Y(Z, hidden factor, U_Y) Any functions can be used, including non-analytical. For example, the function could be piece-wise, or the entire form of the function might