the bank angle should be increased so that the rate of turn is used to maintain a constant radius turn. 

The following are the most common errors made while performing S-turns across a road: 

• Failure to adequately clear the area above, below, and on either side of the airplane for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver. 

• Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver. 

• Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver. 

• Failure to properly assess wind direction. 

• Failure to properly execute constant radius turns. 

• Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner when transitioning into turns. 

• Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle. 

• Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips or skids. 

## Elementary Eights 

Elementary eights are a family of maneuvers in which each individual maneuver is one that the airplane tracks a path over the ground similar to the shape of a figure eight. There are various types of eights, progressing from the elementary types to very difficult types in the advanced maneuvers. Each eight is intended to develop a pilot’s flight control coordination skills, strengthen their awareness relative to the selected ground references, and enhance division of attention so that flying becomes more instinctive than mechanical. Eights require a greater degree of focused attention to the selected ground references; however, the real significance of eights is that pilot must strive for flight precision. 

Elementary eights include eights along a road, eights across a road, and eights around pylons. Each of these maneuvers is a variation of a turn around a point. Each eight uses two ground reference points about which the airplane turns first in one direction and then the opposite direction—like a figure eight. 

Eights maneuvers are designed for the following purposes: 

• Further development of the pilot’s skill in maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground references. 

• Improving the pilot’s ability to divide attention between the flightpath and ground-based references, manipulation of the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications during both turning and straight-line flight. 

• Developing the pilot’s skills to visualize each specific segment of the maneuver and the maneuver as a whole, prior to execution. 

• Developing a pilot’s ability to intuitively manipulate flight controls to adjust the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant radius turns and proper ground track between ground references. 

## Eights Along a Road 

Eights along a road is a ground reference maneuver in which the ground track consists of two opposite 360° adjacent turns with the center of each 360° turn and the adjacent turn point perpendicular or parallel to the straight-line ground reference (road, railroad tracks, fence line, pipeline right-of-way, etc.). [Figure 6-7]  Like the other ground reference maneuvers, its objective is to further develop division of attention while compensating for drift, maintaining orientation with ground references, and maintaining a constant altitude. 

Although eights along a road may be performed with the wind blowing parallel or perpendicular to the straight-line ground reference, only the perpendicular wind situation is explained since the principles involved are common to each. The pilot should select a straight-line ground reference that is perpendicular to the wind and position the airplane parallel to and directly above the straight-line ground reference. Since this places the airplane in a crosswind position, the pilot must compensate for the wind drift with an appropriate wind correction angle. 

The following description is illustrated in Figure 6-7 . The airplane is initially in a crosswind position, perpendicular to the wind, and over the ground-based reference. The first turn should be a left turn toward a downwind position starting with a steeping bank. When the entry is made into the turn, it requires that the turn begin with a medium bank and gradually steepen to its maximum bank angle when the airplane is directly downwind. As the airplane turns from downwind to crosswind, the bank angle needs to be gradually reduced since groundspeed is decreasing; however, the groundspeed only decreases by 1 ⁄ 2 of its velocity during the first 2 ⁄ 3 of the turn from downwind to crosswind. 

The pilot must control the bank angle as well as the rate at which the bank angle is reduced so that the wind correction angle is correct. Assuming that the wind is coming from the right side of the airplane, the airplane heading should be slightly ahead of its position over the ground. When the airplane completes the first 180° of ground track, it is directly crosswind, and the airplane should be at the maximum wind correction angle. 

