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for History Textbooks
On a Common Path
New Approaches to Writing History Textbooks
in Europe and the Arab and Islamic Worlds:
The Case of the Mediterranean

Dépôt légal : 2012MO0193
ISBN :978-9981-26-539-4
Photocomposition, montage
et impression : ISESCO
Rabat - Royaume du Maroc





Section 1 : Identity and diversity: the challenges facing history
textbook authors


The role of history education


Guiding students’ exploration of history


The challenges of writing school history textbooks


Respecting the history of the other


Omissions and distortions

Religious and cultural sensitivities



Learning about positive encounters with the other

Science and philosophy in the middle ages

Medieval and early modern trade

Andalusia: a case study of religious coexistence and cultural tolerance



Learning about emotive and controversial issues
and suggesting alternatives



The spread of Islam



Europe and the Ottoman Empire


European colonialism

Europe and the Arab-Israeli conflict






This guidebook is a publication of the project “The Image of the Other in European
and Arab-Islamic Textbooks”, a partnership initiative by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, (UNESCO), the League of Arab
States (LAS), the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(ISESCO), The Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation for the Dialogue
between Cultures (ALF), and the Swedish Institute in Alexandria (SWEDALEX) in
co-operation with: UNESCO Education Sector (Section for Inclusion and Quality
Learning Enhancement) and the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook
Research. It is written by a group of Arab and European experts:

Fawzia Al Ashmawi
Professor of Arabic and Islamic Civilisation, University of Geneva/Switzerland

Wolfram Reiss
Professor of Historical and Comparative Studies of Religions, University of

Noureddine Dougi
Professor of History,
University of Manouba, Tunis/Tunisia

Michael Riley
Director, Schools History Project,
Leeds/United Kingdom

Mostafa Hassani Idrissi
Professor of History Didactics,
University Mohammed V, Rabat/Morocco

David Thurfjell
Associate Professor of History of Religions,
Sodertom University, Stockholm

Revised and edited by Dr Michael Riley
The opinions expressed in the publication do not necessarity reflect the views of
UNESCO, LAS, ISESCO, ALF, SWEDALEX and Georg Eckerty institute.


Guidebook for History Textbooks Authors



uilding a culture of peace founded on a new humanism is a foremost task for
the international community in order to develop and deepen mutual
understanding, reconciliation and dialogue among nations and peoples. The
protection and promotion of cultural diversity and its indispensable corollary,
intercultural dialogue, is therefore one of the most pressing contemporary
challenges, at the local as well as at the regional and international levels. Dialogue
among cultures and civilizations is the only valid answer we may put forth to
manifestations of intolerance, and is more necessary than ever in a world marked by
fault lines, tensions and polarizations, especially between Europe and the Arab and
Muslim worlds, including the Mediterranean area.
Recent events have made this challenge all the more acute. Stereotyping focused
on cultural, traditional and religious differences have skewed perceptions of the
Arab and Muslim worlds. Europe has been subject to the same processes in other
regions. Intolerance, prejudice and discrimination cannot be justified by any
universal standard. This is why, in our different capacities, we are seeking to
vigorously cooperate and coordinate with the regional and international
counterparts who share a common vision and determination to confront the
undercurrents of prejudice, division and hatred with the power of knowledge,
information and education.
It is a fact that misinformation, misperception and most of all ignorance constitute
the main elements that lead to hatred, confrontation and instability. We all have
important and vital roles to play on the individual, communal and international
levels to defeat the negative forces leading to discrimination and religious
intolerance with all their implications. Our responsibility is to promote a vision that
would lead to a better world where tolerance, justice, cultural diversity, mutual
respect and peaceful relations prevail.



Education must reinforce and foster tolerance, mutual understanding and respect,
and reject spreading negative stereotypes of any kind. Therefore dialogue among
cultures, civilizations and religions should be integrated in curricula at all levels, in
order to help younger generations to understand and respect cultural and religious
The parties that contributed to this guidebook have played a leading role in this
connection. UNESCO, the League of Arab States, ISESCO, the Anna Lindh EuroMediterranean Foundation for the Dialogue between Cultures and the Swedish
Institute Alexandria, in cooperation with the Georg Eckert Institute for International
Textbook Research and the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education and Research,
have joined forces to address the presentation of the “Other” in textbooks in Europe
and the Arab and Muslim worlds. Since 2004, our work has focused on improving
the portrayal of the “Other” in school curricula, starting with a common evaluation
of history textbooks in Europe and the Arab and Muslim worlds. This cooperation
gives priority to the search for better inter-cultural communications. It is based on
the premise that the risks of segregation, conflict and the feeling of the superiority
of one's civilization over the others all arise from the instrumentalization of cultural
and religious issues. As such, our collaboration is a very positive step towards the
promotion of a culture of justice, peace and cultural diversity and the building of an
alliance of civilizations.
This guidebook for History textbooks authors is the first major achievement of our
close cooperation. We are trying through this guidebook to reach out to both
educators and the authors of History textbooks and relevant curricula, who we feel
have a far-reaching impact on shaping the perceptions of young students. In a spirit
of openness and respect for freedom of thought and expression, we encourage all
parties involved in History textbooks to review the recommendations and analysis
of this resourceful document that has been developed by an international panel of
experts from Europe and the Arab and Muslim worlds. Their combined academic,
pedagogic and educational expertise coupled with a rigorous scientific process has
produced a valuable document that should be regarded as a key resource for
developing history curricula materials that promote a more balanced and nuanced
understanding of trends, issues and events.



Based on best practices from countries on both sides of the Mediterranean, it stresses
the need for multiple perspectives that give students a fair understanding of the
history, culture and religion of the “Other”, and paves the way for a renewed
approach promoting a culture of peace and understanding, firmly rooting the
dialogue between civilizations in the pedagogical process. To that end, it explores
alternative ways to present controversial issues and insists on strategies to stress the
importance of positive encounters and reciprocal interactions and influences
between the peoples of the north and south of the Mediterranean basin.
We wish to thank the authors for their efforts in highlighting the role that culture and
education can play to enhance understanding, deepen respect for cultural diversity,
the plurality of civilizations and coexistence among peoples in order to ensure a
better future for all.

Amr Moussa


Secretary General of the
League of Arab States

Director General of UNESCO
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural

Dr.Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri

Director General of the
Islamic Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organization

André Azoulay

Birgitta Holst Alani

President of the Anna Lindh
Foundation for the Dialogue
between Cultures

Director of the Swedish
Institute in Alexandria





ecent decades have seen a dramatic intensification of the ways in which
Europeans, on one hand and Arabs and Muslims, on the other, encounter
each other. Globalization has made encounters between people of different
backgrounds a more natural part of everyday life. Moreover, migration patterns in
the postcolonial period have caused important changes in the demographic
structures of formerly more homogeneous nation states in Europe and elsewhere.
Increasingly, politics, economics and culture transcend national boundaries. We live
at a time in which the pluralism of our societies has become more apparent than ever
before. Sadly, it is also a time in which relations between Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds are threatened by currents of polarization and hostility.
Our children are born in the midst of already established identities and grow up in
communities in which particular stories of the past are already dominant. Children
and young people do not always have the opportunity to view their own communal
belonging from a distance, or to reflect critically on what they hear about people
belonging to other societies. At the same time, since children and young people are
often more susceptible to social changes, they may often feel the effects of
globalization more directly than their parents or teachers. In this situation, the
importance of studying history at school from a multi-perspective and critical
approach becomes paramount.
Textbooks can play a vital role in helping students to develop a deep understanding
of history. History textbooks can help young people to ask and answer questions
about the present by engaging with the past. They have the potential to spark
curiosity and to engage students with the dilemmas, choices and beliefs of people in
the past. History textbooks can also help young people develop their awareness of
their own identities through an understanding of their own and other cultures. As
students develop their understanding of the nature of historical study, textbooks can
encourage them to ask important questions about the past, to analyze evidence and
to evaluate different interpretations of history.


There are many scholarly studies which deal with the image of the Other in
textbooks. Some of these focus on the stereotypes, misunderstandings and
misinterpretations that can still sometimes be found in European and Arab-Islamic
textbooks. Such studies aim to correct the many history textbooks in Europe and the
Arab and Islamic worlds that fail to give an accurate image of the Other. This aim
of this guidebook is not primarily to provide a critique of past and current textbooks,
but rather to offer suggestions as to how textbook authors can approach the study
of history in order to give students a more complex understanding of the Other. The
guidebook aims to stimulate and encourage textbook authors by providing some
ideas for tackling a range of historical topics and issues. It draws on positive
examples of history textbooks from Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds in
order to help authors develop a wider range of strategies for writing rigorous and
engaging history textbooks that promote a deeper understanding of ourselves and
the Other. Three main assumptions underpin the guidebook:

1. History textbooks should reflect the diversity of Europe and the Arab
and Islamic worlds
The societies of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa have always been culturally,
linguistically and religiously plural and diverse. This was the case before the rise of the
three big monotheistic religions - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - and it is still the
case today. History textbooks should help students to know about the history of
societies and discern their characteristic features, but they should also encourage
students to examine the cultural ethnic and religious diversity within such societies.

2. History textbooks should acknowledge the positive aspects of
intercultural encounters.
The history of our societies is rich and multi-faceted. Throughout history, when
people have met, their knowledge and experiences have cross-fertilized each other.
It is through cultural interaction that our societies flourish and grow. The epoch of
the Abbasids and the period when the Arab Islamic heritage and the Greek one
were transmitted to Europe, are clear examples of this. This guidebook seeks to
promote a balanced view of historical encounters between Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds. It does not advocate ignoring negative encounters, but it
emphasizes the need to broaden students’ knowledge and understanding by also
focusing on the positive aspects of cross-cultural pollination throughout the history
of the human civilization.


3. History textbooks should help students to develop a multi-perspective
approach to the study of the past
Multi-perspectivity is a process by which we take into account several points of view
besides our own, and are aware that our opinion may reflect prejudice and bias. It
assumes a capacity and a will to consider a given situation from different angles, to
put oneself in the position of the Other and to look at the world through the Other’s
eyes. Through multi-perspectivity, students are enabled to analyze and interpret
different and contrasting opinions, to recognize conflicts of opinion and to respect
other traditions even when disagreeing with them. Multi-perspectivity thus allows for
the teaching of sensitive and controversial issues by helping students to appreciate the
complexity of the issues under study. History textbooks may play a vital role in
supporting a multi-perspective approach. Without disregarding the students’ own
identities and cultural specificities, textbooks should provide students with a range of
competing interpretations, allowing young people’s exposure to other cultures.
The guidebook consists of three main sections. The first of these discusses the
challenges of diversity and pluralism, the importance of history education for
young people and the challenges of writing history textbooks, paying particular
attention to religious and cultural sensitivities. Section 2 explores a range of
strategies for helping students to focus on some of the many positive encounters
between people from the Europe and Arab and Islamic worlds. Sadly, the
relationship between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds has sometimes been
characterized by mistrust, conflict and violence. These negative aspects should not
be ignored; rather, the history classroom should provide a ‘safe’ and intellectually
robust place for our young people to study what are often emotive and
controversial histories. The focus in third section is therefore on how textbook
authors can help students to study emotive and controversial histories in ways that
do not fuel intolerance and animosity. The guidebook provides five case studies
of historical issues that continue to resonate in the Arab and Islamic worlds and in
Europe. In each case, some of the sensitivities that surround the event or period
are discussed and particular pedagogical approaches that textbook authors may
find useful are suggested.
There are many examples of excellent history textbooks in Europe and the Arab
Islamic world. Numerous authors have endeavored to portray sensitive historical
events in accordance with the principles of diversity and multi-perspectivity
presented in this guidebook. The guidebook draws on such work and attempts to
disseminate the underlying principles to a wider audience. Needless to say, this short


guidebook has limitations. The suggested strategies certainly do not constitute a
complete list of possible approaches. Rather it is a collection of suggestions, based
on effective practice, that history textbook authors may find useful.




Identity and diversity:
the challenges facing history textbook authors

Our identities are neither singular nor fixed. Categorizing a person predominantly as
a member of ‘the Western world’ or ‘the Islamic world’, simply because he or she
was born into a particular culture, reduces people to one dimension. We all need an
understanding of the rich diversity within cultures and the plurality of our identities,
as well as an appreciation of the complex interactions within and between cultures.
Young people in the Arab and Islamic worlds and in Europe need to realize that
identities are constructed, fluid, changing and overlapping. They need to see that
people they think of as ‘different’ have a valuable heritage that almost certainly
overlaps with their own.
Highlighting links, commonalities and cultural bonds, however, does not necessarily
mean disregarding differences. Difference exists between groups and individuals in
matters of lifestyles, moral views, political ideologies and religious orientations. Such
diversity has always been an important characteristic of Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds . Christians, Muslims and others, have lived side by side for almost one
and a half millennia. However, in times of hardship and insecurity, frictions may arise.
As a result of this, the desire for structure and singular identity may increase too.
Friction caused by cultural diversity in everyday life is not solved by romantic dreams
about communal harmony or complete ideological consensus. However, we can
perhaps agree that the right to self-definition is paramount. Respect for one self and
for one’s own history is a prerequisite for respecting others. Appreciation of other
cultures, religions and lifestyles can only develop if a person has been socially
confirmed and appreciated for his or her own position and personality.

A knowledge and understanding of history is crucial for both self-esteem and
respect for others to develop. History enriches pupils by providing a window into
the dilemmas, choices and beliefs of people in the past. It helps them to develop
their own identities through an understanding of their own and other societies.


Crucially, it helps them to ask and answer questions of the present by engaging with
the past. Through their study of history young people develop skills that prepare
them for adult life. They learn to ask and answer important questions, evaluate
evidence, analyze different interpretations and substantiate any arguments and
judgments they make. At a time of rapid and bewildering change, a study of history
empowers young people to take a considered and informed view on matters of
fundamental human concern. A carefully-constructed history curriculum enables
pupils to challenge stereotypes, to avoid the superficial and to develop a deep
understanding of controversial histories.
History teachers and textbook authors play a vital role in helping young people to
develop their own identities and an understanding of pluralism and diversity within
different societies. They can help to create curious, critical, independent and openminded young people in Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds . They can open
students’ minds and provide the intellectual tools that allow students to approach
topics from different perspectives. Approaches that teach students about the history
and interpretations of their own culture and community and, at the same time, teach
them about the history and interpretations of the Other, can help students to deal
with cultural diversity and civilizational pluralism, accept differences and live
peacefully in a plural world.

Studying history means journeying into time and discovering unknown and
unfamiliar places and cultures. History lessons can help students explore a remote
world by understanding the experiences and values of people in the past. Teachers
and textbook authors can help pupils to select facts, evaluate sources and explain
events and situations. They can involve students in the process of historical enquiry
and can help them construct their own views of people, situations and events in the
past. The teaching of history should help students to develop their own opinions
based on a respect for evidence, with no prejudice or sterotypes.
Within this quest for knowledge, engaging with the conflicts of the past is an
unavoidable experience. Students should to be exposed to the controversial and
sensitive issues in history: stories of collective violence, Islamic expeditions, wars, the
Crusades and colonization. But how should these controversial issues be taught?
Teachers and textbook authors need to address such issues directly, but there is a
danger that in doing so demarcation lines between ‘us’ and the ‘Others’ can be set too


rigidly. In order to avoid such risks, methodological precautions need be taken. The
opposition between ‘us’ and ‘the Other’ needs to be contextualized. The Other should
not be presented as a threat to particular identities but as the condition of their
Perhaps the most important point to remember is that history is problematic and that
history teaching and textbooks should not promote absolute truths and final
certainties. History is a discipline that involves critical discourse and in which
conflicting and competing views interplay. Engaging pupils with historical debate
and helping them to study a range of subsequent interpretations of history is an
essential element in developing their understanding of the discipline. It is important
for textbooks to explain to pupils that emotive and controversial issues in history are
open to various and sometimes competing interpretations. By introducing pupils to
different interpretations of history, textbook authors can help them to move beyond
a simplistic and one-sided understanding of past events and situations.

School history is sometimes required to obey political demands and must respond to
the pressures of the socio-cultural context in which it is taught. In some
contemporary societies it is demanded that the memories of particular groups or
communities are taken account of in the history curriculum. However, if one is to
make room for memories and traditions within historical discourse at school level,
one has to be careful not to confuse history and memory. It is a difficult challenge
for teachers and textbook authors to help students move beyond the ill-informed and
one-sided views they may have. Only by providing reliable texts and sources that
help students to see the perspective of the Other can we hope to move students from
an adherence to a mythologized past to a meaningful historical understanding.
A history textbook is written within the context of a particular history curriculum. In
some countries it may therefore be important to revise the framework of history teaching
in order to provide a proper context for textbooks that encourage a more complex
understanding of the Other. Both European countries and countries in the Arab and
Islamic worlds need a history curriculum that focuses not only on historical knowledge,
but also on the concepts and processes that underpin the discipline of history. In
particular, the history curriculum should support a multi-perspective approach and should
emphasize the need to study different interpretations of history. Without such a strong
foundation to the history curriculum it is impossible to see how authors can write
textbooks that encourage students to take a multi-perspective approach.


A further contextual challenge facing history textbook authors is that school history
lessons are not the only source through which students develop their knowledge and
understanding of the past. Other agents such as family and community, the media,
museums, the internet play an increasingly important role in forming young
people’s knowledge and understanding of history. Textbook authors are therefore
required to think creatively about the ways in which the resources they produce can
relate to these other media.
There is an enormous variation in the purpose and nature of school history textbooks
across Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds. In some countries, history textbooks
are written by university historians; textbooks are subject to strict government
approval and are frequently the only leaning resource in history lessons. In other
countries, textbooks are written by school teachers and educationalists, and a wide
range of textbooks as well as many other learning resources are available. These
differences in practice make it difficult to generalize about the challenges that face
authors of school history textbooks. However, whatever their background, and in
whatever context they work, authors need to ask themselves three important questions:

1. How can students be provided with a meaningful learning experience?
A quality history textbook teaches pupils to think. It achieves this partly though the
careful selection of historical content and core themes which deepen pupils’
historical understanding. Rather than placing undue emphasis on military history
and battles, the selection of content should pay due attention to economic, political,
social and cultural history. It should develop overviews of significant features,
events and changes. It should also cover a wide range of attitudes and beliefs,
paying heed to the experiences of both men and women and the diversity and
pluralism of societies throughout human history. Quality textbooks avoid
superficial coverage of history. Instead, they seek to build layers of knowledge by
blending outline and in-depth history and by developing students’ understanding of
the concepts and processes that underpin the discipline of history: characteristic
features of periods, change and continuity, cause and consequence, the use of
evidence and construction of interpretations. Academic rigor in history textbooks
is not achieved by scampering quickly over vast tracts of the past, but by skillfully
blending outline and in-depth historical knowledge, and by developing an
understanding of the discipline of history.

2. How can students be provided with a motivating context for learning?
Textbooks that engage students with particular historical issues, and that provide
motivating learning activities, help to make learning history an enjoyable


experience. The framing of chapters in history textbooks around substantial
enquiry questions such as “What mattered to people in medieval Cordoba?” or
“What made Abbasid Bagdad so special?” is one way to provide a motivating
context for learning. It is important for authors to think about interesting ways in
which students can answer such questions. History teachers and authors can
create a range of motivating outcomes for students’ work: articles, debates,
presentations, fictional stories, conferences, exhibitions and plans for TV series
and so on. History textbooks can motivate young people by providing a range of
these tangible outcomes for their learning.

3. How can textbooks be made accessible to all young people?
For many young people history is a difficult and challenging subject. History
textbooks need to be written and designed in ways that help avoid the simplistic
understanding of history and past events together with their causes and contexts,
but that make the subject accessible in a detached manner to a range of learners.
Readers need to be helped with clear structured stages in their learning. Chapters
that open with an arresting source – a fascinating picture or an intriguing story –
prepare the reader for an interesting historical journey. Young readers can then
be carried forward by a strong narrative which illuminates the past through the
experiences of individual people. History textbooks should present the past not
as a series of difficult and abstract concepts, but as a discipline with human
beings at its core. Many pupils find history difficult because of the sheer
unfamiliarity of the material and by the need to hold onto several ideas at once.
Good history textbooks can help with this by providing sequenced activities
which help students to select, link, classify and synthesize information. Help can
also be provided within the text itself through the use of clear and active prose
and by the visual reinforcement of diagrams and illustrations.

Respecting the history of the Other
Children and young people often encounter history through the distorting lenses of
communal myth-making and media. The stories from the past that they hear often
reflect contemporary concerns and issues. There is a natural tendency when
speaking about the history of our own community to remember the events of which
we are proud rather than those of which we are ashamed. Unfortunately, the contrary
seems to often be true when stories are told of the Other. That which is negative is
often overemphasized at the cost of that which is positive.



For many people in the Arab and Islamic worlds, the history of Europe is often
associated with some of its most controversial epochs. The Crusades and the violent
expansion of European colonial empires are often highlighted as representative of the
European history. Although it is certainly of utmost importance to study these events
it is also important to note that most Europeans would think of them as constitutive for
what it means to be European today. On the contrary, most people would agree that
these epochs are highly controversial or even shameful. For many Europeans, then,
other developments are felt to be equally integral to European identity. The heritage
of ancient Greek civilization; the enlightenment and the ideas of humanism,
secularism and human rights; the technological development from the industrial
revolution onwards; and the emancipation and empowerment of women in the
twentieth century would be examples of historical achievements that many Europeans
would be proud of and see as important developments in Europe’s history.
For many Europeans, Arab-Islamic history is often defined through some of its most
controversial aspects. The early spread of Islam at the expense of Christian rule may
serve as one such example, as could the threat that the Ottoman Empire posed for
Europe. It is equally important to note that a majority of Arabs and Muslims would
agree that the history of the Arab-Islamic culture is mainly characterized by other
and positive historical experiences as showcased by its positive interaction with the
heritage of the ancient cultures of Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia; the
tolerance of religious pluralism in the Islamic states; the enlightenment of the ArabIslamic culture in science, mathematics and philosophy in the middle ages together
with its contribution to the human civilization throughout history; or the strategic
importance of the Middle East in the modern period.
It is important that textbook authors recognize the positive ‘identity-shapers’ of the
Other. Textbook authors play an important role in addressing aspects of the own
history that are controversial and aspects of the history of the Other that are positive
and of which people are proud. Textbooks that ignore the inter-relationship between
Europe and Arab and Islamic worlds , that place too much emphasis on the conflict
between the cultures, or that explore the relationship from only one perspective, run
the risk of inadvertently reinforcing singular identities. They also fail to be as fair as
to recognize to the rich outcome of the history of the material and intellectual
encounters between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds.



Studies of European and Arab textbooks show that there are sometimes omissions
and distortions that prevent students from developing a deeper and more objective
understanding of the Other. It is important to stress that such distortions and
omissions do not usually represent a conscious attempt to present a narrow and onesided view of history on the part of textbook authors; rather, they are the product of
the wider political and cultural context in which history textbooks are written.
Analyses of textbooks from European and Arab-Islamic countries have revealed
some common distortions and omissions.
In European textbooks, Europe is often depicted as the axis around which historical
events in the rest of the world revolve. European students learn about Roman and
Greek culture as the source of their own culture, but European textbooks sometimes
neglect the important role of Arab-Islamic culture as a key agent in the development
of Europe. For many centuries, translations of Muslim scientists and philosophers
were used in Europe as the basic resource for the establishment of modern European
science and philosophy. The translations laid the foundations of most of the modern
sciences like mathematics, physics, chemistry and medicine, and they also made a
major contribution in the field of philosophy. Many Arabic terms in European
languages still make this cultural impact on Europe evident. European explorers
would not have made their great discoveries without the geographical studies and
scientific inventions made by the Arabs and Muslims, especially their invention of
cartography and the astrolabe, and their geographical explorations. Some European
textbooks unfortunately fail to give Arab and Muslim scholars due credit for their
great contribution to the European Renaissance and to the human civilization.
In European textbooks there is sometimes too little focus on the fact that the Arab
and Islamic worlds and Europe share a common inheritance in Greek culture. In
addition, the concept of the Islamic Umma and the long history of tolerance to other
religions can sometimes be disregarded. Some textbooks do not concede enough
space for highlighting the Islamic presence and the intercultural and interreligious
encounters in Europe (in Spain, Sicily, and Bosnia) while the Arab renaissance (alnahda), at the end of the 19th century, is often neglected. Finally, an important
neglected area in European textbooks is the subject of the consequences which the
Israeli occupation of Arab lands had, and still has, for the Palestinians and the whole
Arab and Islamic worlds.



Distortions and omissions can also sometimes be found in textbooks from the Arab
and Islamic worlds. The central developments and historical events in Europe,
which constitute the identity of many Europeans, are sometimes neglected in ArabIslamic textbooks. Textbooks tend to give little attention to the church as an
institution. When Christianity is discussed, it is often considered from an Islamic
point of view and not from a Christian perspective. The struggle between state and
church in Renaissance Europe, the reformation of the church and the religious wars
of the early modern period are mentioned in Arab-Islamic textbooks, given the
significant impact these historical developments clearly had on the European
identity. However, some Arab-Islamic textbooks present the age of the
enlightenment, and the reasons for the various forms of secularism in European
states, with little heed of the European context in which they had emerged.
While contribution of Arabs and Muslims to European culture is often neglected or
omitted in European textbooks, a similar neglect or omission in relation to the
contribution of Europe to Arab-Islamic culture is a feature of some Arab-Islamic
textbooks. The scientific and industrial revolutions in Europe created a wide range
of transformations. In the nineteenth century, European developments in medicine,
education, and communication had a significant impact on the Arab and Islamic
worlds. Despite military clashes, there have been cases of cross-cultural pollination
and exchange of goods and ideas since the beginning of the colonial era. ArabIslamic textbooks sometimes cover these subjects, but they are rarely portrayed as a
positive cultural exchange between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds.
A distortion common to history textbooks in both Europe and the Arab and Islamic
Worlds is the emphasis that textbooks from both cultures give to military conflict.
European textbooks sometimes depict early Islamic history as a continuous war
against the Byzantine Empire. They provide detailed descriptions of the different
expeditions (al-ghazawât) and of the various campaigns against the Byzantines,
while paying no heed to the role Muslim traders played in the spread of Islam in
many parts of the world. Meanwhile, Arab-Islamic history textbooks sometimes
present the Crusades as a religious war between Muslims and European Christians
and make a direct link between the Crusades and the era of European colonialism.
They imply that what the Crusaders were not able to achieve by military means in
the middle ages, they later attempted through the “salîbiyû al-‘asr al-hadîth”, the
“crusaders of the modern epoch” . Both approaches are harmful, for the first portrays
Islam as religion that was spread by the sword and Muslims as “enemies”, while the
second depicts Europeans simply as “crusaders” “colonialists” and “enemies“.


The tendency to focus too heavily on military encounters when considering past
encounters between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds is also sometimes a
feature of history textbooks in Europe. The Crusades are often given a great deal of
prominence, and the history of clashes continues with a focus on the military
expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the sieges of Vienna in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. A focus on these events, particularly in the context of the acts
of terrorism which marked the turn of the 21st Century or as part of the illintentioned attempts of some parties to distort facts about Islam and Muslims and
stir up Islamophobic sentiments, can too readily convey a picture of Islam as a
continuous threat and a danger to Europe. A European narrative of constant clashes
is as unsustainable as the concept of the Arab and Islamic worlds constantly under
attack from Europe.

Nowadays, classrooms in some European countries contain a high proportion of
Muslim students. The authors of history textbooks for use in European schools
should respect this Muslim presence by producing balanced textbooks that give
sufficient space to the history of the Muslim world. It is particularly important that
they should write in an informed respectful way about the religious and cultural
sensibilities that these young Muslims may hold.
A particular concern, highlighted in several studies of textbooks, is their lack of
precision in the use of different terms. This can lead, for example, to a negative view
of “Sharî`a”, the Islamic religious law. Shari`a in a European context is almost
always only connected with the extreme penalty laws and their extreme
interpretation in a few Islamic states. Sharî`a in European eyes often simply means
lashing, stoning and mutilation. The authors of European textbooks should place
Sharî`a in its proper context, explaining that it is predominantly not an extreme
penalty law, but a comprehensive code of behaviour that embraces both private and
public activities and consists of central elements of Muslim belief, worship and
teachings. Sharî`a deals a) with `ibâda, the ritual worship (ritual purification,
prayers, fasts, charities and pilgrimage), b) with mu’âmalât, the human transactions
and contracts (financial transactions, endowments, laws of inheritance, marriage,
divorce and child care, foods and drinks, punitive measures, warfare and peace,
juridical matters), c) with akhlâq (adab), the morals and manners, d) with `ibâdât,
the beliefs and only in e) with `uqûbât, the punishments, in which the hudûd, the
laws, which put penalty on extreme violations of values with extreme measures.


Similar concerns also relate to the concept of “jihad” which is often translated in
European history textbooks as “holy war” and not by the philological meaning
which is “general struggle over evil”. In Islamic tradition Jihâd is primarily a
spiritual struggle by Muslim individuals to perform their roles in the development
of their society. Actually, Muslims were victims of the “holy war” whose emergence
as a concept is associated with the Crusades. Only secondly can “jihad” be an armed
struggle in which case it basically falls within the realm of legitimate self-defense.
The “small jihâd” is considered a military act, while the “big jihâd” is the more
important non-violent spiritual struggle.
Women’s status in Islam has received much attention in European books on Islam where
it is often associated with polygamy or inheritance rights. Accordingly, European pupils
have never had the chance to know that polygamy, as presented in the Qur’ân, is so
strictly regulated that it is hard and almost impossible to practise. Likewise, they ignore
that just as males are offered the equal of two females’ share, a woman’s inheritance
share may in many other cases be larger than the one attributed to a male heir.
Another area of particular sensitivity is the development of human rights. It is an
oversimplification to state that human rights are directly an outcome of European
Christian values. It should not be forgotten that the acceptance of human rights is a
relatively recent development in the history of the West. Many Muslims, like a
number of Western scholars, believe that human rights are not an outcome of
European modernity but that their roots run deep in Islamic history. In this respect,
Arab-Islamic textbooks always refer to the Pact of Medina elaborated by the Prophet
Muhammad after consultations with the Jewish and the Christian communities
living in this town at the seventh century, in which the Jews and the Christians were
guaranteed the same rights and obligations as the Muslim inhabitants of Medina,
keeping their own traditions, laws, rites, and places of worship, and enjoying the
protection of the Muslims’ army.
Religious and cultural sensitivities can also sometimes be offended by authors of
textbooks in Arab and Islamic countries. It is particularly important that Arab-Islamic
textbooks point out the fact that Oriental Christians have been an integral part of
Islamic societies since the dawn of Islam. Muslim students still learn and live together
with Oriental Christians in some schools of the Middle East. There is clearly a need for
authors of history textbooks in the Arab and Islamic worlds to show further respect for
the Christian presence in Arab and Muslim schools. When writing textbooks, it is
important to take into consideration the cultural specificities of Christian pupils and to
pay attention to the contribution of Oriental Christians in all epochs of history. More


emphasis should be given to Oriental Christian architecture, monasteries and churches,
patriarchates, schools and hospitals and to the important role that Oriental Christians
played in the struggle against European colonialism.
Just as authors of history textbooks in Arab and Islamic countries need to pay
careful attention to their presentation of European and Judeo-Christian culture and
concepts, to recognize that European countries have adopted the principle of
separation between church and state, and that they have become more or less
secular, relegating religions to the private sphere, they should equally recognize the
diversity that exists within Europe, together with the fact that in European countries
the church still has an impact on politics, society and the values of the state. In
Germany, for example, the state collects the taxes for the churches. Many church
institutions like kindergartens, schools and social services are subsidized by the
state. In England, the Queen is still the head of the Anglican Church.
When we analyze the image of Europeans, Christians and Jews, in Arab-Islamic
textbooks, we note that these religions are sometimes presented from the point of
view of the Qur’ân’s prescriptions and Islamic ethics and values. It would be
appreciated if authors of history books in the Arab and Islamic worlds depicted
Christian and Jewish conceptions not simply from Islamic perspectives, but also
from Christian and Jewish points of view. Such approaches already exist in the
Islamic modern thought. For example, authors like `Abbâs Mahmmûd El-`Aqqâd,
Prince Al-Hassan Ibn Talâl and other Muslim writers published books, which give
reliable information on the Christian creed, the Christian church and the main
Christian denominations and concepts on the base of the New Testament and
Christian tradition. This positive approach should be introduced in history school
textbooks as well.
In order to guarantee accurate information in the production of history textbooks in
both Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds, it is good practice to involve
representatives from other religions during the course of textbook production. In
Germany, it has become common practice that chapters which deal with other
religions are counter-checked by representatives from these religions. In Syria a new
project has started in which chapters on Christian religion in the subject of Islamic
education are written by Christian scholars, while the chapters on Islam in the
subject of Christian education are written by Muslim authors. Such approaches help
to prevent unconscious insults and represent a positive way forward in the
production of history textbooks in Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds.




Learning about positive
encounters with the Other
A focus on history-based conflict sometimes dominates history textbooks in Europe
and the Arab and Islamic worlds. In their coverage of early Islamic history, European
textbooks can sometimes dwell too heavily on the spread of Islam and on the Crusades,
while Arabic-Islamic textbooks can sometimes place too much emphasis on the
negative impact of European imperialism. An over-emphasis on conflict is a distorting
lens through which to view the past. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, when
attitudes are hardening among many young people, there is a danger that on overemphasis on the Other as an aggressor will fuel prejudice. More than ever, there is a
need for history textbooks to pay attention to the many examples of positive encounters
with the Other, and to those long periods of history when co-existence between people
of different religions and cultures was the norm. This section of the Guidebook
considers four areas of historical study that could help students to develop a richer and
deeper understanding of the relationship between the Arab and Islamic worlds and
Europe in the past. These four areas are science and philosophy in the middle ages,
medieval and early modern trade, Andalusia and art and architecture.

The intellectual advances of the Arab and Islamic worlds in the ninth and tenth
centuries are one of the most exciting and significant developments in world history.
Every young person in Europe and in the Arab and Islamic worlds should be made
aware of this important epoch, and of the way in which it still impacts their lives today.
It is important that textbook authors deal with this development in accordance with
modern scholarship which emphasizes the interaction of civilizations and the cultural
fusion which was achieved during the Abbasid era. In order to understand the role Arab
and Muslim scholars in the fields of science and philosophy it is important to provide
a wide cultural context that extends to Persia, India, China, and Africa.
When explaining the influence of the Arab-Islamic culture in medieval Europe,
textbook authors should emphasize the central role of Islam in the dissemination of
knowledge, the promotion of thought and the use of reason. At the same time, they


should also alert students to the importance of economic factors, such as long-distance
trade, in the development of human knowledge and understanding. History textbooks
should also set the translation movement in its proper temporal context. The true
translation renaissance occurred in the ninth century, especially during the era of the
Muslim Khalifa al-Ma’mûn. The many scientific and cultural accomplishments of the
human civilization in the Abbasid era emanated from Beït al-Hikma (House of
Wisdom) in Baghdad, and were led by Christian, Jewish and Muslim translators, Arab
and non-Arab alike. Translation gained in momentum during the era of al-Ma’mûn. It
continued to develop under his successors and extended to Andalusia under the
Muslim Khalifa Abdul Rahmân al-Nâssir and his son al-Hakam al-Mustanssir.


Yakoub Ibn Ishâq Al-Kindî

Islamic philosophy was the outcome of an exceptional
intellectual activity in which Muslims, including
Persians, Arabs, Turks, Berbers and others, played an
active role. However, the contribution of Muslim
Arabs was so prominent that we can refer to it as Arab
philosophy. At the beginning of the ninth century a
distinctive Arab-Islamic philosophy emerged. Great
philosophers appeared including Al-Kindî “the
philosopher of Arabs”, Al-Farâbî “the second
Master”, Ibn Sîna (Avicenna) “The President Sheikh”
and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) “The grandson”. In writing
about Arab philosophy, textbook authors should make
students aware of two points, in particular:

The relationship between science and religion.
Islamic philosophy was characterized by specific
features which included the analysis of the idea of
deity through a comprehensive and complete analysis
based on abstraction and a reliance on reason. With
their emphasis on the rational, Muslim philosophers
used reason and logic in the interpretation of religious
texts. Beginning with Al-Kindi and ending with Ibn Rushd, Muslim scholars
worked to reconcile the various philosophical schools and tried to find compromises
between philosophy and religion. For example, Jâbir Ibn Hayyân, the chemist,
worked with experience and observations while al-Kindî tried to demonstrate and
prove the existence of God through mathematics.


The study and enrichment of Greek philosophy by
Arab Muslim philosophers influenced the
development of philosophical doctrines in Europe.
During the middle ages, European scholars translated
many Arab-Islamic texts. These included Kitâb alShifâ’ (The book of healing) by Ibn Sîna and Tahâfut
al-Tahâfut (Incoherence of the Incoherence) by Ibn
Ibn Rushd (Averroes)


Arab-Islamic philosophical thinking contributed in
confirming scientific concepts such as thorough
examination (scrutiny and exploration), deduction and
formulating hypotheses. There are many examples of
Arab cultural influence on Europe in the field of
philosophy; for instance, Thomas Aquinas, benefited
from the approach of thinking of Muslim imams and
Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindî and Al-Ghazâlî.
Another example of dissemination was the proliferation
of the “Averroes method” which was based on rational
observation and which was taught at French
universities by order of King Louis XI. A third example
is provided by the philosophical practice of
strengthening scientific criteria in judging the validity
of cognitive production before accepting or rejecting it.
This practice was at the heart of Averroes’ philosophy.

It is important for students to understand that the
contribution of Arab-Islamic culture to scientific
knowledge was not limited to translation. ArabIslamic scholars were not only translators. They
produced ideas commented on texts and developed
scientific ideas by performing practical experiments in order to verify the
authenticity of ideas. Arab-Islamic creativity between the ninth and eleventh
centuries, especially in astronomy, mathematics and medicine, enabled the Arabs to
make enriching contributions to the scientific understanding of humanity.



Arabs played a significant role in the study of
different aspects of mathematics including
calculus, algebra, engineering, triangles and the
refinement of the two series of Indian and Arabic
numbers including the use of zero. They also laid
the foundations of algebra, invented symbols,
worked on equations to the fourth degree and
transferred the decimal system to Europe. AlKhawârizmî is considered as one of the world’s
greatest contributors to the development of human
mathematical thought. One of the Arab-Islamic
influences in Europe in the field of mathematics
worth mentioning is the introduction of Arabic
numerals. Overall, perhaps the four greatest Arab
contributions to the development of mathematics
were: (1) The numbering system; (2) The division of
calculus into two ways: the theoretical and
practical way; (3) The innovation of multiplying
by network logarithms, and (4) Third-degree


Jabir Ibn Hayân

In chemistry Jâber Ibn Hayân introduced the
theory of mercury and sulphur in the composition
of minerals, and Al-Râzî added a salty material to
it. Following their work, the amendment of the
theory of minerals formed of salt, sulphur, and
mercury was the dominant theory in Europe until
the end of the 18th century. The discoveries and
achievements of many Arab chemists were decisive
in the history of science and civilization. Among
the most important of these discoveries were acid
minerals, alcohol, and the use of explosive powder.



In the field of physics Ibn al-Haytham was
distinguished. His book, “The Book of Scenes”,
dealt with optics and was translated into Latin. The
book had a great impact on Roger Bacon,
Leonardo Da Vinci and Johannes Kepler. The Arabs
were the first to establish the spherical aspect of
the Earth, the gravity force and the centrifugal force
on which Newton’s work was based.
Ibn Al-Haytham



Roger Bacon

In medicine and pharmacy Arabs were distinguished by their assimilation of
Greek, Hindi, and Chinese clinical experiments. Arab medical studies were defined
by two stages: the first stage was theoretical and the second stage was practical,

Abu Bakr Al-Râzî

consisting of training in how to medicate and treat.
The Europeans obtained their knowledge of medicine
and pharmacology from Arab scientists such as AlRâzî, Ibn Sîna, Ibn Zahr and Ibn Rushd, author of
“Generalities on Medicine”. The first big hospitals
and first the practical and theoretical education of
physicians were introduced during the golden age of
Islam. European medical schools and institutes used
Arabic medical books translated into Latin for
teaching medicine as well as for developing new
medical techniques.



Ibn Sîna (Avicenna)

Arab-Islamic authors of history textbooks are
unanimous in praising this period from their past. In
Europe, some textbooks also place a strong emphasis
on the scientific and cultural developments of tenth
century Baghdad and their significance for the
development of European thought and scientific
understanding. However, European history
textbooks cold give much more emphasis to this
positive encounter between Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds.

Trade has always provided an important link between the Arab and Islamic worlds
and Europe. A focus on trade links during the medieval and early modern periods
offers a positive counterbalance to the conflicts which took place during these
periods. Which aspect of trade links could spark the curiosity of students? What
dimensions of trade could make interesting case-studies in history textbooks? A
range of specific narratives offer possibilities:

Medieval trade and the significance of the Mediterranean. By the end of the
middle ages Europe had important trading ports such as Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi,
Marseille and Barcelona. In the Orient and the Maghreb there were prosperous ports
such as Alexandria, Acre, Beirut, Antakya, Tunis, and Tripoli. These port towns
served as the centre of trade transit between Europe and the Orient and a final
destination for the caravan traders coming from Africa and Asia. The nature of
medieval trade, the significance of the Mediterranean and the importance of different
ports in the medieval period could be a worthwhile area of study for students.

The changing patterns of trade from the sixteenth century. At the beginning
of the sixteenth century, the Genoese and Venetian monopoly on the exchange
networks was broken. The Portuguese succeeded in bypassing the Arabian
Peninsula and the Strait of Ormuz and established direct links with Persia and India.
The English and the Dutch succeeded in taking a share of the Levant market. The
French used their alliance with the Ottomans to strengthen their trade positions in
both the Maghreb and the Levant regions. These changing patterns of trade could
make interesting case studies in textbooks.


The impact of trade and exchange on migration and mobility. An interesting
consequence of trade was its impact on human mobility. One of the most important
consequences of trade between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds was the
development of diverse communities in ports and trading centres. Communities of
European traders coming from Marseille, Livorno, Pisa, Genoa or Venice settled in
different ports of the Arab and Islamic worlds such as Alexandria, Acre, Antakya,
Istanbul or Tunis. The experiences of traders living in or having direct relations with
the communities of the Other could make a fascinating study and could contribute
to redressing many of the stereotypes held about that “Other”.

The nature of trading privileges. At different points in time, Muslim rulers gave
privileges to European traders. The Mamluks, followed by the Hafsid sultans,
Persian and Ottoman rulers all developed diplomatic relations with certain European
states and signed peace and trade treaties with different Italian republics. Some of
these treaties included terms that allowed the Christian merchants to establish their
trade in Arab-Islamic countries. They were allowed to stay in special buildings
called Funduk which served for both accommodation and storage. Some treaties
guaranteed total security for traders and their goods. The experiences of European
traders and the motivation of Arab-Islamic rulers in granting them trading privileges
would be worthwhile areas of study.

The impact of trade on everyday life in Europe and the Arab and Islamic
worlds. Medieval and early modern trade had a powerful impact on the lives of
people in Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds. It led to important material
changes in everyday life. The new ways of building, dressing, eating and behaving
that resulted from trade could make a fascinating focus of study for students. It has
also resulted in important exchanges of knowledge that have impacted on everyday
life Trade has been a powerful way of transferring technical, artistic, and scientific
knowledge such as medicine, science, mathematics or philosophy. The direct
contact between Europeans and Arab Muslims has, for example, led to new systems
accounting and finance as well as improvements in navigation. A focus on the ways
in which trade with the Other has had an impact on people’s lives would enable
students to understand an important aspect of inter-cultural exchange.



Andalusia: a case study of religious co-existence and

cultural tolerance

More than ever, there is a need for history textbooks to pay attention to those long
periods of history when co-existence between people of different religions was the
norm. Several regions and epochs could be chosen for this purpose. Fruitful IslamicEuropean encounters happened in Sicily in the middle ages, in Mughal India during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and Bosnia during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. However, it is perhaps in medieval Andalusia that we find the
richest context for arousing students’ curiosity about the diversity, tolerance and coexistence in the history of Islamic-European relations.
The long history of Andalusia, from Abd al-Rahmân’s arrival in Cordoba in the mideighth century to the final expulsion of the Nasrids in 1492, is a complex narrative. It
is a story of violence and animosity, as well as one of peace and tolerance. From the
beginning of the eleventh century, Christian aggression and Muslim factionalism
divided Andalusia. Yet, the Muslim rulers of Andalusia created a remarkable culture in
which Muslims, Jews and Christians lived together in relative peace and prosperity.

The Grand Mosque of Cordoba


During the ninth and tenth centuries Muslim Spain, with its fusion of power, trade and
learning became one of the most vibrant places in the world. This was a time and place
in history when people of the three religions lived side by side and, despite their
enduring differences and occasional hostilities, created a prosperous and complex
culture based on multiple identities and tolerance. The first rulers of Muslim Spain
based their rule on an enlightened interpretation of the ahl al-dhimma concept (the
Islamic religious law that mandates protection for Christians and Jews). People of the
three different religions shared a rich culture which rejected religious and political
correctness in favour of intellectual and aesthetic development.
The first challenge of textbook authors in writing the history of Andalusia for
students is to find a particular focus for students’ learning. A number of different
enquiry questions could create oppurtunity for a study of Andalusia: Why can’t
historians agree about Andalusia? What does the story of Cordoba’s mosque
reveal? What mattered to different people in tenth-century Andalusia? What made
tenth-century Cordoba so special? How did the people of tenth-century Cordoba see
their world? What can be learned from the buildings of Andalusia? What ended
peace and toleration in Andalusia? When did Cordoba change most quickly? What
should be remembered from tenth-century Cordoba?
The enquiry question “What does the story of Cordoba’s mosque reveal?” allows a
chronological approach to the study of Andalusia and enables students to understand
the changes and continuities that shaped Muslim Spain. Students see that in
Andalusia periods of restriction and even persecution alternated, and sometimes coexisted, with a flowering of cross-cultural collaboration in trade, the arts and
learning. The narrative can cover the main phases in enlarging and beautifying the
mosque concluding with the shocking decision, in the early sixteenth century, to
build a cathedral in the middle of the mosque. Students can be asked to consider
what the story of Cordoba’s mosque reveals about: (1) The Muslims’ love of art and
beauty; (2) The relationship between Muslims, Christians and Jews, (3) Connections
between Cordoba and the wider Muslim world.
One of the most important aspects of studying the past for young people is analyzing
and representing diversity. For many students, suspending their twenty-first century
preconceptions and engaging with beliefs and attitudes that are very different from
their own is intellectually demanding. Analyzing the beliefs and attitudes of people
in tenth-century Andalusia through a focus on the enquiry question ‘What mattered
to different people in tenth-century Andalusia?’ can provide a worthwhile focus for
students’ learning. Students can be provided with a narrative account of Andalusia


during the ninth and tenth centuries and can be asked to consider what different
groups of Muslims, Christians and Jews thought about ways to make a living,
religion, art and beauty, justice and fairness, the past and future of Andalusia.

Over the centuries, the Arab and Islamic worlds and Europe have produced some of
the most remarkable art and architecture in the world. Discovering the artistic and
architectural achievements of our own culture and encountering the art and

The Alhambra in Granada

architecture of the Other is one of the joys of life. A fundamental purpose of
education should be to create a sense of wonder about people’s capacity for
creativity. School history can play an important role in creating curiosity about the
buildings and art of different cultures. There is a danger, however, that if history
curricula and textbooks are dominated by politics, economics and conflict, young


people may not encounter the artistic heritage of their own culture, and that of
others, in their history lessons.
Textbook authors and history teachers can help pupils to develop an aesthetic
appreciation of the beauty of buildings and of art. They can give pupils time and
space to enjoy the beauty of the Great Mosque of Damascus, the Dome of the
Rock Mosques in Jerusalem, Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul,
or the mosques and Islamic Schools in Fès, or the Rheims Cathedral in Paris. They
can encourage pupils to engage with the artistic genius of Pieter Breughel and to
appreciate the beauty of Arab calligraphy and Islamic decorative arts. Developing

Rheims Cathedral

an appreciation of the architecture and arts which marked the history of the Arab,
Muslim and European societies is an important part of learning history, but history
provides pupils with more than this. By focusing on the historical context in which
art and architecture are created, history can help pupils to learn important lessons
about the relationship between art, architecture and society in the past. Textbooks


often include photographs and illustrations of buildings and art in order to
illustrate different periods or aspects of history. However, by making the themes of

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul

belief, political power and everyday life the central focus of pupils’ learning,
textbook authors can create a deeper understanding of the relationship between art,
architecture and society in the past.
Over many centuries, people in the Arab and Islamic worlds and in Europe have
created art and architecture as a direct expression of their faith. From the earliest


times religious buildings have been an expression of belief. Since the 7th century,
Islam has had a profound influence on the art and architecture of many parts of the
world. This expression of belief can still be seen in a beautiful copy of the Qu’ran,
in the interior or exterior of a mosque or in the design of a religious artefact. The
cathedrals, churches, monasteries and religious art of Europe are testimony to the
close relationship between building, art and Christianity in the middle ages.
Studying buildings and art, in their religious and social context, can help pupils
understand the fundamental attitudes and beliefs of people in past societies.

Ibn Khaldun

The Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)
emphasized that cities and other monuments reflect
the dynasties that created them. An important
function of art and architecture in both Europe and
the Arab-Islamic words has been to enhance the
authority of rulers and elites. The relationship
between power and art can make a fascinating study
for pupils. Singling out a particular city, building or
work of art can be a useful approach: Abbasid
Baghdad, the palace of Abd al-Rahman III, the
Alhambra in Granada, Versailles, a castle or country

house, a portrait of a particular ruler can all make a fascinating focus of study. By
relating a building or work of art to the people who commissioned it, textbook
authors and teachers can helpfully develop pupils’ knowledge and understanding.
A good example of the use of an individual painting to
address wider issues of power an patronage is
provided by a work of art from the Ottoman court. In
1479, following a peace treaty between the Ottoman
Empire and Venice, the Venetian artist Gentile Bellini
was sent by his rulers to work at the court of the
Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II. While at the Ottoman
court, Bellini painted the celebrated portrait of Sultan
Mehmet II that now hangs in London’s National
Gallery. This remarkable portrait is full of fascination
Mehmet II
for young people. Pupils can be asked: What does the
portrait suggest about the personality and power of Mehmet II? What does it reveal
about the skill of Bellini? What political, diplomatic, material and cultural


influences lie behind the portrait? Bellini captured his
subject at a moment in time. We see the essence of a
Muslim ruler glimpsed through a Renaissance frame.
Bellini acted as a bridge between Europe and the
Ottoman world. In Istanbul he learned from Islamic
art, while Muslim artists absorbed the graphic
techniques of the Italians.
The focus on an individual artist at a particular point
in time is a useful way to help pupils in Europe and in
Gentile Billini
the Arab and Islamic worlds understand the powerful
cultural influences that have flowed in both directions. The fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries provide a particularly rich context for a study of the existed links between
Europe and the Arab Muslim World. In recent years historians have re-written the
nineteenth-century version of the European Renaissance in which the flowering of
art and architecture took place in a Europe sealed off from other influences. They
now recognise the crucial importance of trade and cultural exchange with
Constantinople, Baghdad and Beijing. In painters such as Giotto, Ucello and Fra
Angelico, we see Arabic inscriptions (often from the Qur’ân) on the garments of
saints and Madonnas. Such details can remind students that the European
Renaissance was the outcome of exchanges between different faiths and cultures.
Finally, studies of houses, gardens, hospitals, schools, madrasas, caravansarais,
shops, factories, pottery, furniture and other buildings and artefacts, can help pupils
to understand the structures of everyday life in the past. A detailed analysis of the
houses and furniture of peasants in a medieval French village, an examination of a
merchant’s house in Damascus or a comparison of the built environment in
fifteenth-century Cairo and London, can open up the diversity and pluralism in the
history of societies in Europe and in the Arab and Islamic worlds.
Two-way cultural exchanges between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds have
occurred throughout history. They should find a more prominent place in history
textbooks. Textbook authors and teachers can usefully engage pupils in studies of
the impact of Islamic architecture on medieval Europe, in the mixed architectural



Al-Qarawyyine Mosque in Fes, Morocco

heritage of Palermo, Cordoba, Jerusalem and Cairo. A greater focus on the artistic
and architectural achievements of people in Europe and the Arab and Islamic
worlds, and on the long history of positive interaction between the two cultures
would provide a richer learning experience for all pupils.




Learning about emotive
and controversial issues
Despite the many positive encounters between the Arab and Islamic worlds and
Europe in the past, there have also been times of confrontation and conflict. The
history classroom can provide a ‘safe’ place for students to study these controversial
aspects of history. History textbooks play a crucial role in helping students to study
controversial events from a range of perspectives and in ways that do not reinforce
stereotypical views held about the Other. Best practice emerges when history is
presented both as a body of knowledge and as a form of knowledge. It is not enough
to simply give students the facts about an emotive and cotroversial event. Factual
knowledge needs to be integrated into a process of study which includes such
features as the examination of original source material and a range of contemporary
opinions. By focusing on the process of historical enquiry, textbook authors can help
students to understand the complexity of controversial events and to move beyond
a black and white view of the past.
An exploration of multiple narratives and of the ways in which events can be seen
from different perspectives is another feature of good practice. A focus on the ways
in which people in later times have reconstructed and presented controversial
events, on the purpose of different historical interpretations and on the relationship
between the interpretation and the available contemporary evidence is vitally
important. The teaching of emotive and controversial history is seriously
compromised if students do not see that history is a subject that is open to debate
and argument.
This section focuses on five emotive and controversial areas of historical study in
the relationship between Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds: the spread of
Islam, the Crusades, Europe and the Ottoman Empire, European colonialism and
Europe and the Arab-Israeli conflict. It considers particular historical and
pedagogical issues relating to these events, and suggests some useful ways forward.



In the first century after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Islam spread into
the Sasanian Empire - lands that are now Iraq and Iran. Muslim armies marched
north and west into the Byzantine Empire, extending Muslim rule to Syria and
Egypt. By 705 Islam had reached what is now Afghanistan. By 711 it had spread to
northern India and central Asia. Islam also spread west. By 700 Muslims controlled
the whole of the north African coast. In 711 Muslim armies entered Spain. Only in
France, at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 did they finally stop. The spread of Islam in
the seventh and eighth centuries was one of the most significant developments in
world history.
The spread of Islam is a subject that has regularly appeared in European textbooks.
A 1995 comparative study, on the image of the Other in the history textbooks of
seven Mediterranean countries (France, Spain, Greece, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and
Tunisia), found that the presentation of Islam in European textbooks frequently
began with a narrative about the “Expansion of Islam.” Ten years later, a second
study noted that the same emphasis on the “Expansion of Islam” prevailed. Many
European textbooks presented the spread of Islam simply as a military conquest.
Rather than beginning with an explanation of the concepts and principles of Islam,
some European textbook described Muslim armies as conquering people by force,
humiliating them and looting their wealth and property. In some textbooks, Muslim
“conquerors” were presented in a stereotyped way as invincible invaders and raiders
who inspired terror and posed a permanent and severe threat to their neighbors.
In recent years writers of history textbooks in Europe have encouraged students to
develop a deeper understanding of the spread of Islam. The question of why Islam
spread is a fascinating causation problem for students. Students can be introduced to
a wide range of cause types – military, economic, religious and social. This is, after
all, a genuine historical problem: historians have disagreed about the relative
importance of all these factors, about the way they interrelate and about the best way
of explaining Islam’s success. Students can be encouraged to construct their own
causal argument.
Textbook authors can support students’ causal thinking about the spread of Islam in
a number of ways. For example, they can provide students with a wide range of
‘cause ideas’ that students can then organize in different ways to produce a
convincing causal explanation. The following ‘cause ideas’ could help students to
construct a convincing causal argument about the spread of Islam:


1. Worn out from fighting each other, the two big empires (Byzantine and
Sasanian) had no strength left to fight the Muslims.
2. The Muslims strong faith made them brave in battle. Islam proscribes
aggression-motivated fighting and allows fighting as part of self-defense.
Therefore, distinction should be made between certain historical events and
Islam’s principles and commandments.
3. Many people hated their old rulers so the Muslims were seen as liberators.
4. Christians and Jews paid less tax to the new Muslim rulers than to the old
Byzantine rulers.
5. Muslim rulers were often more tolerant towards Christians and Jews than
Byzantine Christians.
6. There was a chance for Arab tribes to get rich if they fought in Muslim wars.
7. The Arabs were skilful soldiers – tough, fast-moving and capable of surprise.
8. Muslim forces had impressive weapons like giant slings that could throw huge
9. The Arabs built up their power at sea.
10. Muslims did not force Jews to convert to Islam.
11. Muslim merchants and traders helped to spread Islam.
12. Islam had united the Arabs. This made them stronger. Arab armies were strong
enough to crush revolts and rebellions in the new lands which came under
Muslim rule.
13. Muslim teachers and missionaries helped to convert people to Islam, especially
in Africa and Asia.
14. North African Berbers joined the Muslim forces and made them even stronger.
Introducing students to a wide range of causal factors, and asking them to construct
their own causal explanations, are good strategies to help students move beyond
simplistic explanations that represent the Other only as an aggressor.



The Crusades, which took place between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries
constituted a major turning point in relations between Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds. In the Arab and Islamic worlds, the Crusades have become one of
the most controversial chapters in the history of relations with Europe. A simplistic
presentation of the Crusades in history textbooks from both Europe and the Arab
and Islamic worlds can lead students to a limited understanding the Crusades.
European textbooks sometimes continue to present the Crusades from a
Eurocentric perspective. According to some European textbooks, the fundamental
objective of the Crusaders was to liberate the holy places of Jerusalem from the
hands of the “Infidels”. The “Infidels” were the Muslims who, the Crusaders
claimed, had occupied the holy city and maltreated both the Eastern Christians and
the European pilgrims to the Christian sanctuaries in Jerusalem. Some ArabIslamic books strive to present the Crusaders as uncivilized people, dominated by
violence and cupidity. They emphasize that the Crusaders did not recognize the
inviolability of sacred places or of civilians. Moreover, some authors of ArabIslamic textbooks resort too readily to literary style in order to highlight the glory
of Muslim victories against the Crusaders.
There has never been a more important time to study the Crusades. A tendency is
gaining ground that gives a religious explanation to certain contemporary conflicts,
which in reality are opposing people with no understanding of the celestial religions’
teachings to others who are instrumentalizing them for their own plans and ends.
Indeed, religiously justified violence is on the increase across the globe. Every day,
students are bombarded with media images and stories of murders committed in the
name of religion which ironically proscribes them. Many people engaged in
religious conflict use the language of holy war and of crusading to provide a moral
justification for violence. Often they make direct links between the Crusades and
current conflicts. Such links are, of course, based on perception rather than on
historical reality. An understanding of the history of the Crusades and of the
emotive responses that have resulted from a partial knowledge of these religious
conflicts make the Crusades a rich and meaningful area of study
In recent years, the Crusades have been the focus of considerable scholarly
attention. The lines of enquiry, debates and contested histories that have resulted
from recent research should inform the work of school textbook authors. Three
aspects of crusading historiography have dominated recent research: debates about


what the Crusades actually were; analysis and argument about the motives of the
crusaders; changing perspectives on the nature of crusader society.
What were the Crusades? The problem of defining the Crusades has led to
considerable debate among historians. Six different approaches can be identified:
Generalists, who place the First Crusade within the long development of Christian holy
war, and who argue therefore that there was nothing particularly special or distinctive
about the First Crusade; Traditionalists, who insist on the centrality of Jerusalem and
the Holy Land to crusading; Pluralists, who focus on papal authorization as the
defining characteristic of crusading and who therefore extend their research
geographically (to cover the Iberian peninsula, the Baltic region and other parts of
Europe) and chronologically (as far as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries);
Popularists, who suggest that crusading emerged as an expression of popular piety.
This approach represents historians of an earlier generation, but may experience a
revival as we learn more about the motivation of lay participants. The fifth approach is
that of Chroniclers who affirm that the Crusades were part of the violent religiously
sanctioned European expansion. It was the outcome of Europe’s political, social,
economic, and cultural mutations following the collapse of the Roman Empire,
combined with the interaction between the Church and Feudalism. The feudalist forces,
the emerging bourgeois class, the clergy, the Knights and peasants embraced the
crusading ideology, each according to their own interpretation that would serve their
class interests, deliver them from their internal troubles and achieve their worldly gains
which were beyond their reach in eleventh-century Europe, with its critical economic
conditions and low living standards. The sixth approach is that of Marxists, who
consider the Crusades as colonialist plans to enslave peoples under the banner of the
Cross. In support of their thesis, they cite the atrocities crusaders inflected on the
Balkans during the People’s Crusade and First Crusade, arguing also that the Byzantine
Empire’s collapse was a result of the Fourth Crusade in the early thirteenth century.
The motivation of crusaders. The reasons why people took the cross and what they
expected to result from their action has been a productive area of historical research
and has led to continuing controversy among historians. Earlier materialistic
explanations are no longer accepted. Recent research suggests that very few
surviving crusaders of the First Crusade settled in the newly conquered territories
and that the inducement of new lands in the east was not a powerful motivation.
Other studies suggest that the Crusades had economic and political motivations but
concealed under the cover of religion. According to those studies, thus Crusades
were the first precursors of European colonialism.


The nature of crusader society. Several contemporary scholars focus on the nature
of the society that emerged in the crusader states during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries and, in particular, the extent of assimilation has been the focus of much
recent research. This is an interesting focus for students as it introduces them to the
ways in which archaeology, historical geography and art can contribute to historical
understanding. The suggestion of nineteenth-century French historians was that a
‘Franco-Syrian society’ emerged in the crusader states with western settlers merging
with the indigenous population to produce something culturally unique. This view
was attacked in the 1950s and 1960s by Joshua Prawer and Otto R.C. Smail. In the
views of these historians the western settlers should be seen as a ruling class
separated from the local population by language and religion, with force as their
ultimate sanction. In recent years, a work by Ronnie Ellenblum on rural settlement
patterns and, more recently, on crusader castles, suggests a more complex picture.
Jaroslav Folda’s research on crusader art also suggests a cultural synthesis.
It is important that textbook authors base their work on recent scholarship and
attempt to engage students with on-going academic debates about Crusades. In
particular, it is crucial that students move beyond a singular view of the Crusades
and explore the perceptions of the Other. Valuable scholarly works for European
authors for this purpose are, for example, Amin Malouf’s The Crusades Through
Arab Eyes and Carole Hillenbrand’s The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
Hillenbrand’s detailed survey and analysis of Muslim perceptions provides a wealth
of useful source material, including references to popular literature, buildings,
images and Arab memoirs which help students to see the Muslim perception of the
Franks at the time of the Crusades. Such sources offer examples of just the sort of
cultural encounter that young people need to understand. They provide pupils with
the opportunity to explore the attitudes, values, assumptions, and everyday activities
of Christians (indigenous and European), Muslims and Jews as they lived side by
side during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Textbook authors can also usefully engage students with the ways in which the
Crusades have been interpreted in different ways, both in the Europe and in the Arab
and Islamic worlds. A focus on how the Crusades have been represented in pictures,
plays, films, reconstructions, museum displays, fiction and non-fiction helps
students to become questioning and critical individuals. They see that interpretations
reflect the circumstances in which they were made and the intentions of those who
made them.



The year 1453 was a pivotal date in world history. The Ottomans’ entry into
Constantinople led to the creation of a large and long-lasting empire. During the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries all the Arab countries, with the exception of parts
of Arabia, Sudan and Morocco, were included in the Ottoman Empire. In the early
modern period much of the Ottoman Empire’s resources and energy were devoted
to the expansion of its territory into eastern and central Europe.1453 may not be a
date known to many pupils in European countries, but in the collective memory of
Europeans the Ottomans loom large. Battles and sieges such as Mohacs (1526),
Vienna (1529 and 1683) and Lepanto (1571) are important landmarks in the
relationship between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. Nowhere is this relationship
more sensitive than in the Balkans, where the military conflicts of the fourteenth,
fifteenth and sixteenth century have resonated down to our own time with
significant consequences. Past conflicts between Europe and the Ottoman Empire
should not be ignored by textbook authors and teachers, but they require sensitive
handling if we are to avoid reinforcing a stereotypical view of the Other as simply
‘the enemy’ and as a constant threat.
If authors are to help pupils develop a more academically rigorous and richer
understanding of the relationship between Europe and the Ottoman Empire, it is
important that a focus on conflict does not dominate textbooks. Contacts between
European states and the Ottoman Empire were not based entirely on enmity. A study
of other types of contact can lead pupils into a more complex understanding of the
past. Artistic exchange was an important dimension of the contact between
European states and the Ottoman Empire. So, too, was trade. In the earlier Ottoman
centuries trade was dominated by Venetian and Genoese merchants, and in the
eighteenth century by the French and British. From the sixteenth century onwards,
European states were keen to cement these trading links by establishing permanent
embassies and consulates in Istanbul. Moreover, European kings frequently entered
alliances with the Ottoman sultan against a common enemy.
An interesting development in European historical scholarship has been the study of
the narratives of “ordinary” Europeans who visited the Ottoman Empire in the early
modern period. Some of this research has now begun to impact on school textbooks.
An English textbook, for example, focuses on the narrative of Thomas Dallum, the
inventor of a clockwork organ, who, in 1599, travelled from England to Istanbul.
Queen Elizabeth I thought the clockwork organ would make an excellent present for


the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmet III. She ordered Dallum to deliver
the organ to the Sultan in the hope that the gift would persuade the Sultan to extend
the trading rights to the English Levant Company. The textbook authors ask pupils
to read the story of Thomas Dallum’s journey and to think about what it tells us both
about Dallum’s attitudes towards the Muslim world and about the relationship
between England and the Ottoman Empire at that time. This is a good example of
the way in which, by focusing on the complexity of individual encounters between
Europeans and Muslims, textbook authors can help pupils to move beyond a
stereotypical view of past societies.
Another strategy that European textbook authors can use to move European pupils
beyond a perception of the Ottomans only as “the enemy” is to focus on the nature
of the Ottoman Empire itself. A greater emphasis in European textbooks on
individual Ottoman Sultans, Istanbul, the Topkapi Palace, Ottoman government,
the Ottomans and Islamic tradition, Ottoman art
and architecture, or Ottoman attitudes towards
Christians and Jews would help pupils to develop
a deeper understanding of the Ottoman Empire.
In order to develop pupils’ thinking it is often
helpful to focus a textbook chapter around an
enquiry question. Authors should use questions
that are historically rigorous and that will capture
the interest of pupils. The following questions
could create rich opportunities for learning about
the nature of the Ottoman Empire: What was so
‘magnificent’ about Suleiman? What mattered to
Sultan Suleiman
the Ottoman Sultans? How did the Ottoman
Sultans show their power? What made the Topkapi Palace so special? What can
different sources tell about the Ottomans? Why should the Ottomans be
remembered? How different were Paris and Istambul in the sixteenth century?
When was the Ottoman Empire most powerful? Why did the Ottoman Empire
decline? Why can’t historians agree about the Ottomans?
A particularly sensitive aspect of European-Ottoman history is the involvement of
European states in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the
European Mandates which changed the balance of power in the region. It is worth
mentioning that the grievances attributed to the Ottoman State were not aimed only
at Europeans. They affected the Arabs of the Orient too, and as they lacked an


Islamic religious ground, a portion of the Arabs of the Orient entered into alliance
with the European powers against the Ottomans during World War I.
It is crucial that young people in Europe and in the Arab and Islamic worlds develop
a clear understanding of the significance of the end of the Ottoman Empire, the ways
in which its demise is connected to their own lives, and the reasons why people may
interpret these events in such different ways. There is a need for authors to think
carefully about exactly what historical facts to select. There is also a need to think
of an appropriate focus for pupils’ learning.
In writing about the end of the Ottoman Empire, textbook authors are entering an
interpretational minefield. Different people, for different reasons, view the events of
1917-21 from different perspectives. Historians’ accounts disagree, for example,
over the extent to which Arab players were pawns or active participants in the
events. Some media interpretations may emphasize the betrayal of the Western
powers without exploring the particular historical context in which politicians
operated. Films such as David Lean’s 1962 classic Lawrence of Arabia, help to
create a mythical view of these events in the popular imagination.
A useful pedagogical approach is to make a particular interpretation the focus of
pupils’ study. Textbook authors have a range of possible interpretations from which
to select: academic (e.g. extracts from books and articles by historians), fictional
(e.g. extracts and plays), educational (e.g. textbooks, museums and sites, TV
documentaries), popular (e.g. popular perceptions, monuments, media items). Pupils
can be asked to reflect on: the purpose and intended audience of the interpretation;
the relationship between the interpretation and the available evidence; the way in
which the interpretation has been affected by the context in which it was created
(ideology, values, nationality, personality). An explicit focus in textbooks on the
ways in which past events have been interpreted can open pupils’ minds to different
viewpoints and can provide a useful strategy for dealing with emotive and
controversial history in the classroom.

The nineteenth century was the period when European powers dominated the world.
A growth of factory production and changes in methods of communication led to an
expansion of European trade. These developments were accompanied by an increase
in the armed power of European states and by the conquest of some parts of the Arab


and Islamic worlds by European powers. The first major conquest of an ArabIslamic state was that of Algeria by France (1830-47). In due course Egypt and
Tunisia fell under European control, followed by Morocco, Libya and the rest of
Arab countries which were under European colonial rule. The colonial era is
relatively close to our current time and it is therefore a particularly painful period
for many countries both in the Arab and Islamic worlds and in Europe. The teaching
of colonialism poses particular problems of methodology. What approaches best
answers the requirements of historical scholarship as well as educational needs of
young people?
European colonialism is presented in some textbooks in the Arab and Islamic worlds
as an act of pure aggression on the part of the colonizers. Some textbooks suggest
that nineteenth-century colonialism was a return to the Crusades. Moreover,
Christianity is sometimes accused of being the initiator of this nineteenth-century
illicit expansion, with the purpose of destabilizing the Arab and Islamic worlds and
shaking its cultural and moral cohesion. In this respect, imperialism is associated
with the actions of missionaries whose objective was to evangelize the dominated
peoples. Some textbooks also emphasize the violent aspects of European colonial
expansion and present the colonizers as barbaric and brutal invaders. Just as
colonialism and its associated practices are unjustifiable, they simply need to be
denounced and dissociated from their alleged religious motivations.
For a long time, European textbooks tended to emphasize, the ‘civilizing mission’
behind colonialism. According to some textbooks, European colonialism had only
‘civilizing’ objectives: to educate, to provide health care and to build roads and
seaports. Nowadays, European history textbooks tend take a much less Eurocentric
approach to colonialism. Some history textbooks follow an enquiry-based approach.
They seek to engage students with a range of issues relating to different aspects of
colonialism and encourage students to develop their own views and opinions by
presenting them with a range of historical sources and interpretations. However, it
remains the case that historical perspectives and sources relating to the experiences
and attitudes of colonized people in the Arab and Islamic worlds are still underrepresented in European history textbooks.
In order to help students develop a more complex understanding of European
colonialism it would be helpful if textbook authors in Europe and the Arab and
Islamic worlds could support students’ knowledge and understanding of five
characteristic features of colonialism:


1. European colonialism was one of the most important developments in world
history. It led to European seizure of huge territories outside Europe and
mobilized treasuries, armies, business and the church on a huge scale.
2. Colonialism was imposed upon invaded countries by force of arms. Violence
preceded colonialism and continued after the conquest of extra-European
3. Economic exploitation constituted a main driving force of colonial expansion.
The desire for profit led to the construction of new infrastructures in colonized
4. Social relationships between colonizers and colonized people became very
unbalanced. The colonized were not regarded as citizens. The colonists often
adopted paternalistic attitudes at the beginning, then repressive ones whenever
there were signs of political or economic protest.
5. The colonists sought to impose their languages and culture on the colonized
It is important that students develop an understanding of these characteristic features
of European colonialism. However, at the same time, teachers and textbook authors
should encourage students to develop an awareness of the diverse experiences and
attitudes of people in colonial societies. Individual European countries had very
different colonial policies. The people involved in European colonization came from
a variety of backgrounds and were the products of the particular cultural contexts
into which they were born. Individual Europeans related to people in the Arab and
Islamic worlds in a myriad of ways that require careful study. Some people in
European countries held anti-colonial views. Textbook authors should strive to
make students aware of the diversity of people’s experiences in the period of
European colonialism, drawing their attention to the fact that some European
countries did not jump into the wagon of the European colonialist expansion and
that many European peoples have denounced such colonialist policies.



One of the most sensitive issues covered by history textbooks in Europe and the
Arab and Islamic worlds is the Arab-Israeli conflict. The causes of this conflict are
very deep-rooted, but it is beyond doubt that Europe played an important role in
the conflict, particularly through the Balfour Declaration, the Sykes-Picot
Agreement and the vote in favour of partition leading to the creation of the state
or Israel at the United Nations in 1947. Young people in Europe and in Arab world
should be made aware of the histoire events that contributed to the Arab-Israeli
conflict, including also the role played by external Powers.

Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem, with the Church of Mary Magdalene in the background

The envisaged textbooks in Europe and the Arab and Islamic worlds are required to
reconsider certain aspects of distortion and to introducing pupils to the various
existing narratives.
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