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• Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil and acts perpendicular to the flightpath through the center of lift. 

• Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift and acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG). 

• Thrust—the force produced by the power plant/ propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case, as explained later. 

• Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind. 

For a more in-depth explanation of general aerodynamics, refer to the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. 

## Lift 

Lift is generated when an object changes the direction of flow of a fluid or when the fluid is forced to move by the object passing through it. When the object and fluid move relative to each other and the object turns the fluid flow in a direction perpendicular to that flow, the force required to do this work creates an equal and opposite force that is lift. The object may be moving through a stationary fluid, or the fluid may be flowing past a stationary object—these two are effectively identical as, in principle, it is only the frame of reference of the viewer which differs. The lift generated by an airfoil depends on such factors as: 

• Speed of the airflow 

• Density of the air 

• Total area of the segment or airfoil 

• Angle of attack (AOA) between the air and the airfoil 

The AOA is the angle at which the airfoil meets the oncoming airflow (or vice versa). In the case of a helicopter, the object is the rotor blade (airfoil) and the fluid is the air. Lift is produced when a mass of air is deflected, and it always acts perpendicular to the resultant relative wind. A symmetric airfoil must have a positive AOA to generate positive lift. At a zero AOA, no lift is generated. At a negative AOA, negative lift is generated. A cambered or nonsymmetrical airfoil may produce positive lift at zero, or even small negative AOA. 

The basic concept of lift is simple. However, the details of how the relative movement of air and airfoil interact to produce 

the turning action that generates lift are complex. In any case causing lift, an angled flat plate, revolving cylinder, airfoil, etc., the flow meeting the leading edge of the object is forced to split over and under the object. The sudden change in direction over the object causes an area of low pressure to form behind the leading edge on the upper surface of the object. In turn, due to this pressure gradient and the viscosity of the fluid, the flow over the object is accelerated down along the upper surface of the object. At the same time, the flow forced under the object is rapidly slowed or stagnated causing an area of high pressure. This also causes the flow to accelerate along the upper surface of the object. The two sections of the fluid each leave the trailing edge of the object with a downward component of momentum, producing lift. [Figure 2-4] 

## Bernoulli’s Principle 

Bernoulli’s principle describes the relationship between internal fluid pressure and fluid velocity. It is a statement of the law of conservation of energy and helps explain why an airfoil develops an aerodynamic force. The concept of conservation of energy states energy cannot be created or destroyed and the amount of energy entering a system must also exit. Specifically, in this case the “energy” referred to is the dynamic pressure (the kinetic energy of the air— more velocity, more kinetic energy) and static air pressure (potential energy). These will change among themselves, but the total pressure energy remains constant inside the tube. 

A simple tube with a constricted portion near the center of its length illustrates this principle. An example is running water through a garden hose. The mass of flow per unit area (cross- sectional area of tube) is the mass flow rate. In Figure 2-5, the flow into the tube is constant, neither accelerating nor decelerating; thus, the mass flow rate through the tube must be the same at stations 1, 2, and 3. If the cross-sectional area at any one of these stations—or any given point—in the tube is reduced, the fluid velocity must increase to maintain a constant mass flow rate to move the same amount of fluid through a smaller area. The continuity of mass flow causes the air to move faster through the venturi. In other words, fluid speeds up in direct proportion to the reduction in area. 

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