Applied

Linguistics

Oxford

University

Press

Citation

Analysis

and

Discourse

Analysis

Revisited

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

Drexel

University

Philadelphia

John

Swales

's

article

Citation

analysis

and

discourse

analysis

was

written

by

a

discourse

analyst

to

introduce

citation

research

from

other

elds

mainly

sociology

of

science

to

his

own

discipline

Here

I

introduce

applied

linguists

and

discourse

analysts

to

citation

studies

from

information

science

a

complementary

tradition

not

emphasized

by

Swales

Using

replicable

bibliometric

techniques

I

show

that

interdisciplinary

ties

have

grown

among

citation

researchers

from

discourse

analysis

sociology

of

science

and

information

science

in

the

years

since

Swales

wrote

Key

authors

journals

articles

and

books

are

presented

in

tables

based

on

cocitation

data

from

the

Institute

for

Scienti

c

Information

While

theoretical

integration

of

the

dierent

strands

of

research

is

far

from

complete

this

article

carries

the

eort

forward

by

reviewing

contributions

from

the

to

the

present

in

three

major

lines

of

research

citation

classi

cation

content

analysis

of

citation

contexts

and

studies

of

citer

motivations

I

pay

particular

attention

to

ideas

that

bear

on

teaching

the

art

of

citing

for

example

in

courses

in

English

for

research

purposes

and

to

controversies

in

citation

research

of

interest

to

discourse

analysts

INTRODUCTION

Applied

linguists

analyse

citers

practices

to

show

empirical

dierences

in

disciplinary

rhetoric

-LRB-

Hyland

-RRB-

and

to

help

teachers

of

English

for

research

purposes

-LRB-

ERP

-RRB-

teach

citation

in

advanced

writing

courses

-LRB-

Swales

and

Feak

-RRB-

Sociologists

of

science

analyse

citers

practices

because

they

bear

on

the

social

construction

of

knowledge

-LRB-

Law

and

Williams

Gilbert

and

Mulkay

-RRB-

or

on

norms

and

strati

cation

in

disciplines

that

generate

literatures

-LRB-

Baldi

Hargens

-RRB-

Both

elds

have

used

citation

data

to

trace

the

evolution

of

scienti

c

and

scholarly

ideas

-LRB-

Pickering

and

Nadel

Bazerman

Allen

et

al.

Valle

Salager-Meyer

-RRB-

Given

their

complementary

strengths

it

would

seem

that

both

elds

might

combine

to

develop

a

comprehensive

theory

of

citing

Instead

in

Citation

analysis

and

discourse

analysis

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

that

they

seemed

largely

ignorant

of

each

other

's

work

the

citation

analysts

in

sociology

of

science

did

not

use

the

studies

of

citers

rhetorical

choices

from

applied

linguistics

and

the

discourse

analysts

in

applied

linguistics

did

not

use

the

quantitative

studies

of

citation

functions

by

various

social

and

information

scientists

He

therefore

urged

some

coming

together

of

the

two

elds

more

than

year

ago

What

has

happened

since

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

The

interdisciplinary

linkages

Swales

hoped

for

though

still

not

strong

are

growing

That

will

be

documented

here

with

a

technique

from

citation

analysis

itself

But

as

Table

shows

there

are

actually

three

elds

involved

Writing

to

introduce

discourse

analysts

to

work

outside

the

ERP

tradition

Swales

used

sociology

of

science

to

cover

both

social

scientists

and

information

scientists

Yet

citation

analysis

is

a

much

larger

and

more

variegated

enterprise

in

information

science

than

it

is

in

applied

linguistics

or

sociology

of

science

and

it

embodies

a

research

tradition

quite

distinct

from

the

constructivist

studies

of

scienti

c

discourse

that

readers

may

associate

with

the

latter

Table

Three

separate

disciplines

with

traditions

of

citation

analysis

Field

Applied

linguistics

History

and

sociology

of

science

Science

communication

studies

Studies

of

scienti

c

discourse

Social

constructivism

Information

science

Sample

specialities

Discourse

analysis

English

for

research

purposes

Genre

analysis

Bibliometrics

Information

retrieval

Information

needs

and

uses

Building

on

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

I

will

here

introduce

some

citation

analyses

from

information

science

that

may

interest

readers

with

ERP

backgrounds

They

exemplify

three

ways

in

which

information

scientists

have

classi

ed

citations

by

categorizing

relations

between

the

citing

and

the

cited

work

by

noting

topics

of

the

sentences

in

which

citations

are

embedded

and

by

inferring

or

asking

the

motives

of

citers

All

bear

on

citing

as

a

rhetorical

act

and

all

are

dierent

from

the

syntactical

characterizations

of

citations

in

ERP

Among

other

things

I

will

show

a

range

of

textual

functions

for

citations

and

an

alternative

view

of

citer

motivations

to

that

presented

in

some

rhetorical

work

At

certain

points

in

the

paper

such

as

in

the

comments

on

negative

and

perfunctory

citations

some

standard

criticisms

of

citation

analysis

are

addressed

since

they

involve

issues

relevant

to

discourse

analysis

and

not

just

to

the

eld

of

information

science

My

discussion

will

also

present

readers

some

new

analytical

techniques

including

a

way

of

automatic

analysis

linked

to

concordancing

on

the

assumption

that

information

science

is

not

a

eld

they

monitor

Information

scientists

analyse

and

evaluate

the

systems

that

allow

people

to

nd

answers

or

satisfy

interests

in

large

bodies

of

writings

such

as

library

collections

scholarly

literatures

and

sectors

of

the

World

Wide

Web

Such

systems

connect

users

with

relevant

writings

through

a

variety

of

indexes

including

the

citation

indexes

of

the

Institute

for

Scienti

c

Information

-LRB-

ISI

-RRB-

which

are

currently

found

online

in

libraries

as

the

Web

of

Science

Citations

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

mark

intellectual

linkages

in

academic

and

professional

disciplines

and

support

document

retrieval

in

ways

complementary

to

standard

subject

indexing

-LRB-

White

and

McCain

-RRB-

Hence

information

scientists

have

made

citation

patterns

a

major

topic

of

research

since

the

-LRB-

cf.

Gar

eld

Cronin

Liu

-RRB-

The

sub

eld

of

information

science

to

which

citation

analysis

belongs

is

most

often

called

bibliometrics

-LRB-

some

now

prefer

scientometrics

or

informetrics

-RRB-

the

quantitative

study

of

writings

in

the

aggregate

Many

studies

from

the

bibliometric

tradition

are

relevant

to

applied

linguists

and

discourse

analysts

especially

those

who

teach

citation

practices

For

example

I

will

describe

some

valuable

work

by

Henry

Small

that

was

not

mentioned

in

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

remains

unused

by

ERP

discourse

analysts

currently

identi

ed

with

citation

studies

such

as

Hyland

-LRB-

-RRB-

Hemais

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Thompson

and

Tribble

-LRB-

-RRB-

-LRB-

It

is

touched

on

in

Bazerman

Swales

Berkenkotter

and

Huckin

Rose

Salager-Meyer

-RRB-

Small

directs

research

at

ISI

in

Philadelphia

and

he

is

a

founder

of

cocitation

analysis

one

variety

of

which

I

will

demonstrate

here

To

be

fair

I

should

add

that

he

and

many

other

information

scientists

do

not

cite

and

seem

to

be

unaware

of

the

citation

analysts

in

applied

linguistics

In

Liu

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

otherwise

inclusive

review

of

citation

studies

in

information

science

-LRB-

and

other

elds

-RRB-

works

from

applied

linguistics

are

not

represented

In

some

measure

the

gap

noted

in

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

persists

AN

AUTHOR

COCITATION

ANALYSIS

It

is

quite

common

for

two

or

more

elds

to

pursue

connectible

research

goals

without

knowing

of

or

at

least

without

acknowledging

each

other

's

existence

Typically

they

are

discourse

communities

islanded

by

dierent

vocabularies

dierent

journals

and

conferences

dierent

bases

in

academe

The

degree

of

contact

between

them

can

be

shown

empirically

through

bibliometric

techniques

from

information

science

speci

cally

through

analyses

of

author

intercitation

or

cocitation

in

the

databases

of

ISI

My

purpose

in

this

section

is

to

lay

out

the

relations

between

citation

analysis

and

discourse

analysis

-LRB-

or

between

information

science

and

applied

linguistics

-RRB-

and

to

exemplify

some

of

the

analytical

tools

being

discussed

Swales

connected

the

two

elds

by

showing

how

citations

in

a

textbook

familiar

to

readers

in

ERP

could

be

categorized

with

a

scheme

from

information

science

My

bibliometric

approach

while

very

dierent

casts

a

wider

net

To

analyse

intercitation

one

takes

a

group

of

representative

authors

from

each

eld

and

nds

how

often

any

member

of

one

group

cites

any

member

of

the

other

For

example

how

often

does

Swales

from

linguistics

cite

Small

from

information

science

and

vice-versa

The

researcher

counts

occurrences

of

the

sort

Small

Swales

or

Swales

Small

where

the

arrow

represents

one

or

more

citations

The

second

technique

author

cocitation

analysis

is

more

inclusive

After

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

pairing

members

from

each

of

the

groups

one

nds

how

often

the

pairs

are

cited

together

by

all

publishing

writers

For

example

how

often

does

anyone

in

any

discipline

cite

any

work

by

Swales

with

any

work

by

Small

in

the

same

document

The

researcher

counts

occurrences

of

the

sort

Later

document

Small

and

Swales

every

later

document

that

meets

the

criterion

increases

the

Small

Swales

count

by

one

-LRB-

Such

documents

could

be

written

by

Small

or

Swales

but

would

most

often

be

written

by

others

-RRB-

Again

groups

that

are

wholly

disconnected

have

no

cocitation

ties

no

one

has

joined

works

by

their

authors

in

the

references

of

a

later

publication

When

such

ties

do

exist

information

scientists

can

use

them

to

map

elds

in

terms

of

their

most

highly

cocited

authors

-LRB-

White

White

and

McCain

-RRB-

The

author

cocitation

record

shows

that

the

two

outer

elds

in

Table

applied

linguistics

and

information

science

are

not

wholly

disconnected

In

a

small-scale

probe

of

their

ties

in

May

I

took

six

authors

who

have

written

about

citation

practices

Charles

Bazerman

Greg

Myers

and

John

Swales

from

applied

linguistics/discourse

analysis

and

Belver

Grith

Henry

Small

and

myself

from

information

science

and

retrieved

our

cocitation

counts

from

the

merged

les

of

two

ISI

databases

on

Dialog

Social

Scisearch

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Arts

and

Humanities

Search

-LRB-

-RRB-

The

counts

for

each

of

the

possible

author-pairs

are

shown

in

Table

They

will

help

convey

some

of

what

has

happened

since

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

Table

Author

cocitation

counts

for

three

discourse

analysts

and

three

information

scientists

Myers

Bazerman

Myers

Swales

Grith

Small

Swales

Grith

Small

White

It

should

be

understood

that

Dialog

counts

the

articles

-LRB-

or

other

items

in

journals

-RRB-

that

cite

the

pairs

it

does

not

count

the

references

to

each

that

are

in

the

articles

Table

shows

at

top

left

for

example

that

articles

cite

at

least

one

thing

by

Bazerman

and

at

least

one

thing

by

Myers

any

given

item

could

cite

more

-LRB-

Duplicate

citing

documents

from

the

two

ISI

databases

have

been

removed

-RRB-

The

boxed

cocitation

counts

in

Table

are

those

that

unite

one

of

the

discourse

analysts

with

one

of

the

information

scientists

They

come

from

a

total

of

articles

-LRB-

three

of

them

exclusively

bibliographic

-RRB-

For

example

of

the

cocite

Bazerman

and

Grith

and

cocite

Small

and

Myers

-LRB-

The

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

same

article

could

cite

more

than

one

author

from

either

trio

-RRB-

The

crossdisciplinary

counts

inside

the

box

are

much

lower

than

the

disciplinary

ones

outside

it

but

they

are

not

zero

applied

linguistics

and

information

science

are

being

connected

by

cocitation

at

modest

levels

For

example

one

of

the

documents

Paul

-LRB-

-RRB-

carries

out

a

citation

analysis

in

the

rhetorical

tradition

with

ideas

from

discourse

analysis

-LRB-

Bazerman

Myers

-RRB-

sociology

of

science

-LRB-

Cozzens

-RRB-

and

information

science

-LRB-

Small

McCain

and

Turner

-RRB-

Were

my

literature

search

extended

additional

cocited

authors

would

be

revealed

although

again

the

levels

would

probably

be

modest

to

low

The

documents

were

published

from

to

Only

ve

of

them

existed

when

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

appeared

and

so

there

has

been

an

increase

of

roughly

two

articles

per

year

since

he

wrote

Excluding

the

bibliographies

they

are

shown

in

Table

from

information

science

from

history

and

sociology

of

science

and

from

applied

linguistics

a

nice

variety

of

origin

Each

journal

in

the

table

is

preceded

by

the

number

of

articles

it

contributed

-LRB-

multiple

contributions

are

listed

in

order

of

recency

-RRB-

The

Gar

eld

Festschrift

a

book

honoring

the

founder

of

ISI

is

an

exception

to

the

company

's

rule

of

covering

only

journals

as

sources

of

citations

Authors

who

have

contributed

two

or

more

articles

to

Table

include

Cronin

Hjorland

Leydesdor

and

White

from

information

science

Hargens

and

Baldi

from

sociology

of

science

and

Bazerman

from

discourse

analysis

The

articles

in

Table

do

not

necessarily

connect

the

ideas

of

the

cited

authors

in

intellectually

interesting

ways

For

instance

Grith

and

Bazerman

or

Small

and

Myers

could

be

cited

in

the

same

article

but

in

wholly

dierent

contexts

The

citations

to

them

could

also

be

dispensable

as

far

as

the

citer

's

main

argument

is

concerned

I

would

simply

note

that

whenever

authors

are

recurrently

cocited

there

is

a

good

chance

that

certain

ideas

from

their

elds

are

coalescing

with

their

works

as

contributing

factors

After

all

since

most

authors

are

never

cocited

recurrent

cocitation

is

a

signal

that

something

interpretable

is

happening

A

strong

recent

indicator

of

coalescence

is

Hyland

-LRB-

-RRB-

an

article

that

relates

self-citation

to

the

larger

rhetorical

functions

of

self-mention

in

scholarly

writing

Hyland

well

known

in

ERP

published

this

crossover

piece

in

the

main

journal

of

information

science

He

writes

-LRB-

p.

-RRB-

While

sociolinguistic

approaches

have

not

played

a

major

role

in

information

science

detailed

study

of

writers

linguistic

choices

can

reveal

important

aspects

of

knowledge

making

and

the

patterns

which

characterize

disciplinary

relationships

This

sets

a

context

wherein

work

by

discourse

analysts

such

as

himself

and

Bazerman

can

be

newly

integrated

with

evidence

from

information

scientists

like

White

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Cronin

and

Shaw

-LRB-

-RRB-

who

argue

the

blamelessness

of

self-citation

on

the

basis

of

empirical

data

-LRB-

see

also

Tagliacozzo

Bonzi

and

Snyder

Dimitro

and

Arlitsch

-RRB-

Where

the

elds

are

coming

together

can

be

suggested

in

richer

detail

by

listing

the

works

that

are

most

frequently

cited

by

the

articles

in

Table

This

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

Table

Forty

articles

that

cocite

authors

from

applied

linguistics

science

studies

and

information

science

Information

science

Scientometrics

Cronin

B.

and

D.

Shaw

Identitycreators

and

image

makers

Using

citation

analysis

and

thick

description

to

put

authors

in

their

place

Leydesdor

L.

and

P.

Wouters

Between

texts

and

contexts

Advances

in

Theories

of

citation

A

rejoinder

Leydesdor

L.

Theories

of

citation

Baldi

S.

L.

and

L.

Hargens

Reassessing

the

N-rays

reference

network

The

role

of

self

citations

and

negative

citations

Snizek

W.

E.

K.

Oehler

and

N.

Mullins

Textual

and

nontextual

characteristics

of

scienti

c

papers

Neglected

science

indicators

Cozzens

S.

E.

What

do

citations

count

The

model

Journal

of

the

American

Society

for

Information

Science

Hyland

K.

Self-citation

and

selfreference

Credibility

and

promotion

in

academic

publication

White

H.

D.

Authors

as

citers

over

time

Pierce

S.

J.

Boundary

crossing

in

research

literatures

as

a

means

of

interdisciplinary

information

transfer

Hjorland

B.

and

H.

Albrechtsen

Toward

a

new

horizon

in

information

science

Domain

analysis

MacRoberts

M.

H.

and

B.

R.

MacRoberts

Problems

of

citation

analysis

A

critical

review

Journal

of

Documentation

Hjorland

B.

Domain

analysis

in

information

science

Eleven

approaches

Traditional

as

well

as

innovative

Andersen

J.

The

role

of

subject

literature

in

scholarly

communication

An

interpretation

based

on

social

epistemology

Langham

T.

Consistency

in

referencing

Cronin

B.

and

K.

Overfelt

The

scholar

's

courtesy

A

survey

of

acknowledgment

behavior

Annual

Review

of

Information

Science

and

Technology

Bishop

A.

P.

and

S.

L.

Star

Social

informatics

of

digital

library

use

and

infrastructure

Information

Processing

and

Management

Hjorland

B.

Library

and

information

science

Practice

theory

and

philosophical

basis

Information

Technology

and

Libraries

Schaner

A.

C.

The

future

of

scienti

c

journals

Lessons

from

the

past

Library

Trends

White

H.

D.

Literature

retrieval

for

interdisciplinary

syntheses

Libri

Sen

Gupta

I.

N.

Bibliometrics

informetrics

scientometrics

and

librametrics

An

overview

The

Web

of

Knowledge

A

Festschrift

in

Honor

of

Eugene

Gar

eld

Hargens

L.

L.

Graphing

micro-regions

in

the

web

of

knowledge

A

comparative

reference

network

analysis

History

and

sociology

of

science

Social

Studies

of

Science

Baldi

S.

and

L.

L.

Hargens

Reexamining

Price

's

conjectures

on

the

structure

of

reference

networks

Results

from

the

special

relativity

spatial

diusion

modeling

and

role

analysis

literatures

Allen

B.

J.

Qin

and

F.

W.

Lancaster

Persuasive

communities

A

longitudinal

analysis

of

references

in

the

Philosophical

Transactions

of

the

Royal

Society

Hicks

D.

and

J.

Potter

Sociology

of

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

Table

-LRB-

cont

-RRB-

scienti

c

knowledge

A

re

exive

citation

analysis

or

science

disciplines

and

disciplining

science

Bazerman

C.

Modern

evolution

of

the

experimental

report

in

physics

Spectroscopic

articles

in

Physical

Review

American

Sociological

Review

Hargens

L.

L.

Using

the

literature

Reference

networks

reference

contexts

and

the

social

structure

of

scholarship

Fuchs

S.

and

S.

Ward

What

is

deconstruction

and

where

and

when

does

it

take

place

Making

facts

in

science

building

cases

in

law

Camic

C.

Reputation

and

predecessor

selection

Parsons

and

the

Institutionalists

Arbor

Ciencia

Pensamiento

y

Cultura

Wul-Barreiro

E.

The

natural

history

of

the

discovery

of

hereditary

carcinogenesis

of

the

colon

Scienti

c

dynamics

in

information

ow

Contemporary

Sociology

An

International

Journal

Hargens

L.

L.

Impressions

and

misimpressions

about

sociology

journals

Progress

in

Human

Geography

Curry

M.

R.

On

the

possibility

of

ethics

in

geography

Writing

citing

and

the

construction

of

intellectual

property

Science

Technology

Human

Values

Oehler

K.

W.

E.

Snizek

and

N.

Mullins

Words

and

sentences

over

time

How

facts

are

built

and

sustained

in

a

specialty

area

Applied

linguistics

ERP

Journal

of

Business

and

Technical

Communication

Paul

D.

In

citing

chaos

A

study

of

the

rhetorical

use

of

citations

Smith

E.

O.

Intertextual

connections

to

A

humanistic

rationale

for

technical

writing

Written

Communication

Berkenkotter

C.

and

T.

N.

Huckin

Rethinking

genre

from

a

sociocognitive

perspective

Bazerman

C.

Physicists

reading

physics

Schema-laden

purposes

and

purpose-laden

schema

Communication

Research

Borgman

C.

L.

Bibliometrics

and

scholarly

communication

Editor

's

introduction

Journal

of

Technical

Writing

and

Communication

Gross

A.

G.

The

form

of

the

experimental

paper

A

realization

of

the

myth

of

induction

Research

in

the

Teaching

of

English

Dong

Y.

R.

Learning

how

to

use

citations

for

knowledge

transformation

Nonnative

doctoral

students

dissertation

writing

in

science

TESOL

Quarterly

Swales

J.

years

of

the

TESOL

Quarterly

is

possible

with

Dialog

's

RANK

command

the

searcher

forms

the

set

of

citing

articles

online

and

then

asks

for

their

cited

references

to

be

displayed

in

descending

order

of

occurrence

It

is

a

powerful

way

to

generate

a

customized

list

of

titles

one

that

could

not

be

duplicated

with

standard

subject

searches

in

online

databases

or

on

the

Web

Table

shows

the

works

cited

at

least

three

times

by

the

documents

-LRB-

the

articles

in

Table

plus

the

three

bibliographies

-RRB-

Works

appear

in

an

edited

version

of

ISI

's

space-saving

format

Book

titles

are

italicized

-LRB-

subtitles

have

been

omitted

-RRB-

Journal

titles

are

in

roman

followed

by

the

cited

item

's

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

Table

Connections

of

discourse

analysis

and

citation

analysis

Works

most

cited

in

documents

from

applied

linguistics

science

studies

and

information

science

Times

Work

cited

cited

Bazerman

C.

Shaping

Written

Knowledge

Latour

B.

and

Woolgar

S.

Laboratory

Life

Small

H.

G.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Moravcsik

M.

J.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Edge

D.

History

of

Science

Gilbert

G.

N.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Kuhn

T.

S.

The

Structure

of

Scienti

c

Revolutions

Chubin

D.

E.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Hagstrom

W.

O.

The

Scienti

c

Community

Latour

B.

Science

in

Action

Myers

G.

Writing

Biology

Whitley

R.

Intellectual

Social

Organization

of

the

Sciences

Bazerman

C.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Cozzens

S.

E.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Gilbert

G.

N.

and

Mulkay

M.

Opening

Pandora

's

Box

Kaplan

N.

American

Documentation

Price

D.

J.

D.

Little

Science

Big

Science

Crane

D.

Invisible

Colleges

Knorr-Cetina

K.

The

Manufacture

of

Knowledge

MacRoberts

M.

H.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Price

D.

J.

D.

Science

Swales

J.

Applied

Linguistics

Swales

J.

Genre

Analysis

Gar

eld

E.

Citation

Indexing

Price

D.

J.

D.

Commununication

in

Science

Engineering

Times

Work

cited

cited

Callon

M.

et

al.

Mapping

the

Dynamics

of

Science

Gus

eld

J.

American

Sociological

Review

Merton

R.

K.

The

Sociology

of

Science

Zuckerman

H.

Minerva

Becher

T.

Academic

Tribes

Territories

Borgman

C.

L.

Scholarly

Communication

Bibliometrics

Cole

J.

R.

and

Cole

S.

Social

Strati

cation

in

Science

Cozzens

S.

E.

Scientometrics

Martin

B.

R.

Research

Policy

Meadows

A.

J.

Communication

in

Science

Moed

H.

F.

Scientometrics

Sen

Gupta

I.

N.

Scientometrics

Small

H.

G.

Science

Studies

Small

H.

G.

Scientometrics

Tagliacozzo

R.

Journal

of

Documentation

White

H.

D.

Scholarly

Communication

Bibliometrics

Zuckerman

H.

Scientometrics

Bazerman

C.

Philosophy

of

the

Social

Sciences

Bazerman

C.

Written

Communication

Bonzi

S.

Scientometrics

Broad

W.

and

Wade

N.

Betrayers

of

the

Truth

Brooks

T.

A.

JASIS

Brooks

T.

A.

JASIS

Cole

J.

R.

Sociology

of

Education

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

Table

-LRB-

cont

-RRB-

Times

Work

cited

cited

Cole

J.

R.

American

Sociologist

Cole

S.

Scientometrics

Cole

S.

Making

Science

Collins

H.

M.

Science

Studies

Cozzens

S.

E.

Scientometrics

Cronin

B.

Journal

of

Documentation

Cronin

B.

Journal

of

Documentation

Frohmann

B.

Journal

of

Documentation

Fuchs

S.

The

Professional

Quest

for

Truth

Giddens

A.

The

Constitution

of

Society

Gieryn

T.

F.

Handbook

Science

Technology

Studies

Grith

B.

C.

Science

Grith

B.

C.

Structure

of

the

Social

Behavioral

Sciences

Literature

Hagstrom

W.

O.

American

Sociological

Review

Hjorland

B.

Journal

of

Documentation

Hjorland

B.

Knowledge

Organization

Irvine

J.

Scientometrics

Irvine

J.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Klein

J.

T.

Interdisciplinarity

Lange

L.

Scientometrics

Langridge

D.

W.

Classi

cation

Indexing

in

the

Humanities

Law

J.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Line

M.

B.

Social

Science

Information

MacDonald

S.

P.

Professional

and

Academic

Writing

MacRae

D.

American

Sociological

Review

Times

Work

cited

cited

MacRoberts

M.

H.

Social

Studies

of

Science

MacRoberts

M.

H.

JASIS

Menard

H.

W.

Science

Growth

and

Change

Moravcsik

M.

J.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Mulkay

M.

Science

Observed

Mullins

N.

C.

Theories

Theory

Groups

in

American

Sociology

Myers

G.

Social

Studies

of

Science

Narin

F.

Evaluative

Bibliometrics

Paisley

W.

J.

ARIST

Peritz

B.

C.

Scientometrics

Porter

A.

L.

Scientometrics

Price

D.

J.

D.

Science

Since

Babylon

Saracevic

T.

JASIS

Shapin

S.

and

Schaer

S.

Leviathan

and

the

Air

Pump

Small

H.

JASIS

Small

H.

Scientometrics

Smith

L.

C.

Library

Trends

Swales

J.

Written

Communication

Todorov

R.

Scientometrics

Vlachy

J.

Scientometrics

White

H.

D.

and

McCain

K.

W.

ARIST

White

H.

D.

and

McCain

K.

W.

JASIS

Wilson

P.

Second-Hand

Knowledge

ARIST

Annual

Review

of

Information

Science

and

Technology

JASIS

Journal

of

the

American

Society

for

Information

Science

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

volume

number

and

initial

page

Chapters

in

collections

have

their

initial

page

listed

after

the

book

title

Counts

for

dierent

editions

of

the

same

book

have

been

combined

Where

possible

I

have

spelled

out

ISI

abbreviations

made

author

name-forms

consistent

and

added

second

authors

One

or

two

cryptic

name-forms

for

monographs

have

been

replaced

Despite

the

absence

of

article

titles

-LRB-

a

characteristic

of

ISI

cited-reference

downloads

-RRB-

Table

is

a

good

rst

cut

at

establishing

the

core

literature

of

citation

analysis

within

the

three

elds

of

Table

Chronologically

the

works

span

more

than

three

decades

from

Derek

Price

's

seminal

works

to

various

syntheses

of

the

late

The

three

elds

of

this

article

are

represented

by

the

top

works

in

Table

applied

linguistics/discourse

analysis

by

Bazerman

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

Shaping

Written

Knowledge

information

science

by

Small

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

article

on

citations

as

concept

symbols

-LRB-

discussed

below

-RRB-

and

history

and

sociology

of

science

by

Latour

and

Woolgar

's

Laboratory

Life

Most

authors

on

the

list

can

be

readily

identi

ed

with

one

of

these

elds

and

some

such

as

Price

with

two

The

speci

c

works

seen

in

the

table

are

often

multivalent

in

topical

relevance

it

seems

tting

that

one

of

them

is

Julie

Klein

's

Interdisciplinarity

As

a

guide

to

interpreting

journal

titles

information

science

is

represented

by

Scientometrics

JASIS

ARIST

American

Documentation

Library

Trends

Libri

Knowledge

Organization

and

Journal

of

Documentation

History

and

sociology

of

science

are

represented

by

Social

Studies

of

Science

-LRB-

formerly

Science

Studies

-RRB-

American

Sociological

Review

Minerva

History

of

Science

Social

Science

Information

Philosophy

of

the

Social

Sciences

American

Sociologist

and

Sociology

of

Education

Discourse

analysis

is

represented

by

Applied

Linguistics

and

Written

Communication

Science

and

Research

Policy

are

transdisciplinary

It

is

clear

especially

when

the

article

titles

and

abstracts

are

retrieved

in

full

that

the

three

elds

are

all

oriented

to

the

analysis

of

citations

from

scienti

c

literatures

the

literatures

of

the

social

sciences

and

humanities

are

much

less

in

evidence

The

journals

contributing

by

far

the

most

articles

are

Scientometrics

with

items

and

Social

Studies

of

Science

-LRB-

or

Science

Studies

-RRB-

with

In

addition

to

journals

some

books

are

listed

of

them

published

before

-LRB-

Note

that

of

the

cited

articles

in

Table

also

appeared

before

-RRB-

Foundational

books

such

as

Hagstrom

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

The

Scienti

c

Community

or

Crane

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

Invisible

Colleges

remain

important

Citation

analysis

as

seen

here

apparently

lacks

a

tendency

to

cite

its

most

recent

publications

in

a

fastmoving

research

front

This

makes

it

resemble

a

specialty

in

the

softer

social

sciences

Authors

cited

for

at

least

three

dierent

works

in

Table

are

Henry

Small

-LRB-

works

-RRB-

Charles

Bazerman

-LRB-

-RRB-

Derek

Price

-LRB-

-RRB-

Jonathan

and

Stephen

Cole

-LRB-

each

-RRB-

Susan

Cozzens

-LRB-

-RRB-

Michael

and

Barbara

MacRoberts

-LRB-

each

-RRB-

John

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Howard

White

-LRB-

-RRB-

Those

cited

for

two

dierent

works

are

Terrence

Brooks

Blaise

Cronin

Nigel

Gilbert

Belver

Grith

Warren

Hagstrom

Birger

Hjorland

John

Irvine

Bruno

Latour

Katherine

McCain

Greg

Myers

Michael

Moravcsik

Michael

Mulkay

and

Harriet

Zuckerman

It

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

will

be

seen

that

applied

linguistics

furnishes

fewer

names

than

sociology

of

science

or

information

science

There

is

a

bit

of

self-citation

going

on

for

example

some

of

the

authors

just

listed

also

authored

some

of

the

citing

items

in

Table

However

these

are

among

the

very

works

that

are

connecting

the

dierent

research

traditions

of

citation

analysis

and

they

can

not

reasonably

be

left

out

I

would

also

point

out

that

most

of

the

names

and

works

in

Table

are

not

the

result

of

selfcitation

but

rather

of

inherent

cohesion

in

the

literature

I

am

sampling

That

cohesion

is

both

quantitative

items

are

each

cited

at

least

three

times

by

only

documents

the

top

three

items

are

each

cited

by

almost

half

the

documents

and

qualitative

domain

experts

would

recognize

many

items

on

the

list

and

nd

their

presence

interpretable

both

the

Mertonian

and

the

constructivist

schools

of

science

studies

are

well

represented

the

list

itself

could

be

the

bibliography

of

a

literature

review

of

citation

analysis

as

seen

from

applied

linguistics

history

and

sociology

of

science

and

information

science

THE

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

INFORMATION

SCIENCE

With

this

as

background

I

turn

to

brief

examinations

of

developments

before

and

since

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

focusing

on

writings

by

information

scientists

-LRB-

or

by

bibliometrically

inclined

sociologists

-RRB-

that

are

relevant

to

readers

in

ERP

Broad

reviews

of

the

citation

analysis

literature

by

information

scientists

include

Smith

-LRB-

-RRB-

Cronin

-LRB-

-RRB-

Pierce

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Baird

and

Oppenheim

-LRB-

-RRB-

One

in

particular

Liu

-LRB-

-RRB-

is

valuable

for

its

wide

coverage

Two

empirical

articles

McCain

and

Turner

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Case

and

Higgins

-LRB-

-RRB-

contain

informative

mini-reviews

But

the

piece

that

should

be

in

every

discourse

analyst

's

les

for

its

synthesizing

power

is

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

Small

distinguishes

two

ways

of

analysing

citations

on

the

basis

of

the

text

immediately

around

them

Both

have

produced

streams

of

research

The

rst

is

to

classify

abstract

features

of

the

relationship

between

citing

and

cited

work

such

as

whether

the

cited

work

seems

essential

or

inessential

to

the

argument

of

the

citing

work

and

whether

the

citer

's

attitude

seems

positive

or

negative

The

second

is

to

read

citations

as

indicators

of

concrete

topics

as

if

they

stood

for

subject

headings

Generally

the

rst

requires

the

analyst

to

judge

and

code

some

aspect

of

the

citation

that

is

only

implicit

in

the

context

while

in

the

second

the

analyst

makes

use

of

explicit

words

or

phrases

connected

with

the

citation

The

rst

thus

depends

relatively

heavily

on

the

analyst

's

expertise

the

second

on

the

text

in

which

the

citation

occurs

Both

are

forms

of

citation

context

analysis

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

but

the

second

is

sometimes

called

citation

content

analysis

-LRB-

McCain

and

Turner

-RRB-

or

content

analyses

of

citation

contexts

-LRB-

Small

-RRB-

-LRB-

Context

here

always

means

co-occurring

text

rather

than

the

entire

situation

of

communication

-RRB-

A

third

stream

of

research

not

mentioned

in

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

involves

discovering

citer

motivations

-LRB-

including

their

motives

for

self-citation

and

for

non-citation

of

certain

items

-RRB-

Examples

of

the

three

approaches

will

be

taken

up

in

turn

They

are

covered

in

greater

detail

by

Brooks

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Liu

-LRB-

-RRB-

who

also

list

in

full

the

categories

of

the

analytical

schemes

they

discuss

CLASSIFYING

CITATIONS

The

rst

approach

involves

what

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

calls

citation

classi

cation

schemes

All

are

attempts

to

understand

what

people

are

doing

when

they

cite

Over

the

years

about

have

appeared

from

dierent

disciplines

with

little

regard

for

coordination

Baldi

-LRB-

-RRB-

gently

mocks

them

as

a

cottage

industry

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

which

discusses

several

drew

on

the

categories

of

perhaps

the

best

known

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

-LRB-

-RRB-

to

characterize

citations

to

the

book

Communicative

Syllabus

Design

by

John

Munby

These

categories

are

conceptual

vs.

operational

organic

vs.

perfunctory

evolutionary

vs.

juxtapositional

and

con

rmational

vs.

negative

-LRB-

de

nitions

below

-RRB-

Swales

ended

up

dropping

the

conceptual/operational

dichotomy

as

inappropriate

outside

science

-LRB-

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

had

coded

citations

from

papers

in

high

energy

physics

-RRB-

and

modifying

the

organic/perfunctory

dichotomy

to

extensive

vs.

short

which

is

easier

to

code

-LRB-

cf.

McCain

and

Turner

who

used

central

vs.

peripheral

-RRB-

In

truth

the

citation

classi

cation

schemes

are

all

idiosyncratic

and

hard

to

code

which

means

that

replications

of

their

use

across

literatures

are

scarce

-LRB-

Cano

and

Hooten

are

among

the

few

-RRB-

However

insofar

as

their

categories

can

be

matched

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

does

so

for

eight

of

the

schemes

all

from

the

He

thus

presents

an

integrative

view

of

some

of

the

major

functions

of

citation

It

turns

out

that

although

each

scheme

has

its

unique

nuances

there

is

a

great

deal

of

commonality

underlying

their

dierent

categories

Better

still

Small

was

able

to

compare

the

percentages

of

citations

falling

into

the

matched

categories

across

seven

of

the

schemes

thereby

turning

what

had

been

independent

studies

into

rough

replications

His

results

are

important

to

ERP

because

they

address

the

complaint

recurrent

in

academe

that

evaluations

based

on

citation

counts

-LRB-

such

as

those

in

Table

-RRB-

are

distorted

by

negative

citations

and

perfunctory

citations

that

analysts

do

not

properly

take

into

account

Thus

Small

's

most

notable

nding

is

that

in

all

studies

the

proportion

of

negative

or

refutational

citations

-LRB-

i.e.

those

in

which

the

citer

criticizes

or

attempts

to

overturn

the

citee

's

work

-RRB-

is

relatively

low

from

one

to

percent

by

subjective

coding

This

contradicts

the

folk-theory

that

high

citation

counts

can

not

be

trusted

as

indicators

of

quality

or

impact

because

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

they

are

in

ated

with

negative

citations

-LRB-

Doubts

like

this

motivated

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

and

have

often

been

voiced

by

critics

of

citation

analysis

-RRB-

More

recent

studies

reviewed

in

Vinkler

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Case

and

Higgins

-LRB-

-RRB-

continued

to

report

low

percentages

of

negative

citation

The

gure

of

percent

in

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

seems

to

be

the

highest

anyone

has

found

The

great

majority

of

citations

are

thus

con

rmative

the

citing

work

in

some

measure

agrees

with

the

cited

work

in

its

ndings

or

judgements

I

should

add

that

negative

citations

do

not

necessarily

indicate

worthlessness

they

often

simply

show

controversy

The

negative

citers

may

themselves

be

wrong

and

the

citees

right

In

any

case

it

is

something

of

an

achievement

to

have

one

's

work

noticed

by

others

even

if

negatively

work

deemed

substandard

or

negligible

is

seldom

cited

at

all

-LRB-

cf.

Cole

and

Cole

Myers

White

-RRB-

It

is

much

more

common

for

a

work

to

go

uncited

than

to

be

negatively

cited

and

that

accounts

for

the

low

percentages

in

the

latter

category

In

contrast

MacRoberts

and

MacRoberts

-LRB-

-RRB-

argued

that

the

percentages

are

low

because

citers

dissemble

hiding

their

negative

feelings

behind

positive

or

neutral

words

Given

the

critical

mindset

ingrained

in

science

and

scholarship

citers

must

often

be

ambivalent

toward

what

they

cite

as

Brooks

-LRB-

-RRB-

indeed

found

But

it

is

not

at

all

clear

how

one

can

know

that

words

like

classic

or

important

in

reference

to

papers

really

mean

misconceived

or

spurious

as

without

giving

evidence

the

MacRobertses

claim

They

further

claim

that

when

citers

combine

negative

with

positive

remarks

in

a

single

citation

their

real

attitude

is

negative

-LRB-

the

positive

remarks

are

there

simply

for

political

reasons

-RRB-

Teufel

-LRB-

-RRB-

gives

this

argument

a

rhetorical

twist

by

observing

that

in

her

examples

the

positive

expressions

always

precede

the

negative

suggesting

that

the

real

intention

was

to

criticize

But

this

does

not

devalue

the

positive

comments

entirely

the

logic

of

Creating

a

Research

Space

to

use

Swales

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

phrase

makes

it

hard

to

avoid

quali

ed

praise

of

the

Good

however

sort

I

take

an

example

from

Teufel

-LRB-

italics

hers

-RRB-

Hidden

Markov

Models

-LRB-

HMMs

-RRB-

-LRB-

Huang

et

al.

-RRB-

oer

a

powerful

statistical

approach

to

this

problem

though

it

is

unclear

how

they

could

be

used

to

recognise

the

units

of

interest

to

phonologists

While

one

might

call

this

judgement

mildly

negative

note

that

it

does

not

correct

an

erroneous

paper

by

Huang

et

al.

in

whole

or

in

part

which

are

Chubin

and

Moitra

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

criteria

for

calling

a

citation

negative

nor

does

it

re

ect

a

situation

in

which

the

citer

is

not

certain

about

the

correctness

of

the

citing

paper

which

is

the

criterion

in

Murugesan

and

Moravcsik

-LRB-

-RRB-

Cases

like

the

famous

overturn

of

Fleischmann

and

Pons

's

research

on

cold

fusion

do

not

typify

negative

citation

in

most

elds

most

of

the

time

As

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

suggested

echoing

Peritz

-LRB-

-RRB-

it

is

often

quite

hard

to

decide

whether

a

citation

is

negative

The

coding

of

negativity

in

some

studies

may

have

con

ated

real

attacks

and

refutations

with

mere

assertions

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

that

the

citee

's

work

has

not

solved

the

problem

the

citer

wants

to

address

Cronin

-LRB-

-RRB-

observed

moreover

that

a

citation

can

refer

to

the

citee

's

work

at

dierent

levels

of

granularity

-LRB-

to

an

entire

oeuvre

a

cross-textual

motif

a

document

a

passage

a

single

sentence

a

phrase

a

number

-RRB-

any

one

of

these

levels

can

be

criticized

and

existing

schemes

do

not

take

this

adequately

into

account

Small

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

results

reveal

that

perfunctory

citation

-LRB-

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

term

for

references

not

really

necessary

to

the

citing

paper

-RRB-

is

indeed

quite

common

ranging

from

to

percent

across

the

seven

studies

again

by

subjective

coding

Perfunctory

citation

so-called

should

not

be

dismissed

as

unimportant

however

it

ties

many

new

works

to

their

discourse

communities

and

universally

holds

literatures

together

-LRB-

cf.

the

account

of

orienting

reference

lists

in

Hargens

-RRB-

Its

opposite

-LRB-

in

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

-RRB-

is

organic

citation

meaning

that

the

new

work

can

be

fully

understood

only

in

terms

of

some

earlier

work

it

cites

The

organic

tie

is

unfortunately

close

to

another

of

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

categories

evolutionary

citation

meaning

that

the

citing

work

grows

out

of

the

cited

work

rather

than

being

an

alternative

to

it

examples

of

the

latter

they

call

juxtapositional

citations

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

apply

their

four

sets

of

opposite

categories

jointly

thus

a

single

citation

could

be

characterized

as

for

example

operational

organic

evolutionary

and

con

rmative

all

at

once

A

revisionist

follow-up

Chubin

and

Moitra

-LRB-

-RRB-

made

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

categories

mutually

exclusive

-LRB-

with

plainer

names

-RRB-

and

refashioned

them

into

a

kind

of

scale

In

a

move

deplored

as

confusing

by

Murugesan

and

Moravcsik

-LRB-

-RRB-

Chubin

and

Moitra

also

changed

the

meaning

of

perfunctory

from

dispensable

to

cited

without

additional

comment

probably

to

make

coding

easier

The

similar

simpli

cations

of

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

McCain

and

Turner

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

White

-LRB-

-RRB-

arise

from

the

conviction

that

when

large

numbers

of

citations

are

involved

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

original

categories

are

too

hard

to

work

with

No

citation

classi

cation

scheme

in

fact

is

likely

to

win

wide

acceptance

unless

assignments

to

it

can

be

automated

and

that

lets

out

most

of

the

schemes

to

date

Deciding

whether

a

citation

is

integral

in

the

ERP

tradition

looks

super

cially

like

one

of

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

or

Chubin

and

Moitra

's

judgement

tasks

but

in

fact

it

is

much

easier

to

do

because

the

criterion

is

explicitly

syntactical

The

integral

citation

is

syntactically

part

of

the

sentence

for

example

it

governs

the

verb

in

a

sentence

like

Nobody

-LRB-

-RRB-

urged

that

The

nonintegral

citation

is

a

parenthetical

expression

as

in

It

has

been

urged

-LRB-

Nobody

-RRB-

that

Further

re

nements

are

possible

again

based

on

syntactical

criteria

This

type

of

citation

categorization

received

its

impetus

from

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

continues

in

works

such

as

Hawes

and

Thomas

-LRB-

-RRB-

Hyland

-LRB-

-RRB-

Hemais

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Thompson

and

Tribble

-LRB-

-RRB-

It

can

be

applied

in

any

literature

because

analysts

need

only

grammatical

not

subject-matter

expertise

to

do

the

coding

In

contrast

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

Moravcsik

who

was

trained

as

a

physicist

needed

his

domain

knowledge

to

code

his

sample

of

citations

from

high-energy

physics

deciding

whether

a

citation

is

say

organic

requires

very

dierent

knowledge

from

deciding

whether

it

is

integral

in

the

ERP

sense

The

citation

classi

cation

schemes

in

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

their

later

counterparts

all

require

close

reading

domain

knowledge

and

expert

judgement

to

apply

-LRB-

cf.

McCain

and

Turner

-RRB-

Insofar

as

they

require

the

recovery

of

implicit

meaning

it

may

be

that

their

application

can

not

be

delegated

to

a

computer

even

in

principle

an

outcome

that

does

not

hold

for

schemes

that

require

only

syntactical

parsing

-LRB-

A

computer

could

parse

the

sentences

referring

to

the

MacRoberts

article

above

but

how

would

one

program

it

to

recognize

that

the

citation

is

say

juxtapositional

and

negative

-RRB-

I

thus

note

an

ironic

role

reversal

By

concentrating

on

matters

of

syntax

the

English

teachers

in

the

ERP

tradition

are

thinking

formally

like

programmers

while

the

information

scientists

who

ponder

shades

of

meaning

in

the

citation

classi

cation

tradition

are

thinking

hermeneutically

like

literary

critics

Of

course

the

payo

for

the

hermeneutic

thinking

is

correspondingly

greater

It

is

relatively

easy

to

teach

students

permissible

forms

of

syntax

for

citing

relatively

hard

to

get

them

to

feel

the

underlying

logic

in

their

bones

CONTENT

ANALYSES

OF

CITATION

CONTEXTS

There

is

a

more

promising

line

of

analysis

in

information

science

than

the

labour-intensive

classi

cation

of

implicit

citation

features

just

described

That

is

interpretation

of

explicit

words

in

citation

contexts

as

detected

by

computer

-LRB-

or

very

patient

human

beings

-RRB-

It

has

been

known

for

many

years

that

the

distinctive

format

of

references

like

Nobody

-LRB-

-RRB-

marks

contexts

for

recognition

For

example

O'Conner

-LRB-

-RRB-

proposed

that

noun

phrases

from

these

contexts

be

automatically

gathered

as

additional

subject

indexing

for

the

cited

work

The

size

of

the

recognition

window

may

range

from

a

few

words

on

either

side

of

the

reference

to

a

multi-sentence

passage

-LRB-

Hyland

shows

that

this

kind

of

detection

comes

easily

to

corpus-linguistic

concordancers

which

can

oer

a

good

rst

pass

by

being

asked

to

search

for

contexts

around

strings

such

as

-RRB-

The

window

can

even

be

extended

to

the

labelled

section

of

the

paper

in

which

the

citation

appears

for

example

the

Introduction

or

Methods

section

Quite

a

few

researchers

have

linked

cited

works

to

the

sections

in

which

they

are

cited

to

see

whether

the

citing

works

tend

to

use

them

in

a

consistent

way

-LRB-

Herlach

Finney

Peritz

Cano

McCain

and

Turner

Paul

-RRB-

Citation

content

analysis

works

particularly

well

with

highly

cited

works

so

that

many

citing

contexts

can

contribute

information

-LRB-

This

is

rather

like

analysing

collocations

across

concordance

lines

as

described

by

corpus

linguists

e.g.

Barnbrook

-RRB-

When

contexts

show

that

citers

have

used

a

work

to

stand

for

a

given

idea

more

or

less

uniformly

over

many

papers

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

says

that

the

work

has

attained

the

status

of

a

concept

symbol

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

it

communicates

a

speci

c

topic

and

resembles

a

subject

heading

or

descriptor

today

's

search

engine

users

might

equate

it

with

keywords

For

example

one

of

Small

's

sample

of

chemistry

papers

symbolized

atomic

scattering

factors

for

percent

of

the

documents

that

cited

it

The

paper

Scattering

factors

computed

from

relativistic

Dirac-Slater

wave

functions

published

by

D.

T.

Cromer

and

J.

T.

Waber

in

was

cited

in

one

of

the

citing

documents

thus

Atomic

scattering

factors

of

Cromer

and

Waber

-LSB-

-RSB-

were

used

-LRB-

Note

that

in

this

case

a

term

from

Cromer

and

Waber

's

title

scattering

factors

explicitly

recurs

in

the

sentence

in

which

their

work

is

cited

something

a

computer

can

be

programmed

to

detect

-RRB-

According

to

Small

-LRB-

-RRB-

The

rates

of

uniformity

for

highly

cited

documents

in

chemistry

were

in

the

range

of

percent

re

ecting

the

emergence

of

a

standard

view

or

interpretation

of

a

work

Similarly

Cozzens

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

that

a

famous

neuropharmacological

paper

came

over

time

to

stand

exclusively

for

its

main

knowledge

claim

the

discovery

of

the

opiate

receptor

-LRB-

the

process

was

complex

and

did

not

hold

for

a

comparison

paper

from

sociology

of

science

-RRB-

Hargens

-LRB-

-RRB-

provides

another

corroborating

example

citations

to

two

foundational

papers

in

economics

and

cognitive

psychology

gradually

became

highly

standardized

almost

as

if

authors

shared

boilerplate

for

citing

them

Similar

examples

can

be

added

from

almost

any

learned

literature

for

example

a

reference

nowadays

to

Bartlett

's

Remembering

almost

always

evokes

schema

theory

a

reference

to

Wittgenstein

's

Philosophical

Investigations

is

often

synonymous

with

his

account

of

categories

based

on

family

resemblances

as

illustrated

by

games

-LRB-

In

these

examples

it

would

be

terms

from

passages

in

Bartlett

or

Wittgenstein

not

from

their

titles

that

would

explicitly

recur

in

the

citing

works

-RRB-

Cozzens

-LRB-

-RRB-

shows

that

a

scienti

c

article

may

have

a

double

life

as

it

were

by

coming

to

symbolize

two

distinct

concepts

over

the

course

of

its

citation

history

Scienti

c

or

scholarly

concepts

occasionally

so

pervade

a

culture

that

their

sources

are

no

longer

even

cited

-LRB-

as

when

the

uncertainty

principle

is

discussed

without

reference

to

Heisenberg

or

paradigm

shift

without

reference

to

Kuhn

-RRB-

Citation

analysts

call

this

phenomenon

obliteration

by

incorporation

-LRB-

Gar

eld

Merton

-RRB-

how

OBI

occurs

is

a

complex

process

that

according

to

Cozzens

-LRB-

-RRB-

has

not

been

satisfactorily

studied

On

another

front

there

is

some

evidence

that

the

scienti

c

writings

with

the

highest

citation

counts

and

the

most

longevity

over

the

years

tend

to

convey

not

theory

or

empirical

results

but

methods

-LRB-

Gar

eld

Peritz

McCain

and

Turner

-RRB-

Methodological

works

also

tend

to

have

the

most

consistent

meanings

as

concept

symbols

-LRB-

Small

-RRB-

The

fact

that

cited

works

can

indicate

topicality

sometimes

very

strongly

has

obvious

implications

for

document

retrieval

the

major

concern

of

information

science

However

the

importance

of

Small

's

concept

symbol

idea

for

the

ERP

tradition

is

that

it

suggests

how

the

art

of

citing

might

be

taught

particularly

for

writers

of

scienti

c

or

technical

papers

Writers

who

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

cite

are

on

one

level

simply

indicating

how

their

papers

relate

to

precedent

papers

in

subject

matter

-LRB-

cf.

Gar

eld

-RRB-

This

might

be

made

clear

to

students

by

rst

presenting

examples

from

the

Methods

sections

of

scienti

c

papers

which

often

attribute

to

a

precedent

work

a

particular

technique

measurement

or

formula

used

by

the

citer

The

student

can

be

shown

that

such

references

are

a

straightforward

way

of

indexing

something

the

citer

knows

was

borrowed

to

make

the

new

work

possible

for

example

Atomic

scattering

factors

of

Cromer

and

Waber

-LSB-

-RSB-

were

used

When

textual

sources

are

quoted

or

paraphrased

at

length

as

is

very

common

in

the

humanities

the

imported

passages

themselves

trigger

citation

But

in

scienti

c

and

technical

articles

quotation

and

extended

paraphrase

are

rare

one

imports

only

ideas

techniques

and

bits

of

terminology

Nevertheless

these

bits

of

borrowed

theory

or

evidence

or

method

can

be

treated

as

explicitly

linguistic

in

nature

That

is

if

the

student

's

paper

is

decomposed

into

signi

cant

noun

phrases

-LRB-

manually

or

by

software

-RRB-

it

should

be

possible

to

equate

some

noun

phrases

with

speci

c

earlier

works

as

if

in

a

table

of

synonymy

for

example

Student

's

mention

of

scattering

factors

Atomic

scattering

factors

Cromer

and

Waber

Student

's

mention

of

schema

theory

Schema

theory

Bartlett

This

is

cohesion

in

Halliday

and

Hasan

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

last

sense

reiteration

of

vocabulary

across

contexts

except

that

here

the

reiteration

is

not

intratextual

but

intertextual

Essentially

the

equating

process

involves

intelligent

-LRB-

not

blindly

mechanical

-RRB-

term-matching

Direct

or

approximate

matches

should

be

possible

when

words

from

the

cited

work

are

compared

with

words

from

the

context

in

which

it

is

cited

The

conventionalized

reference

-LRB-

e.g.

to

Bartlett

with

fuller

bibliographic

information

in

the

footnote

or

endnote

-RRB-

may

then

be

seen

as

a

substitute

for

writing

out

the

matches

in

full

The

name

of

the

cited

work

becomes

a

kind

of

compact

synonym

for

the

matching

terms

Granted

this

account

does

not

capture

all

the

complexities

of

citation

For

example

eective

references

can

be

based

on

no

matching

terms

whatever

-LRB-

when

Halliday

and

Hasan

illustrate

types

of

cohesion

with

passages

from

literary

works

like

Alice

in

Wonderland

the

lines

do

not

match

Halliday

and

Hasan

's

metalinguistic

comments

on

them

-RRB-

But

such

references

tend

to

be

made

by

writers

who

already

know

their

craft

I

have

in

mind

rather

beginners

who

need

help

in

deciding

when

and

what

to

cite

-LRB-

cf.

the

accounts

in

Cronin

Gar

eld

Young

and

Leinhardt

-RRB-

For

them

the

exercise

of

matching

their

own

explicit

terms

with

those

of

precedent

works

could

make

the

logic

of

citation

easier

to

grasp

Professional

scientists

and

engineers

engage

in

something

like

this

exercise

automatically

when

they

cite

As

stated

above

they

also

tend

to

ascribe

consistent

meanings

to

writings

making

some

works

into

concept

symbols

The

implication

for

ERP

is

that

science

and

technology

move

by

stereotyping

works

rather

than

by

encouraging

diverse

interpretations

of

them

It

follows

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

that

a

good

way

to

teach

citation

in

science

and

technology

is

to

choose

documents

that

are

already

concept

symbols

and

to

show

with

concrete

termmatching

how

they

attained

that

status

Students

might

then

be

assigned

to

cite

such

documents

in

trial

papers

but

to

hold

to

their

concept

symbol

meanings

until

they

have

a

feeling

for

the

citation

practices

of

the

professionals

This

would

combine

with

their

reading

and

conference-going

under

the

supervision

of

disciplinary

mentors

to

instill

a

sense

of

what

and

what

not

to

reference

and

how

to

set

the

contexts

-LRB-

cf.

Dong

-RRB-

My

proposal

derives

from

the

shallow

understanding

of

texts

that

information

scientists

seek

toward

ends

such

as

summarization

or

retrieval

Scienti

c

papers

lend

themselves

well

to

surface

processing

by

computer

Explicit

features

of

their

structure

and

vocabulary

can

be

exploited

especially

when

they

occur

across

writings

My

own

Tables

and

were

possible

because

terms

from

many

cited

references

piled

up

for

easy

harvesting

Small

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

concept

symbols

emerge

because

terms

from

the

sentences

around

the

references

similarly

pile

up

Probably

the

only

hope

for

citation

classi

cation

in

the

sense

of

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

Chubin

and

Moitra

and

others

is

through

computer

recognition

of

recurrent

surface

features

For

example

I

said

earlier

that

it

might

be

impossible

for

computers

to

recognize

a

negative

juxtapositional

citation

because

of

the

implicitness

of

the

criteria

But

computers

can

recognize

a

citation

marked

like

MacRoberts

and

MacRoberts

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

they

can

be

programmed

to

associate

neighbouring

phrases

-LRB-

such

as

it

is

not

at

all

clear

how

and

without

giving

evidence

the

MacRobertses

claim

-RRB-

with

negative

citation

Obviously

processing

of

this

sort

will

involve

brute-force

recognition

and

correct

categorization

of

formulaic

phrases

on

an

industrial

scale

and

the

computer

will

make

many

mistakes

But

some

such

eort

at

automation

is

where

the

future

of

discourse-analytic

citation

analysis

lies

This

brings

us

to

the

work

of

Simone

Teufel

probably

the

fullest

and

most

sophisticated

integration

of

information

science

with

ERP

to

date

A

computer

scientist

by

training

she

and

her

colleagues

are

working

on

algorithmic

summarization

of

scienti

c

articles

In

the

process

they

combine

discourse

analysis

citation

analysis

information

retrieval

techniques

and

natural

language

processing

The

goal

is

to

extract

or

synthesize

a

coherent

prose

account

that

is

at

least

an

order

of

magnitude

shorter

than

the

original

Past

eorts

have

usually

presented

content-laden

extracts

stripped

of

context

Teufel

's

idea

is

to

restore

the

discourse

context

of

extracted

material

by

adding

the

rhetorical

status

to

each

sentence

in

a

document

-LRB-

Teufel

and

Moens

-RRB-

By

design

her

categories

are

related

to

the

CARS

model

described

in

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

that

is

to

moves

that

Create

a

Research

Space

such

as

goal-setting

or

producing

metadiscourse

on

the

structure

of

the

article

The

categories

also

encode

citation

relations

such

as

whether

precedent

work

is

being

referred

to

whether

it

is

the

citer

's

or

someone

else

's

and

echoing

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

categories

whether

the

present

work

is

based

on

the

precedent

work

or

a

contrast

to

it

While

her

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

research

is

at

a

very

early

stage

it

seems

to

hold

great

promise

Similar

work

is

going

on

in

Japan

-LRB-

e.g.

Nanba

and

Okumura

Nanba

et

al.

-RRB-

CITER

MOTIVATIONS

A

third

stream

of

research

complementing

the

two

presented

thus

far

examines

why

authors

make

references

-LRB-

Brooks

Bonzi

and

Snyder

Case

and

Higgins

-RRB-

According

to

White

-LRB-

-RRB-

the

global

reason

for

citing

is

the

perceived

relevance

of

a

document

to

a

work

in

hand

but

more

speci

c

motives

can

be

elicited

through

interviews

or

inferred

from

texts

A

number

of

writers

have

classi

ed

them

and

their

ndings

bear

on

ERP

for

example

they

can

help

students

decide

when

a

citation

is

called

for

Students

may

also

here

encounter

interesting

issues

of

intellectual

honesty

The

oldest

citation

classi

cation

scheme

Gar

eld

-LRB-

reprinted

in

Weinstock

and

Gar

eld

-RRB-

lists

citer

motivations

apparently

inferred

from

citation

contexts

as

verbal

phrases

To

give

the

avour

the

rst

nine

of

are

-LRB-

-RRB-

paying

homage

to

pioneers

-LRB-

-RRB-

giving

credit

for

related

work

-LRB-

-RRB-

identifying

methods

equipment

etc.

-LRB-

-RRB-

providing

background

reading

-LRB-

-RRB-

correcting

one

's

own

work

-LRB-

-RRB-

correcting

the

work

of

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

criticizing

previous

work

-LRB-

-RRB-

substantiating

claims

and

-LRB-

-RRB-

alerting

researchers

to

forthcoming

work

These

imply

psychological

agency

or

even

speech

acts

on

the

part

of

citers

in

contrast

to

the

adjectival

categories

of

schemes

that

capture

coders

judgements

-LRB-

e.g.

Moravcsik

and

Murugesan

's

organic/perfunctory

or

Chubin

and

Moitra

's

basic/subsidiary

-RRB-

rather

than

citers

intentions

Apparently

no

one

has

used

Gar

eld

's

categories

verbatim

to

gather

frequency

data

The

second

oldest

list

of

reasons

for

citing

Hodges

-LRB-

-RRB-

was

based

on

what

later

authors

such

as

Cronin

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Brooks

-LRB-

-RRB-

said

had

never

been

done

live

interviews

with

citers

Published

in

a

long

doctoral

dissertation

rather

than

a

journal

article

Hodges

's

scheme

was

overlooked

until

Peritz

-LRB-

-RRB-

brought

it

to

light

Its

categories

-LRB-

reproduced

in

Brooks

-RRB-

are

not

cast

as

verbal

phrases

re

ecting

citers

speech

acts

but

as

adjectives

re

ecting

Hodges

's

complicated

judgements

-LRB-

e.g.

Evidential

Corroborative

Sibling

Clari

cational

-RRB-

In

the

familiar

pattern

Peritz

found

the

Hodges

scheme

dicult

to

apply

directly

and

simpli

ed

it

for

use

on

citation

contexts

in

ve

social

science

journals

Peritz

's

most

frequent

category

by

far

was

Setting

the

Stage

which

occurred

overwhelmingly

in

the

Introduction

section

of

scienti

c

articles

as

Swales

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

account

of

rhetorical

moves

in

that

section

would

predict

The

most

elaborate

continuation

of

Hodges

's

style

of

research

in

which

citer

motives

are

learned

through

interviews

and

then

tted

into

a

complex

post-hoc

scheme

is

White

and

Wang

's

-LRB-

-RRB-

qualitative

study

of

agricultural

economists

-LRB-

continued

in

Wang

and

White

-RRB-

Respondents

were

asked

to

explain

why

they

cited

particular

documents

in

the

course

of

preparing

various

new

writings

of

their

own

White

and

Wang

's

work

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

commendably

links

earlier

motives

for

retrieving

and

reading

documents

with

later

motives

for

citing

-LRB-

or

not

citing

-RRB-

them

and

is

rich

in

direct

quotes

from

citers

about

their

decisions

White

and

Wang

devised

schemes

to

cover

citers

remarks

on

rst

the

contributions

that

cited

documents

made

to

their

new

writings

second

the

criteria

they

used

in

choosing

documents

to

cite

and

third

their

metalevel

documentation

concerns

-LRB-

e.g.

completeness

of

reference

lists

propriety

of

self-citation

and

anticipated

expectations

of

referees

-RRB-

The

contributions

of

the

rst

scheme

are

reasons

for

citing

that

emerge

from

contexts

in

the

new

document

such

as

providing

an

analogy

or

justifying

an

idea

whereas

the

criteria

of

the

second

are

characteristics

of

the

cited

document

such

as

its

topic

or

recency

Turning

again

to

the

big

picture

what

larger

intentions

drive

citers

As

Case

and

Higgins

-LRB-

-RRB-

point

out

one

of

the

main

threads

of

citer-motivation

research

since

the

has

been

tests

of

what

might

be

called

the

persuasion

hypothesis

That

is

when

authors

cite

are

they

mainly

rewarding

others

for

the

use

of

their

intellectual

property

or

are

they

marshalling

earlier

documents

in

such

a

way

as

to

persuade

readers

of

the

goodness

of

their

claims

In

Referencing

as

persuasion

Gilbert

-LRB-

-RRB-

argued

in

uentially

that

it

was

the

latter

-LRB-

his

note

has

been

cited

in

more

than

articles

and

continues

to

be

cited

to

this

day

-RRB-

The

contrasting

reward

hypothesis

is

associated

with

the

norms-based

sociology

of

science

of

Robert

K.

Merton

Citation

analysis

has

always

had

its

Mertonian

wing

which

includes

Gar

eld

ISI

's

founder

the

rst

two

motives

in

the

Gar

eld

Weinstock

list

above

capture

aspects

of

reward

but

-LRB-

including

those

not

shown

-RRB-

has

much

to

do

with

persuasion

Gilbert

's

counterargument

can

be

seen

as

part

of

the

discourse-analytic

turn

that

the

sociology

of

science

has

taken

since

the

partly

in

reaction

to

Merton

's

relative

neglect

of

texts

as

constructors

of

knowledge

On

one

level

Gilbert

has

won

no

one

seriously

doubts

that

writers

write

to

persuade

and

that

that

intention

shapes

their

choices

of

what

to

cite

There

is

even

survey

evidence

to

that

eect

Using

a

list

of

motives

proposed

in

earlier

studies

as

a

questionnaire

Brooks

-LRB-

-RRB-

asked

a

small

multidisciplinary

sample

of

academics

why

they

cited

Persuasion

topped

the

responses

But

persuasion

to

the

exclusion

of

reward

which

Gilbert

implies

has

been

called

into

question

Brooks

-LRB-

-RRB-

established

what

he

called

complex

citer

motives

by

noting

among

other

things

that

desire

to

persuade

and

desire

to

give

positive

credit

were

positively

correlated

as

variables

Cozzens

-LRB-

-RRB-

sensibly

argued

that

citers

cite

both

as

a

reward

to

others

for

their

intellectual

contributions

and

as

a

tool

of

persuasion

of

the

two

she

thought

persuasion

the

more

important

because

of

its

greater

conduciveness

to

a

successful

career

Her

model

is

rhetoric

rst

reward

second

which

agrees

well

enough

with

Brooks

Several

later

studies

have

also

cast

doubt

on

Gilbert

's

account

of

how

persuasion

works

He

implies

that

citers

invoke

authoritative

earlier

works

to

make

their

own

new

work

more

convincing

whether

or

not

the

older

works

are

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

really

relevant

Indeed

he

writes

respected

papers

may

be

cited

in

order

to

shine

in

their

re

ected

glory

even

if

they

do

not

seem

closely

related

to

the

substantive

content

of

the

report

-LRB-

Gilbert

-RRB-

He

thus

replaces

the

researcher

's

scienti

c

motive

establishing

the

truth

with

a

social

motive

citing

to

attach

to

a

tradition

respected

for

truthfulness

hinting

dryly

that

it

may

be

the

goodness

of

the

attachment

rather

than

of

the

science

that

persuades

This

is

a

social

constructivist

position

Covering

the

same

ground

the

more

amboyant

Latour

-LRB-

-RRB-

treats

references

as

resources

for

persuasion

rather

like

battalions

But

he

warns

that

their

force

may

vanish

if

readers

actually

read

what

authors

cite

First

many

references

may

be

misquoted

or

wrong

second

many

of

the

articles

alluded

to

might

have

no

bearing

whatsovever

on

the

claim

and

might

be

there

just

for

display

-LSB-

italics

mine

-RSB-

third

other

citations

might

be

present

but

only

because

they

are

always

present

in

the

author

's

articles

whatever

his

claim

to

mark

aliation

and

show

with

which

group

of

scientists

he

identi

es

these

citations

are

called

perfunctory

-LRB-

Latour

-RRB-

Neither

Gilbert

nor

Latour

I

think

actually

believes

that

re

ectedglory

references

persuade

if

their

true

nature

is

discovered

-LRB-

Latour

calls

this

result

disastrous

for

the

author

-RRB-

But

they

apparently

believe

that

citers

often

try

to

manipulate

readers

in

this

way

Scientists

and

scholars

are

thus

portrayed

less

as

truth-seekers

than

as

image-managers

Such

a

portrayal

is

controversial

to

say

the

least

The

issue

boils

down

to

the

question

What

persuades

Is

it

the

quality

of

the

arguments

of

which

the

citations

are

part

or

is

it

the

reputation

of

the

citees

This

is

an

important

question

for

rhetoricians

and

discourse

analysts

in

the

ERP

tradition

because

if

reputations

are

the

decisive

factor

then

science

and

scholarship

can

to

some

extent

be

faked

by

writers

skilled

at

dropping

authoritative

names

That

such

fakery

occurs

seems

to

be

fairly

widely

accepted

For

example

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

drew

my

attention

to

graduate

students

papers

with

a

lot

of

big

names

in

theory

up

front

the

connection

of

which

to

the

small-scale

empirical

study

being

reported

is

at

best

obscure

Becker

-LRB-

-RRB-

told

me

that

young

sociologists

feel

they

must

pad

their

references

with

irrelevant

authorities

to

get

journal

editors

to

accept

their

papers

Must

students

learn

to

drop

names

as

the

main

lesson

in

writing

persuasively

Probably

not

There

is

after

all

little

hard

evidence

that

numerous

researchers

seek

re

ected

glory

from

references

that

are

included

just

for

display

-LRB-

Gilbert

and

Latour

themselves

give

no

examples

-RRB-

Moreover

the

evidence

from

statistical

studies

indicates

otherwise

In

a

closely

reasoned

discussion

of

the

persuasion

hypothesis

Zuckerman

-LRB-

-RRB-

maintains

that

if

citers

seek

to

increase

the

persuasiveness

of

their

own

works

merely

by

referencing

respected

or

authoritative

papers

whenever

possible

then

a

large

fraction

of

citations

overall

should

go

to

papers

that

are

already

wellcited

But

that

she

notes

does

not

happen

Statistics

for

the

Science

Citation

Index

show

that

papers

cited

at

least

times

a

year

over

a

ve-year

period

received

only

half

of

per

cent

of

all

the

citations

given

in

that

period

Even

if

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

the

threshold

for

calling

papers

authoritative

is

dropped

to

two

citations

per

year

over

ve

years

such

papers

received

only

per

cent

of

all

citations

Zuckerman

comments

If

citation

by

authority

signi

cantly

guided

citation

practice

then

a

much

higher

proportion

of

all

citations

would

go

to

these

authoritative

papers

Instead

almost

two-thirds

of

all

citations

went

to

papers

cited

only

once

in

ve

years

This

result

may

seem

inconsistent

with

the

famous

Matthew

eect

named

by

Merton

himself

which

predicts

that

authors

who

are

already

well-cited

will

get

a

disproportionate

share

of

additional

citations

-LRB-

Merton

-RRB-

But

Zuckerman

is

not

denying

the

Matthew

eect

she

is

simply

noting

that

citations

to

ordinary

authors

far

outnumber

citations

to

the

stars

and

superstars

When

the

total

picture

is

taken

into

account

citers

do

not

appear

to

be

seeking

re

ected

glory

to

persuade

Of

course

they

might

not

admit

it

even

if

they

were

-LRB-

cf.

Baldi

-RRB-

As

an

alternative

to

extracting

confessions

researchers

can

gather

data

on

citers

in

particular

elds

and

ask

whether

they

tend

to

overcite

authors

whose

citation

counts

are

already

high

This

has

been

done

in

three

bibliometric

studies

all

of

which

undermine

the

re

ected-glory

argument

The

most

recent

is

Van

Dalen

and

Henkens

-LRB-

-RRB-

I

quote

from

their

summary

of

the

contending

viewpoints

-LRB-

pp.

-RRB-

one

universalistic

or

Mertonian

the

other

constructivist

If

citations

are

indeed

only

based

on

scienti

c

merit

and

not

correlated

with

extra-scienti

c

attributes

there

are

no

grounds

to

question

the

reward

structure

of

science

If

however

extra-scienti

c

attributes

play

a

signi

cant

role

in

the

allocation

of

citations

the

universalistic

norm

may

not

be

an

accurate

re

ection

of

how

science

evolves

Social

constructivists

like

Latour

-LRB-

-RRB-

Lindsay

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Gilbert

-LRB-

-RRB-

believe

that

the

universalist

norm

is

being

systematically

violated

Stewart

-LRB-

-RRB-

has

examined

the

number

of

citations

received

by

a

selection

of

articles

in

geophysical

research

published

in

selected

journals

in

He

concluded

that

although

universalism

was

the

most

important

underlying

principle

in

the

allocation

of

recognition

there

was

some

evidence

of

reputation

eects

The

additional

eect

on

citation

frequency

was

however

relatively

small

In

his

study

on

the

astrophysics

research

area

Baldi

-LRB-

-RRB-

included

not

only

the

characteristics

of

cited

articles

but

also

the

characteristics

of

the

citing

articles

He

discovered

that

authors

are

most

likely

to

cite

articles

that

are

relevant

to

their

work

in

terms

of

subject

recency

of

knowledge

theoretical

orientation

and

seem

to

have

little

concern

with

the

characteristics

of

authors

who

wrote

them

-LRB-

Baldi

p.

-RRB-

Van

Dalen

and

Henkens

-LRB-

-RRB-

In

their

own

multivariate

analysis

of

what

causes

demography

articles

to

be

highly

cited

Van

Dalen

and

Henkens

-LRB-

-RRB-

obtained

results

similar

to

Stewart

's

The

table

shows

that

journal

characteristics

are

the

most

important

factors

in

my

model

Although

article

and

author

characteristics

provide

some

HOWARD

D.

WHITE

additional

explanatory

power

I

should

add

that

the

contribution

of

author

characteristics

is

rather

small

The

data

used

in

Stewart

-LRB-

-RRB-

Baldi

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Van

Dalen

and

Henkens

-LRB-

-RRB-

were

gathered

unobtrusively

from

publications

not

from

interviews

with

citers

But

four

recent

interview-based

studies

Shadish

et

al.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Vinkler

-LRB-

-RRB-

Wang

and

White

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Case

and

Higgins

-LRB-

-RRB-

all

tend

to

support

the

publication-based

ndings

The

vast

majority

of

citer

decisions

are

motivated

by

what

Vinkler

-LRB-

-RRB-

calls

professional

-LRB-

as

opposed

to

connectional

-RRB-

concerns

broadly

the

perceived

relevance

and

quality

of

precedent

work

its

scienti

c

merit

rather

than

the

reputations

or

personal

connections

of

the

citees

Those

who

believe

that

successful

citing

is

really

a

matter

of

lining

up

the

right

names

have

produced

no

comparable

body

of

evidence

Let

me

be

precise

there

is

no

question

that

writers

cite

prestigious

authors

and

respected

works

when

trying

to

write

persuasively

The

eects

of

author

prestige

reported

in

the

publications-based

research

although

small

are

probably

quite

real

The

question

is

rather

whether

use

of

such

authors

is

warranted

or

unwarranted

Warranted

use

involves

citing

something

because

by

logic

that

quali

ed

readers

can

follow

it

helps

to

develop

a

new

case

-LRB-

This

would

include

the

type

of

citing

called

ceremonial

in

Cole

and

totemic

in

Hargens

that

uses

authorities

simply

as

orienting

gures

-RRB-

Unwarranted

use

involves

dragging

in

prestigious

works

even

if

they

do

not

seem

closely

related

to

the

substantive

content

of

the

report

as

Gilbert

puts

it

Widespread

unwarranted

use

is

what

constructivists

have

not

shown

If

such

use

were

indeed

widespread

author

eects

in

publication-based

studies

would

be

stronger

than

they

are

and

interview

studies

would

likely

turn

up

a

few

whistle-blowers

who

want

to

give

the

game

away

The

phenomenon

would

also

presumably

be

detectable

in

the

writings

of

the

constructivists

themselves

-LRB-

e.g.

Gilbert

and

Mulkay

Latour

Myers

-RRB-

Yet

I

nd

no

evidence

of

empty

name-dropping

on

their

part

in

my

reading

they

play

the

citation

game

straight

According

to

the

statistical

studies

mentioned

above

that

is

what

other

scholars

and

scientists

also

do

most

of

the

time

The

lesson

for

teachers

of

ERP

is

that

citing

can

be

taught

uncynically

what

persuades

are

the

statements

to

which

citations

contribute

not

the

re

ected

glory

of

cited

names

How

else

I

might

add

can

one

account

for

cases

in

which

the

same

authority

is

adduced

in

the

context

of

opposing

arguments

While

Luukkonen

-LRB-

-RRB-

cites

Latour

's

Science

in

Action

admiringly

Baldi

-LRB-

-RRB-

cites

the

same

book

critically

One

could

hardly

claim

that

both

papers

are

equally

convincing

because

they

both

draw

lustre

from

the

same

famous

work

CONCLUSION

Like

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

the

present

article

is

a

call

for

greater

integration

of

the

various

research

specialties

that

contribute

to

citation

analysis

Studies

that

CITATION

ANALYSIS

AND

DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

REVISITED

cite

representatives

of

the

dierent

specialties

in

an

ad

hoc

way

will

very

likely

continue

to

appear

But

to

increase

the

theoretical

scope

of

the

whole

eld

individual

studies

must

be

put

into

a

larger

framework

This

requires

regarding

citation

as

a

complex

communicative

process

with

syntactic

semantic

and

pragmatic

variables

The

variables

may

be

studied

both

within

documents

and

across

documents

whether

the

latter

are

left

disaggregated

in

given

subject

areas

or

are

aggregated

by

author

organization

or

journal

If

rhetorical

analyses

of

citation

practices

within

documents

were

used

to

explain

ndings

in

cross-textual

-LRB-

i.e.

bibliometric

-RRB-

citation

studies

that

might

give

the

still-dishevelled

theory

of

citing

a

whole

new

look

For

example

so

far

as

I

know

no

one

has

seriously

examined

citation

in

light

of

speech

act

theory

and

that

might

be

a

new

area

of

convergence

for

discourse

analysts

to

develop

with

verb-oriented

works

like

Myers

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Hawes

and

Thomas

-LRB-

-RRB-

as

forerunners

No

one

has

yet

worked

out

in

detail

how

the

contending

accounts

of

citation

might

best

serve

teachers

of

ERP

and

that

seems

another

area

ripe

for

development

Writings

to

consider

in

creating

the

larger

framework

appear

in

Tables

and

which

as

noted

above

resemble

the

bibliography

for

a

review-synthesis

of

citation

analysis

along

interdisciplinary

lines

The

tables

implicitly

show

that

such

a

synthesis

is

warranted

It

is

not

as

if

the

literatures

from

the

dierent

traditions

were

wholly

separate

and

could

only

be

joined

through

massive

creative

reading

many

researchers

have

already

perceived

connections

What

is

missing

is

a

new

study

that

would

unite

the

ndings

and

the

arguments

of

the

various

writings

under

discourse-analytic

headings

The

speci

c

goal

would

be

to

explain

as

much

of

citation

as

possible

by

integrating

rhetorical

analysis

with

the

psychological

sociological

and

bibliometric

treatments

seen

to

date

The

present

article

combines

with

Swales

-LRB-

-RRB-

to

raise

consciousness

toward

that

end

Final

version

received

June

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I

wish

to

thank

John

Swales

for

suggesting

this

piece

and

for

much

help

in

revising

it

He

also

increased

my

knowledge

of

writings

from

his

own

tradition

Three

referees

provided

useful

comments

as

well

The

views

expressed

are

of

course

my

own

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