should realize load factors increase dramatically beyond 60°. Most general aviation airplanes are designed for a load limit of 3.8Gs. Regardless of the airspeed or what airplane is involved, for a given bank angle in a level altitude turn, the same load factor will always be produced. A light, general aviation airplane in a level altitude, 45° angle of bank turn will experience a load factor of 1.4 just as a large commercial airliner will in the same level altitude, 45° angle of bank turn. 

Because of the higher load factors, steep turns should be performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the airplane’s design maneuvering speed (V$_{A}$) or the manufacturer’s recommended speed. Maximum turning performance is accomplished when an airplane has both a fast rate of turn and minimum radius of turn, which is effected by both airspeed and angle of bank. Each airplane’s turning performance is limited by structural and aerodynamic design, as well as available power. The airplane’s limiting load factor determines the maximum bank angle that can be maintained in level flight without exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations or stalling. As the load factor increases, so does the stalling speed. For example, if an airplane stalls in level flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a level altitude, 45° banked turn and at 70 knots in a level altitude, 60° banked turn. Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load factor. As the bank angle increases in level flight, the margin between stalling speed and maneuvering speed decreases—an important concept for a pilot to remain cognizant. 

In addition to the increased load factors, the airplane will exhibit what is called “overbanking tendency.” Recall from a previous chapter on the discussion of overbanking tendency. In most flight maneuvers, bank angles are shallow enough that the airplane exhibits positive or neutral stability about the longitudinal axis; however, as bank angles steepen, the airplane will exhibit the behavior to continue rolling in the direction of the bank unless deliberate and opposite aileron pressure is held against the bank. Also, pilots should be mindful of the various left turning tendencies, such as P-factor, which requires effective rudder aileron coordination. 

Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot must ensure that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards. Further, distant references such as a mountain peak or road should be chosen to allow the pilot to assess when to begin rollout from the turn. After establishing the manufacturer’s recommended entry speed or the design maneuvering speed, the airplane should be smoothly rolled into the desired bank angle somewhere between 45° to 60°. As the bank angle is being established, generally prior to 30° of bank, elevator back pressure should be smoothly applied to increase the AOA. After the selected bank angle has been reached, the pilot will find that considerable force is required on the elevator control 

to hold the airplane in level flight—to maintain altitude. Pilots should keep in mind that as the AOA increases, so does drag. Consequently, power must be added to maintain altitude and airspeed. 

Steep turns can be conducted more easily by the use of elevator trim and power as the maneuver is entered. In many light general aviation airplanes, as the bank angle transitions from medium to steep, increasing elevator up trim and adding a small increase in engine power minimizes control pressure requirements. Pilots must not forget to remove both the trim and power inputs as the maneuver is completed. 

To maintain bank angle, altitude, as well as orientation, requires an awareness of the relative position of the horizon to the nose and the wings. The pilot who references the aircraft’s attitude by observing only the nose will have difficulty maintaining altitude. A pilot who observes both the nose and the wings relative to the horizon is likely able to maintain altitude within performance standards. Altitude deviations are primary errors exhibited in the execution of steep turns. If the altitude does increase or decrease, changing elevator back pressure could be used to alter the altitude; however, a more effective method is a slight increase or decrease in bank angle to control small altitude deviations. If altitude is decreasing, reducing the bank angle a few degrees helps recover or stop the altitude loss trend; also, if altitude is increasing, increasing the bank angle a few degrees helps recover or stop the altitude increase trend—all bank angle changes should be accomplished with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. 

The rollout from the steep turn should be timed so that the wings reach level flight when the airplane is on heading from which the maneuver was started. A good rule of thumb is to begin the rollout at ½ the number of degrees of bank prior to reaching the terminating heading. For example, if a right steep turn was begun on a heading of 270° and if the bank angle is 60°, the pilot should begin the rollout 30° prior or at a heading of 240°. While the rollout is being made, elevator back pressure, trim, and power should be gradually reduced, as necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed. 

Common errors when performing steep turns are: 

• Not clearing the area 

• Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout 

• Gaining altitude or losing altitude 

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle 

• Poor flight control coordination 

• Ineffective use of trim 

