Causal Inference, Machine Learning, Azure, Microsoft, Data Science.
covariates X. (See A Survey on Causal inference.) At every level of X and for every treatment, units have a non-zero chance of getting treatment. In other words, treatment is not deterministic of X. P (T = a │X = x) > 0 for all a and x If, for some values of X, treatment was deterministic, we would