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at the altimeter reading 200 feet below the assigned altitude, and wonder how the needle got there. While fixated on the instrument, increasing tension may be unconsciously exerted on the controls, which leads to an unnoticed heading change that leads to more errors. Another common fixation is likely when initiating an attitude change. For example, a shallow bank is established for a 90° turn and, instead of maintaining a cross-check of other pertinent instruments, the pilot stares at the heading indicator throughout the turn. Since the aircraft is turning, there is no need to recheck the heading indicator for approximately 25 seconds after turn entry. The problem here may not be entirely due to cross-check error. It may be related to difficulties with instrument interpretation. Uncertainty about reading the heading indicator (interpretation) or uncertainty because of inconsistency in rolling out of turns (control) may cause the fixation. 

Omission of an instrument from a cross-check is another likely fault. It may be caused by failure to anticipate significant instrument indications following attitude changes. For example, in a roll-out from a 180° steep turn, straight-and-level flight is established with reference only to the attitude indicator, and the pilot neglects to check the heading indicator for constant heading information. Because of precession error, the attitude indicator temporarily shows a slight error, correctable by quick reference to the other flight instruments. 

Emphasis on a single instrument, instead of on the combination of instruments necessary for attitude information, is an understandable fault during the initial stages of training. It 

is a natural tendency to rely on the instrument that is most readily understood, even when it provides erroneous or inadequate information. Reliance on a single instrument is poor technique. For example, a pilot can maintain reasonably close altitude control with the attitude indicator, but cannot hold altitude with precision without including the altimeter in the cross-check. 

## Instrument Interpretation 

The second fundamental skill, instrument interpretation, requires more thorough study and analysis. It begins by understanding each instrument’s construction and operating principles. Then, this knowledge must be applied to the performance of the aircraft being flown, the particular maneuvers to be executed, the cross-check and control techniques applicable to that aircraft, and the flight conditions. 

For example, a pilot uses full power in a small airplane for a 5-minute climb from near sea level, and the attitude indicator shows the miniature aircraft two bar widths (twice the thickness of the miniature aircraft wings) above the artificial horizon. [Figure 6-20]  The airplane is climbing at 500 fpm as shown on the VSI, and at airspeed of 90 knots, as shown on the airspeed indicator. With the power available in this particular airplane and the attitude selected by the pilot, the performance is shown on the instruments. Now, set up the identical picture on the attitude indicator in a jet airplane. With the same airplane attitude as shown in the first example, the VSI in the jet reads 2,000 fpm and the airspeed indicator reads 250 knots. 

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