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be converted to fps by multiplying it by a constant of 1.69. Therefore, an aircraft traveling at 120 knots (TAS) travels at 202.8 fps. Knowing the speed in fps (202.8) multiplied by the time an aircraft takes to complete a circle (68.6 seconds) can determine the size of the circle; 202.8 times 68.6 equals 13,912 fGLYPH<df00>GLYPH<df00>t. Dividing by π yiGLYPH<df00>lds a diamGLYPH<df00>tGLYPH<df00>r of 4,428 fGLYPH<df00>GLYPH<df00>t, which when divided by 2 equals a radius of 2,214 feet [Figure 5-61],  a foot within that determined through use of the formula in Figure 5-59. 

In Figure 5-62, the pilot enters a canyon and decides to turn 180° to exit. The pilot uses a 30° bank angle in his turn. 

## Weight and Balance 

The aircraft’s weight and balance data is important information for a pilot that must be frequently reevaluated. Although the aircraft was weighed during the certification process, this information is not valid indefinitely. Equipment changes or modifications affect the weight and balance data. Too often pilots reduce the aircraft weight and balance into a rule of thumb, such as: “If I have three passengers, I can load only 100 gallons of fuel; four passengers, 70 gallons.” 

Weight and balance computations should be part of every preflight briefing. Never assume three passengers are always 

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of equal weight. Instead, do a full computation of all items to be loaded on the aircraft, including baggage, as well as the pilot and passenger. It is recommended that all bags be weighed to make a precise computation of how the aircraft CG is positioned. 

The importance of the CG was stressed in the discussion of stability, controllability, and performance. Unequal load distribution causes accidents. A competent pilot understands and respects the effects of CG on an aircraft. 

Weight and balance are critical components in the utilization of an aircraft to its fullest potential. The pilot must know how much fuel can be loaded onto the aircraft without violating CG limits, as well as weight limits to conduct long or short flights with or without a full complement of allowable passengers. For example, an aircraft has four seats and can carry 60 gallons of fuel. How many passengers can the aircraft safely carry? Can all those seats be occupied at all times with the varying fuel loads? Four people who each weigh 150 pounds leads to a different weight and balance computation than four people who each weigh 200 pounds. The second scenario loads an additional 200 pounds onto the aircraft and is equal to about 30 gallons of fuel. 

The additional weight may or may not place the CG outside of the CG envelope, but the maximum gross weight could be exceeded. The excess weight can overstress the aircraft and degrade the performance. 

Aircraft are certificated for weight and balance for two principal reasons: 

1. The effect of the weight on the aircraft’s primary structure and its performance characteristics 

2. The effect of the location of this weight on flight characteristics, particularly in stall and spin recovery and stability 

Aircraft, such as balloons and weight-shift control, do not require weight and balance computations because the load is suspended below the lifting mechanism. The CG range in these types of aircraft is such that it is difficult to exceed loading limits. For example, the rear seat position and fuel of a weight-shift control aircraft are as close as possible to the hang point with the aircraft in a suspended attitude. Thus, load variations have little effect on the CG. This also holds true for the balloon basket or gondola. While it is difficult to exceed CG limits in these aircraft, pilots should never overload an aircraft because overloading causes structural damage and failures. Weight and balance computations are not required, but pilots should calculate weight and remain within the manufacturer’s established limit. 

