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1 Introduction -Discovering Microalgae as Source for Sustainable

  

	Biomass All life eminates from the sun! All life originates from the sea! 1 Sustainable microalgal biomass of the third generation 3 Microalgae produce 5 times more biomass per hectare than terrestrial crops 3 Microalgae can be cultivated in arid areas which are not suitable for 1 agriculture 4 Microalgae exhibit high lipid contents over 50 % and high titers of other products 4 The technical challenge 4 Microalgae can use CO 2 and sunlight 4 Microalgae can deliver cheap sustainable biomass for bulk chemicals and biofuels 5 Microalgae can be produced nearly everywhere 5 Microalgae do not need pesticides and only little fertilizers 6 Closed photobioreactors as tools of choice 7 The biological potential of microalgae Thomas Friedl, Nataliya Rybalka and Anastasiia Kryvenda Phylogeny and systematics of microalgae: An overview 11 Introduction 11 Diversity and evolution of microalgae 16 Algal diversity 16 Algal evolution 17 Cyanobacteria: The prokaryotic algae 19 Plantae or Archaeplastida supergroup: Green algae, red algae and glaucophytes 22 Viridiplantae: The green algae distributed over two phyla 22 Rhodophyta: Red algae 25 Glaucophytes 26 Chromalveolate algae: The photosynthetic Stramenopiles (heterokont algae) 26 Diatoms (Bacillariophyta; photosynthetic Stramenopiles) 27 Eustigmatophyceae and Xanthophyceae (photosynthetic viii Contents 2.5.3.1 Raphidophyceae 30 2.5.3.2 Synurophyceae and Chrysophyceae 30 2.5.3.3 Phaeophyceae 31 2.6 Chromalveolate algae: coccolithophorids and haptophyte algae 31 2.7 Chromalveolate algae: Dinoflagellates (Dinophyta) 32 2.8 Euglenoids (Excavata supergroup) 33 Acknowledgements 33 References 34 Christian Wilhelm and Torsten Jakob 3 Balancing the conversion efficiency from photon to biomass 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Definition of important terms 40 3.2.1 Photosynthetic efficiency 40 3.2.2 Growth efficiency (photon to biomass efficiency) 41 3.3 Physiological dynamics of processes which control biological energy conversion efficiency 45 3.3.1 Absorption 45 3.3.2 Regulation and efficiency of photochemistry 46 3.3.3 Regulation of electron flow 47 3.3.4 Regulation of carbon allocation 48 3.4 Conclusions for microalgal biotechnology 50 References 51 Thomas Brück and Daniel Garbe 4 Algae symbiosis with eukaryotic partners 55 4.1 Introduction to algae-specific symbiosis 55 4.1.1 Importance of algae symbiotic relationships 55 4.1.2 Modes of algae symbiosis with eukaryotes 56 4.2 Aquatic systems 58 4.2.1 Algae symbiosis with Cnidaria 58 4.2.1.1 Symbiont uptake and management 60 4.2.1.2 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont 60 4.2.1.3 Optimizing photosynthesis for efficient metabolite exchange 61 4.2.1.4 Symbiont-derived secondary metabolites 61 4.2.1.5 Effects of environmental stress on symbiosis 62 4.2.2 Algae symbiosis with Porifera 62 4.2.2.1 Morphology of sponge-algae associations 63 4.2.2.2 Symbiont uptake, specificity and transmission 64 ix 4.2.2.5 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 Effects of environmental stress on symbiosis 65 4.2.3 Algae symbiosis with Mollusca 66 4.2.3.1 Morphology of mollusc-algae associations 66 4.2.3.2 Symbiont uptake and maintenance 67 4.2.3.3 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont 68 4.3 Terrestrial system 68 4.3.1 Lichens: Ecological pioneers 68 4.3.2 Modes of lichen symbiosis 69 4.3.3 Lichen taxonomy and evolution 69 4.3.4 Lichen morphology 70 4.3.5 Symbiotic interactions 71 4.3.6 Lichen growth and propagation 72 4.3.6.1 Lichen propagation 73 4.3.7 Symbiotic benefits for algal photobionts 73 4.3.8 Biotechnological aspects of lichen/mycobiont cultivation 76 4.3.9 Potential of bioactive lichen-derived metabolites 77 References 79 Anna Kirchmayr and Christoph Griesbeck 5 Genetic engineering, methods and targets 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Methods in genetic engineering of eukaryotic microalgae 87 5.2.1 Transformation 87 5.2.1.1 Glass beads and silicon whiskers 87 5.2.1.2 Particle bombardment 88 5.2.1.3 Electroporation 88 5.2.1.4 Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation 88 5.2.2 Promoters 89 5.2.3 Gene silencing 91 5.2.4 Codon usage 91 5.2.5 Improvement of expression rates and secretion of proteins 91 5.2.6 Selection markers 93 5.2.7 Reporter genes 94 5.3 Examples for biotechnological relevant proteins 96 5.3.1 Proteins expressed in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 96 5.3.2 Recombinant proteins in other microalgae 98 5.4 Future prospects/outlook 98 5.4.1 Methods for genetic engineering 98 5.4.2 Products from genetically modified microalgae Contents Jean-Paul Cadoret, Alexandre Lejeune, Rémy Michel and Aude Carlier 6 Algenics: Providing microalgal technologies for biological drugs 107 6.1 Background and inception of the company 107 6.2 Development and optimization of proprietary technologies 108 6.3 From proofs of concept to therapeutic product candidates 109 References 109 Technical Means for Algae Production Yusuf Chisti 7 Raceways-based production of algal crude oil 113 7.1 Introduction 113 7.2 Raceways 114 7.2.1 General configuration 114 7.2.2 Flow in a raceway 115 7.2.3 Power consumption for mixing 118 7.2.4 Paddlewheel design 120 7.2.5 Location 121 7.2.6 Evaporation from raceways 121 7.2.7 Temperature variations 122 7.2.8 Culture pH and carbon dioxide demand 124 7.2.9 Oxygen removal 125 7.2.10 Potential for contamination 126 7.2.11 Irradiance variation with depth 126 7.2.12 Local and average values of specific growth rate 128 7.2.13 Raceway capital cost 129 7.3 Algal crude oil as replacement petroleum 130 7.4 Algae biomass production 131 7.4.1 Productivity of biomass and oil 132 7.4.2 Limits to algal biomass productivity 134 7.4.2.1 Photosynthetic efficiency 135 7.4.2.2 Why are microalgae more efficient than terrestrial plants? 136 7.5 Economics of algal crude oil 137 7.5.1 Residual biomass 139 7.6 Concluding remarks 141 7.7 Nomenclature 142 References 144 Jeff Obbard 8 Cellana LLC: Algae-based products for a sustainable future 147 99 x 8.1 Introduction 147
		Stramenopiles) 4.2.2.3 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont 29 8.2 Cellana technology and demonstration facility	64 147
	2.5.3	Other photosynthetic Stramenopiles 4.2.2.4 Symbiont-derived secondary metabolites 30 8.3 Biorefinery approach 148	65

Acknowledgements 100 References
Clemens Posten, Peter Bergmann, Stuttgart, Germany Subitec Gmbh, Lars Beyer, Marco Brocken, Thomas Brück, Jean-Paul Cadoret, Aude Carlier, Yusuf Chisti, Jean-Francois Cornet, F G Acién Fernández, Thomas Friedl, Daniel Garbe, Christoph Griesbeck, Emilio Molina Grima, Michel Jacqmain, Torsten Jakob, Anna Kirchmayr, Anastasiia Kryvenda, Mark Michiels, Jeff Obbard, Linda Oeschger, Walter Trösch, Christian Wilhelm
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