headed downwind, the turn bank angle must be steepest; where groundspeed is the slowest, such as when the airplane is headed upwind, the turn bank angle must be shallow. It is necessary to increase or decrease the angle of bank, which increases or decreases the rate of turn, to achieve the desired constant radius track over the ground. 

Ground reference maneuvers should always be entered from a downwind position. This allows the pilot to establish the steepest bank angle required to maintain a constant radius ground track. If the bank is too steep, the pilot should immediately exit the maneuver and re-establish a lateral position that is further from the ground reference. The pilot should avoid bank angles in excess of 45°due to the increased stalling speed. 

## Tracking Over and Parallel to a Straight Line 

The pilot should first be introduced to ground reference maneuvers by correcting for the effects of a crosswind over a straight-line ground reference, such as road or railroad tracks. If a straight road or railroad track is unavailable, the pilot will choose multiple references (three minimum) which, when an imaginary visual reference line is extended, represents a straight line. The reference should be suitably long so the pilot has sufficient time to understand the concepts of wind correction and practice the maneuver. Initially, the maneuver should be flown directly over the ground reference with the pilot angling the airplane’s longitudinal axis into the wind sufficiently such as to cancel the effect of drift. The pilot should scan between far ahead and close to the airplane to practice tracking multiple references. 

When proficiency has been demonstrated by flying directly over the ground reference line, the pilot should then practice flying a straight parallel path that is offset from the ground reference. The offset parallel path should not be more than three-fourths of a mile from the reference line. The maneuver should be flown offset from the ground references with the pilot angling the airplane’s longitudinal axis into the wind sufficiently to cancel the effect of drift while maintaining a parallel track. 

## Rectangular Course 

A principle ground reference maneuver is the rectangular course. [Figure 6-4]  The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing. While performing the rectangular course maneuver, the pilot should maintain a constant altitude, airspeed, and distance from the ground references. The maneuver assists the pilot in practicing the following: 

• Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. 

• Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground- based references, manipulating the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications. 

• Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant radius turns. 

• Rolling out from a turn with the required wind correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by the wind. 

• Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground. 

• Preparing the pilot for the airport traffic pattern and subsequent landing pattern practice. 

First, a square, rectangular field, or an area with suitable ground references on all four sides, as previously mentioned should be selected consistent with safe practices. The airplane should be flown parallel to and at an equal distance between one-half to three-fourths of a mile away from the field boundaries or selected ground references. The flightpath should be positioned outside the field boundaries or selected ground references so that the references may be easily observed from either pilot seat. It is not practicable to fly directly above the field boundaries or selected ground references. The pilot should avoid flying close to the references, as this will require the pilot to turn using very steep bank angles, thereby increasing aerodynamic load factor and the airplane’s stall speed, especially in the downwind to crosswind turn. 

The entry into the maneuver should be accomplished downwind. This places the wind on the tail of the airplane and results in an increased groundspeed. There should be no wind correction angle if the wind is directly on the tail of the airplane; however, a real-world situation results in some drift correction. The turn from the downwind leg onto the base leg is entered with a relatively steep bank angle. The pilot should roll the airplane into a steep bank with rapid, but not excessive, coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. As the airplane turns onto the following base leg, the tailwind lessens and becomes a crosswind; the bank angle is reduced gradually with coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. The pilot should be prepared for the lateral drift and compensate by turning more than 90° angling toward the inside of the rectangular course. 

The next leg is where the airplane turns from a base leg position to the upwind leg. Ideally, the wind is directly on 

