approach that is crosswind, but over an open area, and one directly into the wind, but over heavily wooded or extremely rough terrain where a safe forced landing would be impossible. If these conditions exist, consider the possibility of making the initial phase of the approach crosswind over the open area and then turn- ing into the wind for the final portion of the approach. 

Always operate the helicopter as close to its normal capabilities as possible, taking into consideration the situation at hand. In all confined area operations, with the exception of the pinnacle operation, the angle of descent should be no steeper than necessary to clear any barrier in the approach path and still land on the selected spot. The angle of climb on takeoff should be normal, or not steeper than necessary to clear any bar- rier. Clearing a barrier by a few feet and maintaining normal operating r.p.m., with perhaps a reserve of power, is better than clearing a barrier by a wide mar- gin but with a dangerously low r.p.m. and no power reserve. 

Always make the landing to a specific point and not to some general area. This point should be located well forward, away from the approach end of the area. The more confined the area, the more essential it is that you land the helicopter precisely at a definite point. Keep this point in sight during the entire final approach. 

When flying a helicopter near obstructions, always consider the tail rotor. A safe angle of descent over bar- riers must be established to ensure tail rotor clearance of all obstructions. After coming to a hover, take care to avoid turning the tail into obstructions. 

## TAKEOFF 

A confined area takeoff is considered an altitude over airspeed maneuver. Before takeoff, make a ground reconnaissance to determine the type of takeoff to be performed, to determine the point from which the take- off should be initiated to ensure the maximum amount of available area, and finally, how to best maneuver the helicopter from the landing point to the proposed take- off position. 

If wind conditions and available area permit, the heli- copter should be brought to a hover, turned around, and hovered forward from the landing position to the take- off position. Under certain conditions, sideward flight to the takeoff position may be necessary. If rearward 

Altitude over Airspeed—In this type of maneuver, it is more important to gain altitude than airspeed. However, unless operational considera- tions dictate otherwise, the crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram should be avoided. 

flight is required to reach the takeoff position, place reference markers in front of the helicopter in such a way that a ground track can be safely followed to the takeoff position. In addition, the takeoff marker should be located so that it can be seen without hovering beyond it. 

When planning the takeoff, consider the direction of the wind, obstructions, and forced landing areas. To help you fly up and over an obstacle, you should form an imaginary line from a point on the leading edge of the helicopter to the highest obstacle to be cleared. Fly this line of ascent with enough power to clear the obstacle by a safe distance. After clearing the obstacle, maintain the power setting and accelerate to the normal climb speed. Then, reduce power to the normal climb power setting. 

## COMMON ERRORS 

1. Failure to perform, or improper performance of, a high or low reconnaissance. 

2. Flying the approach angle at too steep or too shal- low an approach for the existing conditions. 

3. Failing to maintain proper r.p.m. 

4. Failure to consider emergency landing areas. 

5. Failure to select a specific landing spot. 

6. Failure to consider how wind and turbulence could affect the approach. 

7. Improper takeoff and climb technique for exist- ing conditions. 

## PINNACLE AND RIDGELINE OPERATIONS 

A pinnacle is an area from which the surface drops away steeply on all sides. A ridgeline is a long area from which the surface drops away steeply on one or two sides, such as a bluff or precipice. The absence of obstacles does not necessarily lessen the difficulty of pinnacle or ridgeline operations. Updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence, together with unsuitable terrain in which to make a forced landing, may still present extreme hazards. 

## APPROACH AND LANDING 

If you need to climb to a pinnacle or ridgeline, do it on the upwind side, when practicable, to take advantage of any updrafts. The approach flight path should be paral- lel to the ridgeline and into the wind as much as possi- ble. [Figure 10-9] 

Load, altitude, wind conditions, and terrain features determine the angle to use in the final part of an approach. As a general rule, the greater the winds, the steeper the approach needs to be to avoid turbulent air and downdrafts. Groundspeed during the approach is 

