Causality, Causal Inference, Philosophy Of Science, Ethical Ai, Mediation Analysis.
X = x, before the transition from x to x’. Mathematically, in terms of a structural causal model, NDE(X = x → X = x’) = E[f_Y(x’, f_M(x, u_M), u_Y)] − E[f_Y(x, f_M(x, u_M), u_Y)], Where u_M and u_Y are some particular values that the extra random variables U_M and U_Y assume in the specific