be smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the airplane returns to straight-and-level flight. If trim was used, such as during a steep turn, forward elevator pressure may be required until the trim can be adjusted. As the rollout is being completed, attention should be given to outside visual references, as well as the flight instruments to determine that the wings are being leveled and the turn stopped. 

For outside references, select the horizon and another point ahead. If those two points stay in alignment, the airplane is tracking to that point as long as there is not a crosswind requiring a crab angle. It would also be a good idea to include VFR references for heading as well and pitch. A pilot holds course in VFR by tracking to a point in front of the compass, with only glances at the compass to ensure he or she is still on course. This reliance on a surface point does not work when flying over water or flat snow covered surfaces. In these conditions, the pilot must rely on the compass or gyro- heading indicator. 

Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control, practice is required to ensure that only the intended pressure is applied to the intended flight control. For example, a beginner pilot is likely to unintentionally add pressure to the pitch control when the only bank was intended. This cross-coupling may be diminished or enhanced by the design of the flight controls; however, practice is the appropriate measure for smooth, precise, and accurate flight control inputs. For example, diving when turning right and climbing when turning left in airplanes is common with stick controls, because the arm tends to rotate from the elbow joint, which induces a secondary arc control motion if the pilot is not extremely careful. Likewise, lowering the nose is likely to induce a right turn, and raising the nose to climb tends to induce a left turn. These actions would apply for a pilot using the right hand to move the stick. Airplanes with a control wheel may be less prone to these inadvertent actions, depending on control positions and pilot seating. In any case, the pilot must retain the proper sight picture of the nose following the horizon, whether up, down, left or right and isolate undesired motion. It is essential that flight control coordination be developed because it is the very basis of all fundamental flight maneuvers. 

Common errors in level turns are: 

• Failure to adequately clear in the direction of turn for aircraft traffic. 

• Gaining or losing altitude during the turn. 

• Not holding the desired bank angle constant. 

• Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference. 

• Leaning away from the direction of the turn while seated. 

• Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the inability to detect slips or skids without reference to flight instruments. 

• Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by referencing only the airplane’s nose. 

• Making skidding flat turns to avoid banking the airplane. 

• Holding excessive rudder in the direction of turn. 

• Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction. 

• Failure to coordinate the controls. 

## Climbs and Climbing Turns 

When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from level flight to a climb attitude. In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direction solely perpendicular to the flightpath. When an airplane enters a climb, excess lift must be developed to overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop more lift results in more induced drag, which either results in decreased airspeed and/or an increased power setting to maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess thrust available. 

The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the following types of climb: 

Normal climb—performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional airspeed provides for better engine cooling, greater control authority, and better visibility over the nose of the airplane. Normal climb is sometimes referred to as cruise climb. 

Best rate of climb (V$_{Y}$)—produces the most altitude gained over a given amount of time. This airspeed is typically used when initially departing a runway without obstructions until it is safe to transition to a normal or cruise climb configuration. Best angle of climb (V$_{X}$)—performed at an airspeed that produces the most altitude gain over a given horizontal distance. The best angle of climb results in a steeper climb, although the airplane takes more time to reach the same altitude than it would at best rate of climb airspeed. The best angle of climb is used to clear obstacles, such as a strand of trees, after takeoff. [Figure 3-19] 

It should be noted that as altitude increases, the airspeed for best angle of climb increases and the airspeed for best rate of climb decreases. Performance charts contained in the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook 

