xml: <clinical_study>
    <!-- This xml conforms to an XML Schema at:
      https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/html/images/info/public.xsd -->
    <required_header>
      <download_date>ClinicalTrials.gov processed this data on September 20, 2023</download_date>
      <link_text>Link to the current ClinicalTrials.gov record.</link_text>
      <url>https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT06038656</url>
    </required_header>
    <id_info>
      <org_study_id>F_ExerGOS</org_study_id>
      <nct_id>NCT06038656</nct_id>
    </id_info>
    <brief_title>Effects of Exercise and Galactooligosaccharide Supplementation on Inflammation and Iron Absorption (FexerGOS)</brief_title>
    <acronym>FexerGOS</acronym>
    <official_title>Effects of Exercise and Acute and Chronic Galactooligosaccharide Supplementation on Inflammation and Iron Absorption in Female Athletes</official_title>
    <sponsors>
      <lead_sponsor>
        <agency>North-West University, South Africa</agency>
        <agency_class>Other</agency_class>
      </lead_sponsor>
      <collaborator>
        <agency>Swiss Federal Institute of Technology</agency>
        <agency_class>Other</agency_class>
      </collaborator>
      <collaborator>
        <agency>King's College London</agency>
        <agency_class>Other</agency_class>
      </collaborator>
    </sponsors>
    <source>North-West University, South Africa</source>
    <oversight_info>
      <has_dmc>Yes</has_dmc>
      <is_fda_regulated_drug>No</is_fda_regulated_drug>
      <is_fda_regulated_device>No</is_fda_regulated_device>
    </oversight_info>
    <brief_summary>
      <textblock>
        Iron depletion is common in female athletes depending on the sports discipline. Endurance and&#xD;
        resistance exercise can induce inflammation thereby reducing dietary iron absorption.&#xD;
        Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) improved iron absorption in young healthy women and infants,&#xD;
        and improved gut inflammation in iron-supplemented infants. A stable isotope study will be&#xD;
        performed to investigate the effect exercise and acute and chronic GOS supplementation on&#xD;
        inflammation and iron absorption in female athletes.&#xD;
      </textblock>
    </brief_summary>
    <detailed_description>
      <textblock>
        Iron depletion is common in athletes, particularly in females, reaching prevalence rates up&#xD;
        to 70% depending on the sports discipline. As iron is essential for energy production and&#xD;
        oxygen transport, a deficiency can impair performance, especially in endurance athletes. Iron&#xD;
        deficiency in athletes may be caused by inadequate intake, but reduced iron absorption and&#xD;
        increased losses also seem to play a role. Both endurance and resistance exercise at a high&#xD;
        intensity, can induce inflammation resulting in a hepcidin response via interleukin-6 (IL-6)&#xD;
        regulation. Hepcidin is the master regulator of systemic iron homeostasis, and a recent study&#xD;
        in adult males showed that vigorous exercise decreases dietary iron absorption associated&#xD;
        with increases in IL-6 and hepcidin. Iron losses induced by exercise have been attributed to&#xD;
        several factors, including gastrointestinal bleeding associated with endothelial damage,&#xD;
        haematuria, haemolysis, and increased sweating. Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) have been&#xD;
        shown to acutely enhance iron absorption in young, healthy women. In Kenyan infants with a&#xD;
        high infectious disease burden, chronic GOS administration improved iron absorption and&#xD;
        mitigated the negative effects of iron supplementation on gut inflammation, likely mediated&#xD;
        by its bifidogenic effect. Whether GOS has the potential of improving iron absorption has not&#xD;
        been studied in athletes.&#xD;
  &#xD;
        The study aims are to determine 1) the effects of a bout of resistance exercise at 70% 1&#xD;
        repetition maximum (RM) on inflammation, hepcidin and iron absorption in high performance&#xD;
        female team athletes; and 2) the effect of acute and chronic GOS supplementation on iron&#xD;
        absorption in response to the exercise bout.&#xD;
  &#xD;
        The trial will entail two series of three iron absorption conditions separated by six weeks&#xD;
        of GOS supplementation (10 g/day). The study participants will be 22 female university&#xD;
        athletes recruited from the hockey, soccer and netball teams of North-West University,&#xD;
        Potchefstroom, South Africa. At baseline, the first series of three iron absorption studies&#xD;
        will be conducted, all measuring iron absorption from a supplement administered with labelled&#xD;
        ferrous fumarate in the following conditions: 1) after a period of rest; 2) three hours after&#xD;
        an acute resistance exercise bout; and 3) three hours after an acute resistance exercise&#xD;
        bout, co-administered with GOS. Following this, participants will consume GOS daily for six&#xD;
        weeks, followed by an identical series of iron absorption studies. Markers of systemic and&#xD;
        gut inflammation, hepcidin, microflora composition and iron status indicators before and&#xD;
        after the GOS intervention will be determined. In addition, erythrocyte iron incorporation&#xD;
        will be determined after both series of isotope studies. Furthermore, the kinetics of isotope&#xD;
        appearance, inflammatory markers, and hepcidin for 24 hours during each of the six iron&#xD;
        absorption studies will be investigated.&#xD;
  &#xD;
        The primary hypotheses are that fractional iron absorption from a supplemental dose of&#xD;
        ferrous fumarate will be: 1) lower three hours post exercise than post resting period; 2)&#xD;
        higher with co-administration of GOS than without, both before and after six-week GOS&#xD;
        intervention; and 3) higher after six-week intervention with GOS compared to baseline.&#xD;
  &#xD;
        The secondary hypotheses are: 1) acute exercise bout will result in increased inflammatory&#xD;
        and hepcidin response before and after intervention with GOS but the intervention may mediate&#xD;
        these two responses; 2) chronic GOS intervention will increase relative abundance of&#xD;
        Bifidobacterium spp, reduce gut inflammation and improve gut integrity and gut health; 3)&#xD;
        chronic GOS intervention will improve iron status.&#xD;
      </textblock>
    </detailed_description>
    <overall_status>Not yet recruiting</overall_status>
    <start_date type="Anticipated">September 8, 2023</start_date>
    <completion_date type="Anticipated">April 30, 2024</completion_date>
    <primary_completion_date type="Anticipated">April 30, 2024</primary_completion_date>
    <phase>N/A</phase>
    <study_type>Interventional</study_type>
    <has_expanded_access>No</has_expanded_access>
    <study_design_info>
      <allocation>N/A</allocation>
      <intervention_model>Single Group Assignment</intervention_model>
      <primary_purpose>Prevention</primary_purpose>
      <masking>None (Open Label)</masking>
    </study_design_info>
    <primary_outcome>
      <measure>a. Fractional iron absorption (%)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Fractional iron absorption will be measured at rest and after an exercise bout.</description>
    </primary_outcome>
    <primary_outcome>
      <measure>b. Fractional iron absorption (%)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Fractional iron absorption will be measured after an exercise bout with and without co-administration of GOS.</description>
    </primary_outcome>
    <primary_outcome>
      <measure>c. Fractional iron absorption (%)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1 and 2, and 57 and 58.</time_frame>
      <description>Fractional iron absorption will be measured at rest and after an exercise bout before and after a 6-week intervention with GOS.</description>
    </primary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Interleukin 6 (pg/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>Interleukin 6 (IL-6) will be measured over 24 hours after exercise as a marker of exercise-induced inflammation.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>C-reactive protein (mg/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>C-reactive protein (CRP) will be measured in plasma to detect the presence of acute inflammation.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (g/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of chronic inflammation.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Hepcidin (ng/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>Hepcidin, a major regulator of iron absorption and influenced by exercise-induced inflammation, will be measured in plasma over 24 hours.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Lipid mediators (pg/µL )</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>The following lipid mediators will be measured over 24 hours in plasma in response to exercise-induced inflammation:17-hydroxydocosahexaenoicacid (17-HDHA); 5-, 8-, 9-, 11-, 12-, 15 and 18- hydroxyeicosapentaenoicacid (HEPE); 5-, 8-, 11-, 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoicacid (HETE); prostaglandin (PG) E2 and D2, and resolvin (Rv) D1 and E1).</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Erythropoietin (mIU/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 9, 57, 58 and 65.</time_frame>
      <description>Plasma erythropoietin, a marker of erythropoiesis, will be measured before and after period of rest and exercise.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Serum iron isotope (%)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.</time_frame>
      <description>Kinetics of serum iron isotope appearance during a period of rest and post-exercise, before and after intervention with GOS, and with and without co-administration of GOS.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Gut microbial composition</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Gut microbiota profile will be assessed at baseline and endpoint.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Faecal short chain fatty acids (µmol/g)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Concentration of short chain fatty acids - acetate, propionate, isobutyrate, butyrate, formate, isovalerate will be measured in faecal samples before and after the 6-week intervention with GOS.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Faecal pH</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Faecal pH will be measured at baseline and endpoint to determine a response to the GOS intervention.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Faecal calprotectin (µg/g)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Faecal calprotectin will be measured at baseline and endpoint as a marker of gut inflammation.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Faecal zonulin (ng/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Days 23 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Faecal zonulin will be measured at baseline and endpoint as a marker of the integrity of the intestinal mucosal barrier.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (pg/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, Days 2, 23, 57, 58 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP), a marker of intestinal damage, will be measured in plasma at baseline and endpoint.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Haemoglobin (g/dL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 23, 57 and 79.</time_frame>
      <description>Haemoglobin will be measured in whole blood to determine presence of anaemia and for calculation of fractional iron absorption.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Ferritin (µg/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Ferritin will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of iron deficiency.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Soluble transferrin receptor (mg/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of iron deficiency.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Retinol-binding protein 4 (µmol/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) will be measured in plasma as a marker of vitamin A status.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Thyroglobulin (µg/L)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Thyroglobulin will be measured in plasma as a marker of iodine status.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Fibroblast growth factor 21 (pg/mL)</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) will be measured in plasma as a marker of environmental enteric dysfunction (EED).</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Insulin-like growth factor 1</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) will be measured in plasma as on of the markers of environmental enteric dysfunction.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Dietary intake</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening, days 1 and 57.</time_frame>
      <description>Dietary intake will be captured using a quantified food frequency questionnaire.</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <secondary_outcome>
      <measure>Method comparison in the measurement of micronutrient and environment enteric dysfunction markers</measure>
      <time_frame>Screening</time_frame>
      <description>Two methods: Quansys EED ELISA and the VitMin lab s-ELISA will be used and compared in the measurement of: RBP4 (µmol/L), Ferritin (µg/L), sTfR (mg/L), CRP (mg/L), AGP (g/L), I-FABP (pg/mL) and Thyroglobulin (µg/L).</description>
    </secondary_outcome>
    <number_of_arms>1</number_of_arms>
    <enrollment type="Anticipated">22</enrollment>
    <condition>Resistance Exercise</condition>
    <arm_group>
      <arm_group_label>Experimental</arm_group_label>
      <arm_group_type>Experimental</arm_group_type>
      <description>Participants will receive 10 g of GOS daily for 6 weeks. Fractional iron absorption will be determined pre- and post the 6-week intervention from 3 conditions: 1) after a period of rest; 2) three hours after an acute resistance exercise bout without GOS and 3) three hours after an acute resistance exercise bout, co-administered with 10 g GOS.</description>
    </arm_group>
    <intervention>
      <intervention_type>Dietary Supplement</intervention_type>
      <intervention_name>Galactooligosaccharides (GOS)</intervention_name>
      <description>10 g of GOS provided as 14 g of powder will be consumed after mixing it in water or yoghurt.&#xD;
  The absorption study test drinks administered during the 3 test conditions will be comprised as follows:&#xD;
  Post rest period - 50 mg of iron as ferrous fumarate (Fefum) supplement, 6 mg 54Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with sucrose and lactose.&#xD;
  Post exercise bout - 50 mg of iron as Fefum, 6 mg 58Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with sucrose and lactose.&#xD;
  Post exercise bout co-administered with GOS - 50 mg of iron as Fefum, 6 mg 57Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with 10 g GOS.</description>
      <arm_group_label>Experimental</arm_group_label>
    </intervention>
    <eligibility>
      <criteria>
        <textblock>
          Inclusion Criteria:&#xD;
  &#xD;
            1. High performance female team sport athlete.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            2. Train at least 3 days or 6 hours per week in a team sport.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            3. Having low to moderate iron stores.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            4. Estimated maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) of ≥40 ml/kg/min.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            5. Willingness to consume the study supplement GOS during the intervention period.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            6. Willingness not to consume nutritional supplements containing iron, vitamin C and/or&#xD;
               pre- or probiotics (excluding food and beverages containing live cultures such as&#xD;
               yoghurt, raw milk and cheese) two weeks prior to, as well as during the study.&#xD;
  &#xD;
          Exclusion Criteria:&#xD;
  &#xD;
            1. Haemoglobin &lt;11 g/dl.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            2. Treated or self-reported chronic disease, malabsorptive or gastrointestinal disorders&#xD;
               (e.g. irritable bowel syndrome, functional bloating).&#xD;
  &#xD;
            3. Treatment with oral antibiotics in the four weeks prior to screening visit.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            4. Pregnancy or lactation.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            5. Subjects who cannot be expected to comply with the study protocol.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            6. Difficulty drawing blood due to poor quality veins.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            7. Individuals that have a fear of needles or suffer from vaso-vagal episodes when&#xD;
               exposed to blood.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            8. Participants who plan to start or stop the use of contraceptives before or during&#xD;
               study period.&#xD;
  &#xD;
            9. Participants who are lactose intolerant.&#xD;
  &#xD;
           10. Participants who donated blood in the past 4 months or plan to donate during the study&#xD;
               period.&#xD;
  &#xD;
           11. Participants who use chronic anti-inflammatory medication such as corticosteroids or&#xD;
               non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication (NSAIDS).&#xD;
  &#xD;
           12. Current consumption of iron, or pre- or probiotic supplements other than the&#xD;
               supplements provided (Participants will be asked to discontinue use two weeks prior to&#xD;
               screening).&#xD;
        </textblock>
      </criteria>
      <gender>Female</gender>
      <minimum_age>18 Years</minimum_age>
      <maximum_age>30 Years</maximum_age>
      <healthy_volunteers>Accepts Healthy Volunteers</healthy_volunteers>
    </eligibility>
    <overall_official>
      <last_name>Isabelle Herter-Aeberli</last_name>
      <role>Principal Investigator</role>
      <affiliation>ETH Zurich</affiliation>
    </overall_official>
    <overall_official>
      <last_name>Jesslee du Plessis</last_name>
      <role>Principal Investigator</role>
      <affiliation>North-West University</affiliation>
    </overall_official>
    <overall_contact>
      <last_name>Linda Malan</last_name>
      <phone>+27182994237</phone>
      <email>Linda.Malan@nwu.ac.za</email>
    </overall_contact>
    <overall_contact_backup>
      <last_name>Mary Uyoga</last_name>
      <email>44645104@mynwu.ac.za</email>
    </overall_contact_backup>
    <location>
      <facility>
        <name>Este Vorster Research Facility</name>
        <address>
          <city>Potchefstroom</city>
          <state>North West</state>
          <zip>2531</zip>
          <country>South Africa</country>
        </address>
      </facility>
      <contact>
        <last_name>Alida Anthony, B.Soc Sc</last_name>
        <phone>+27 18 299 2480</phone>
        <email>Alida.Anthony@nwu.ac.za</email>
      </contact>
    </location>
    <location_countries>
      <country>South Africa</country>
    </location_countries>
    <verification_date>September 2023</verification_date>
    <study_first_submitted>August 31, 2023</study_first_submitted>
    <study_first_submitted_qc>September 8, 2023</study_first_submitted_qc>
    <study_first_posted type="Actual">September 15, 2023</study_first_posted>
    <last_update_submitted>September 8, 2023</last_update_submitted>
    <last_update_submitted_qc>September 8, 2023</last_update_submitted_qc>
    <last_update_posted type="Actual">September 15, 2023</last_update_posted>
    <responsible_party>
      <responsible_party_type>Principal Investigator</responsible_party_type>
      <investigator_affiliation>North-West University, South Africa</investigator_affiliation>
      <investigator_full_name>Linda Malan</investigator_full_name>
      <investigator_title>Associate Professor</investigator_title>
    </responsible_party>
    <keyword>Galacto-oligosaccharides</keyword>
    <keyword>female athletes</keyword>
    <keyword>iron absorption</keyword>
    <keyword>inflammation</keyword>
    <condition_browse>
      <!-- CAUTION:  The following MeSH terms are assigned with an imperfect algorithm            -->
      <mesh_term>Inflammation</mesh_term>
    </condition_browse>
    <!-- Results have not yet been posted for this study                                          -->
  </clinical_study>
  
  
text: download date: ClinicalTrials.gov processed this data on September 20, 2023
  link text: Link to the current ClinicalTrials.gov record.
  url: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT06038656
  org study id: F_ExerGOS
  nct id: NCT06038656
  lead sponsor: 
  collaborator: 
  collaborator: 
  has dmc: Yes
  is fda regulated drug: No
  is fda regulated device: No
  Iron depletion is common in female athletes depending on the sports discipline. Endurance and
        resistance exercise can induce inflammation thereby reducing dietary iron absorption.
        Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) improved iron absorption in young healthy women and infants,
        and improved gut inflammation in iron-supplemented infants. A stable isotope study will be
        performed to investigate the effect exercise and acute and chronic GOS supplementation on
        inflammation and iron absorption in female athletes.
  Iron depletion is common in athletes, particularly in females, reaching prevalence rates up
        to 70% depending on the sports discipline. As iron is essential for energy production and
        oxygen transport, a deficiency can impair performance, especially in endurance athletes. Iron
        deficiency in athletes may be caused by inadequate intake, but reduced iron absorption and
        increased losses also seem to play a role. Both endurance and resistance exercise at a high
        intensity, can induce inflammation resulting in a hepcidin response via interleukin-6 (IL-6)
        regulation. Hepcidin is the master regulator of systemic iron homeostasis, and a recent study
        in adult males showed that vigorous exercise decreases dietary iron absorption associated
        with increases in IL-6 and hepcidin. Iron losses induced by exercise have been attributed to
        several factors, including gastrointestinal bleeding associated with endothelial damage,
        haematuria, haemolysis, and increased sweating. Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) have been
        shown to acutely enhance iron absorption in young, healthy women. In Kenyan infants with a
        high infectious disease burden, chronic GOS administration improved iron absorption and
        mitigated the negative effects of iron supplementation on gut inflammation, likely mediated
        by its bifidogenic effect. Whether GOS has the potential of improving iron absorption has not
        been studied in athletes.
  
        The study aims are to determine 1) the effects of a bout of resistance exercise at 70% 1
        repetition maximum (RM) on inflammation, hepcidin and iron absorption in high performance
        female team athletes; and 2) the effect of acute and chronic GOS supplementation on iron
        absorption in response to the exercise bout.
  
        The trial will entail two series of three iron absorption conditions separated by six weeks
        of GOS supplementation (10 g/day). The study participants will be 22 female university
        athletes recruited from the hockey, soccer and netball teams of North-West University,
        Potchefstroom, South Africa. At baseline, the first series of three iron absorption studies
        will be conducted, all measuring iron absorption from a supplement administered with labelled
        ferrous fumarate in the following conditions: 1) after a period of rest; 2) three hours after
        an acute resistance exercise bout; and 3) three hours after an acute resistance exercise
        bout, co-administered with GOS. Following this, participants will consume GOS daily for six
        weeks, followed by an identical series of iron absorption studies. Markers of systemic and
        gut inflammation, hepcidin, microflora composition and iron status indicators before and
        after the GOS intervention will be determined. In addition, erythrocyte iron incorporation
        will be determined after both series of isotope studies. Furthermore, the kinetics of isotope
        appearance, inflammatory markers, and hepcidin for 24 hours during each of the six iron
        absorption studies will be investigated.
  
        The primary hypotheses are that fractional iron absorption from a supplemental dose of
        ferrous fumarate will be: 1) lower three hours post exercise than post resting period; 2)
        higher with co-administration of GOS than without, both before and after six-week GOS
        intervention; and 3) higher after six-week intervention with GOS compared to baseline.
  
        The secondary hypotheses are: 1) acute exercise bout will result in increased inflammatory
        and hepcidin response before and after intervention with GOS but the intervention may mediate
        these two responses; 2) chronic GOS intervention will increase relative abundance of
        Bifidobacterium spp, reduce gut inflammation and improve gut integrity and gut health; 3)
        chronic GOS intervention will improve iron status.
  allocation: N/A
  intervention model: Single Group Assignment
  primary purpose: Prevention
  masking: None (Open Label)
  measure: a. Fractional iron absorption (%)
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Fractional iron absorption will be measured at rest and after an exercise bout.
  measure: b. Fractional iron absorption (%)
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Fractional iron absorption will be measured after an exercise bout with and without co-administration of GOS.
  measure: c. Fractional iron absorption (%)
  time frame: Days 1 and 2, and 57 and 58.
  description: Fractional iron absorption will be measured at rest and after an exercise bout before and after a 6-week intervention with GOS.
  measure: Interleukin 6 (pg/mL)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: Interleukin 6 (IL-6) will be measured over 24 hours after exercise as a marker of exercise-induced inflammation.
  measure: C-reactive protein (mg/L)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: C-reactive protein (CRP) will be measured in plasma to detect the presence of acute inflammation.
  measure: Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (g/L)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of chronic inflammation.
  measure: Hepcidin (ng/mL)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: Hepcidin, a major regulator of iron absorption and influenced by exercise-induced inflammation, will be measured in plasma over 24 hours.
  measure: Lipid mediators (pg/µL )
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: The following lipid mediators will be measured over 24 hours in plasma in response to exercise-induced inflammation:17-hydroxydocosahexaenoicacid (17-HDHA); 5-, 8-, 9-, 11-, 12-, 15 and 18- hydroxyeicosapentaenoicacid (HEPE); 5-, 8-, 11-, 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoicacid (HETE); prostaglandin (PG) E2 and D2, and resolvin (Rv) D1 and E1).
  measure: Erythropoietin (mIU/mL)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 9, 57, 58 and 65.
  description: Plasma erythropoietin, a marker of erythropoiesis, will be measured before and after period of rest and exercise.
  measure: Serum iron isotope (%)
  time frame: Days 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 57, 58, 59, 65 and 66.
  description: Kinetics of serum iron isotope appearance during a period of rest and post-exercise, before and after intervention with GOS, and with and without co-administration of GOS.
  measure: Gut microbial composition
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Gut microbiota profile will be assessed at baseline and endpoint.
  measure: Faecal short chain fatty acids (µmol/g)
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Concentration of short chain fatty acids - acetate, propionate, isobutyrate, butyrate, formate, isovalerate will be measured in faecal samples before and after the 6-week intervention with GOS.
  measure: Faecal pH
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Faecal pH will be measured at baseline and endpoint to determine a response to the GOS intervention.
  measure: Faecal calprotectin (µg/g)
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Faecal calprotectin will be measured at baseline and endpoint as a marker of gut inflammation.
  measure: Faecal zonulin (ng/mL)
  time frame: Days 23 and 79.
  description: Faecal zonulin will be measured at baseline and endpoint as a marker of the integrity of the intestinal mucosal barrier.
  measure: Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (pg/mL)
  time frame: Screening, Days 2, 23, 57, 58 and 79.
  description: Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP), a marker of intestinal damage, will be measured in plasma at baseline and endpoint.
  measure: Haemoglobin (g/dL)
  time frame: Screening, days 23, 57 and 79.
  description: Haemoglobin will be measured in whole blood to determine presence of anaemia and for calculation of fractional iron absorption.
  measure: Ferritin (µg/L)
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Ferritin will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of iron deficiency.
  measure: Soluble transferrin receptor (mg/L)
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) will be measured in plasma to determine the presence of iron deficiency.
  measure: Retinol-binding protein 4 (µmol/L)
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) will be measured in plasma as a marker of vitamin A status.
  measure: Thyroglobulin (µg/L)
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Thyroglobulin will be measured in plasma as a marker of iodine status.
  measure: Fibroblast growth factor 21 (pg/mL)
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) will be measured in plasma as a marker of environmental enteric dysfunction (EED).
  measure: Insulin-like growth factor 1
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) will be measured in plasma as on of the markers of environmental enteric dysfunction.
  measure: Dietary intake
  time frame: Screening, days 1 and 57.
  description: Dietary intake will be captured using a quantified food frequency questionnaire.
  measure: Method comparison in the measurement of micronutrient and environment enteric dysfunction markers
  time frame: Screening
  description: Two methods: Quansys EED ELISA and the VitMin lab s-ELISA will be used and compared in the measurement of: RBP4 (µmol/L), Ferritin (µg/L), sTfR (mg/L), CRP (mg/L), AGP (g/L), I-FABP (pg/mL) and Thyroglobulin (µg/L).
  arm group label: Experimental
  arm group type: Experimental
  description: Participants will receive 10 g of GOS daily for 6 weeks. Fractional iron absorption will be determined pre- and post the 6-week intervention from 3 conditions: 1) after a period of rest; 2) three hours after an acute resistance exercise bout without GOS and 3) three hours after an acute resistance exercise bout, co-administered with 10 g GOS.
  intervention type: Dietary Supplement
  intervention name: Galactooligosaccharides (GOS)
  description: 10 g of GOS provided as 14 g of powder will be consumed after mixing it in water or yoghurt.
  The absorption study test drinks administered during the 3 test conditions will be comprised as follows:
  Post rest period - 50 mg of iron as ferrous fumarate (Fefum) supplement, 6 mg 54Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with sucrose and lactose.
  Post exercise bout - 50 mg of iron as Fefum, 6 mg 58Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with sucrose and lactose.
  Post exercise bout co-administered with GOS - 50 mg of iron as Fefum, 6 mg 57Fe as Fefum and 300 ml of water with 10 g GOS.
  arm group label: Experimental
  criteria: 
  gender: Female
  minimum age: 18 Years
  maximum age: 30 Years
  healthy volunteers: Accepts Healthy Volunteers
  last name: Isabelle Herter-Aeberli
  role: Principal Investigator
  affiliation: ETH Zurich
  last name: Jesslee du Plessis
  role: Principal Investigator
  affiliation: North-West University
  last name: Linda Malan
  phone: +27182994237
  email: Linda.Malan@nwu.ac.za
  last name: Mary Uyoga
  email: 44645104@mynwu.ac.za
  facility: 
  contact: 
  country: South Africa
  responsible party type: Principal Investigator
  investigator affiliation: North-West University, South Africa
  investigator full name: Linda Malan
  investigator title: Associate Professor
  mesh term: Inflammation