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It must be emphasized that the manufacturers’ information and data furnished in the AFM/POH is not standardized. Some provide the data in tabular form, while others use graphs. In addition, the performance data may be presented on the basis of standard atmospheric conditions, pressure altitude, or density altitude. The performance information in the AFM/POH has little or no value unless the user recognizes those variations and makes the necessary adjustments. 

To be able to make practical use of the aircraft’s capabilities and limitations, it is essential to understand the significance of the operational data. The pilot must be cognizant of the basis for the performance data, as well as the meanings of the various terms used in expressing performance capabilities and limitations. 

Since the characteristics of the atmosphere have a major effect on performance, it is necessary to review two dominant factors—pressure and temperature. 

## Structure of the Atmosphere 

The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as is land and water. However, air differs from land and water in that it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape. 

Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container. 

The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. Most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude. 

## Atmospheric Pressure 

Though there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift the aircraft, and actuates some of the most important flight instruments in the aircraft. These instruments often include the altimeter, the airspeed indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator (VSI), and the manifold pressure gauge. 

Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight; because it has weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure 

exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). The density of air has significant effects on the aircraft’s performance. As air becomes less dense, it reduces: 

• Power, because the engine takes in less air 

• Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air 

• Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils 

The pressure of the atmosphere may vary with time but more importantly, it varies with altitude and temperature. Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea level has a surface temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or 15 degrees Celsius (°C) and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) or 1013.2 millibars (mb). [Figure 11-1] 

A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the temperature decreases at the rate of approximately 3.5 °F or 2 °C per thousand feet up to 36,000 feet. Above this point, the temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain to 10,000 feet. [Figure 11-2]  The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established this as a worldwide standard, and it is often referred to as International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any temperature or pressure that differs from the standard lapse rates is considered nonstandard temperature and pressure. Adjustments for nonstandard temperatures and pressures are provided on the manufacturer’s performance charts. 

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