7. Uncoordinated use of pitch and power during level offs. During level offs, both pitch and power settings need to be made in unison in order to achieve the desired results. If pitch is increased before adding power, additional drag is generated thereby reducing airspeed below the desired value. 

8. Failure to utilize supporting pitch instruments leads to chasing the VSI. Always utilize the attitude indicator as the control instrument on which to change the pitch. 

9. Failure to determine a proper lead time for level off from a climb or descent. Waiting too long can lead to overshooting the altitude. 

10. Ballooning—Failure to maintain forward control pressure during level off as power is increased. Additional lift is generated causing the nose of the aircraft to pitch up. 

## Turns 

## Standard Rate Turns 

The previous sections have addressed flying straight-and- level as well as climbs and descents. However, attitude instrument flying is not accomplished solely by flying in a straight line. At some point, the aircraft needs to be turned to maneuver along victor airways, global positioning system (GPS) courses, and instrument approaches. The key to instrument flying is smooth, controlled changes to pitch and bank. Instrument flying should be a slow but deliberate process that takes the pilot from departure airport to destination airport without any radical flight maneuvers. 

A turn to specific heading should be made at standard rate. Standard rate is defined as a turning rate of 3 degrees per second, which yields a complete 360° turn in 2 minutes. A turning rate of 3 degrees per second allows for a timely heading change, as well as allowing the pilot sufficient time to cross-check the flight instruments and avoid drastic changes to the aerodynamic forces being exerted on the aircraft. At no time should the aircraft be maneuvered faster than the pilot is comfortable cross-checking the flight instruments. Most autopilots are programmed to turn at standard rate. 

## Establishing A Standard Rate Turn 

In order to initiate a standard rate turn, approximate the bank angle and then establish that bank angle on the attitude indicator. A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank is to use 15 percent of the true airspeed. A simple way to determine this amount is to divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For example, at 100 knots, approximately 15° of bank is required (100/10 = 10 + 5 = 15); at 120 knots, approximately 18° of bank is needed for a standard-rate turn. Cross-check the turn rate indicator, located 

on the HSI, to determine if that bank angle is sufficient to deliver a standard rate turn. Slight modifications may need to be made to the bank angle in order to achieve the desired performance. The primary bank instrument in this case is the turn rate indicator since the goal is to achieve a standard rate turn. The turn rate indicator is the only instrument that can specifically indicate a standard rate turn. The attitude indicator is used only to establish a bank angle (control instrument) but can be utilized as a supporting instrument by cross-checking the bank angle to determine if the bank is greater or less than what was calculated. 

As the aircraft rolls into the bank, the vertical component of lift begins to decrease. [Figure 7-67] As this happens, additional lift must be generated to maintain level flight. Apply aft control pressure on the yoke sufficient to stop any altitude loss trend. With the increase in lift that needs to be generated, additional induced drag is also generated. This additional drag causes the aircraft to start to decelerate. To counteract this, apply additional thrust by adding power to the power lever. Once altitude and airspeed is being maintained, utilize the trim wheel to eliminate any control forces that need to be held on the control column. 

When rolling out from a standard rate turn, the pilot needs to utilize coordinated aileron and rudder and roll-out to a wings level attitude utilizing smooth control inputs. The roll-out rate should be the same as the roll-in rate in order to estimate the lead necessary to arrive at the desired heading without over- or undershooting. 

During the transition from the turn back to straight flight, the attitude indicator becomes the primary instrument for bank. Once the wings are level, the heading indicator becomes the primary instrument for bank. As bank decreases, the vertical component increases if the pitch attitude is not decreased sufficiently to maintain level flight. An aggressive cross-check keeps the altimeter stationary if forward control pressure is applied to the control column. As the bank angle is decreased, the pitch attitude should be decreased accordingly in order to arrive at the level pitch attitude when the aircraft reaches zero bank. Remember to utilize the trim wheel to eliminate any excess control forces that would otherwise need to be held. 

## Common Errors 

1. One common error associated with standard rate turns is due to pilot inability to hold the appropriate bank angle that equates to a standard rate. The primary bank instrument during the turn is the turn rate indicator; however, the bank angle varies slightly. With an 

