This booklet is written as an introduction to the essential concepts of water rocketry.
ii) Water rocket propulsion
iii) Water rocket launchers, release mechanisms
iv) Aerodynamic stability, fins, nose weights
v) Drag and streamlining
vi) Computer simulations
vii) Measuring altitude
viii) Crash-worthiness, parachute recovery systems
ix) Multi-stage rockets
x) Internet www sites, e-mail list
xi) Examples of water rockets, construction techniques
xiii) Activities for schools
xiv) Appendix 1: Why does thrust = 2PA?
xv) Appendix 2: The Barrowman Equations xvi) Acknowledgements
xvii) Further reading
* Only use bottles that are made to contain carbonated ("fizzy") drinks, other bottles are not made to withstand the pressures used with water rockets, the rectangular shapes in many non-carbonated drink bottles are deformed by pressure.
* Assume if it can go wrong it will go wrong. Bottles may explode. Poorly designed or incorrectly used launchers may tip over. Release mechanisms may fail, causing launches to occur spontaneously, or for the pressurised rocket to remain stuck on the launcher. An abort procedure should be rehearsed. Disconnecting the pump from a long air-hose extending from the launcher will allow the rocket to depressurise, provided the launcher and air-hose do not have valves prohibiting air escaping.
* In the US, Science Olympiad events do not use more than 75 psi or 500kPa pressure in 2 litre bottles. Smaller diameter bottles will withstand greater pressure, so are safer than 2 litre bottles at the same pressure. Damaged bottles may explode more readily than others. Nobody should be within a few metres of a pressurised bottle, this calls for a remote (eg. string operated) release mechanism. Exploding bottles are a rare occurrence if the above precautions are followed.
* Falling rockets may descend at great speed, possibly causing serious injury. Rockets should be fired away from observers. In Japanese distance competitions, launches are angled 60 degrees from horizontal. Everyone in the vicinity should be observing and be aware of what is about to occur, launches should be announced. If observers are made to wear bicycle helmets they will not only be safer but will see that the potential danger is a matter taken seriously.
* Cutting bottles can be dangerous. It is safest to make a small cut with a knife, allowing a scissor blade to be inserted, then use short-bladed blunt-nosed scissors to continue the cutting where desired. Adults may use knives for most cutting, but with children it is best to provide them with a bottle which already has a small knife-made cut, so they may continue with scissors.
Rocket thrust depends on both the nozzle size and the air pressure in the rocket. While water is being expelled, thrust is approximately equal to twice the product of the pressure and nozzle cross-sectional area. While on the launching tube, thrust is only half this (neglecting water expulsion between the sides of the tube and the bottle neck). (See Appendix 1 for an explanation generously provided by Bruce Berggren).
ie., during water expulsion phase:
Thrust = 2PA (twice the pressure multiplied by the nozzle cross-sectional area)
= 2*Pressure* pi *(nozzle radius)^2
= 2*P*pi*(0.5*nozzle diameter)^2
= 2*P*pi*0.25*(nozzle diameter)^2
= pi/2 * P D^2 (D = nozzle diameter)
= 1.57 * P * D^2
Units are newtons (N) for thrust, pascals (Pa) for pressure and metres (m) for diameter.
For example, consider an open-mouth rocket pressurised to 500kPa.
Pressure = 500,000 Pa, nozzle diameter = 0.022m
Thrust = 1.57 * 500,000 * 0.022 * 0.022 = 380 N
It should be noted that the above formula calculates the thrust provided at a certain instant, for a certain pressure. As water is expelled, the pressurised air inside the bottle expands, resulting is lowered pressure. Some people, including myself, may at first make the incorrect assumption that the air temperature remains constant, allowing for the next assumption of the product of pressure and volume to also remain constant, then reasoning that a 20% expansion in the volume of the air results in air pressure falling to 83% of the original, ie. 1 / 1.2 = 0.8333, or that doubling air volume will halve air pressure. However, rapidly reducing the air-pressure inside the rocket leads to a temperature reduction. Rockets may be seen to expel a fog of cold air at the end of their thrust phase (this is best observed with a slow-moving, restricted nozzle rocket). After landing fog is also often seen inside the bottle. The bottle is depressurised very rapidly, so it is more valid to make an assumption of adiabatic expansion, where Pressure * ( Volume ^ 1.4 ) = a constant, prediciting air-cooling during expansion. By this equation, a 20% increase in volume results in pressure falling to 77% of the original, ie. 1/ ( 1.2 ^1.4 ) = 0.7747. (Conversely, rapid pressurisation may heat the air in the bottle, possibly causing a rupture).
As water is expelled, thrust decreases due to the decreasing air pressure. This reduction in thrust may be compensated for by a reduction in mass due to the rocket carrying less water, so the acceleration may be greater with less thrust because the thrust acts on a lower mass.
Thrust duration depends on nozzle size, water volume, air pressure and air volume. Longer duration thrust can be achieved with a narrower nozzle, more water and/or lower pressure.
After the water has been expelled, the remaining pressurised air provides a brief but significant final thrust to the rocket. Clifford Heath's rocket simulation www page treats the air-pulse as an instantaneous acceleration occurring immediately after all the water has been expelled.
A rubber stopper, with a ball inflation needle passing through, is placed in a bottle and air pumped into the bottle. At a certain pressure the stopper is forced out and the water inside the bottle is able to escape. The main weaknesses of this launching method is that the exact time of release cannot be determined and it is less efficient and does not provide the directional guidance of a launching tube (see below).
Garden hose fitting:
Quick connecting plastic household hose fittings may be used, acting both as a release mechanism and a nozzle. In Japan a commercially produced fitting is available, one end fits a PET bottle neck, the other a hose fitting, a similar nozzle can be home-made from a bottle cap and a part from a garden hose fitting. This release method enables the launch time to be controlled, but does not allow for an open mouth rocket, ie. the nozzle is restricted to the diameter of the hose fitting. A restricted nozzle produces more modest thrust but for a longer duration than an open mouth rocket. In Japan, these releases are often remotely operated with a bicycle hand-brake lever and cable.
Open neck launching tube launchers:
A launching tube launcher is made from a length of pipe (the launch tube) that passes up and into the bottle. The pipe should be as large a diameter as possible that will allow the bottle neck to slide along the pipe with little friction. When the rocket is released, the launching tube acts like a piston inside a cylinder, enabling the rocket to accelerate without expelling much water until it reaches the end of the launching tube, this increases the performance of the rocket when compared to a crude rubber-stopper style launcher. Use of a launching tube placed into the rocket as far as possible, results in the expelled mass, when the launching tube is still in the bottle, effectively being the entire earth. Because the rocket's mass is negligible compared with the earth, the rocket velocity alters greatly and the earth is unmoved. As the rocket accelerates the optimum fluid density decreases, due to the optimum exhaust velocity being equal in magnitude to the rocket's velocity (less dense fluids result in greater exhaust velocity). For maximum efficiency a magically decreasing-in-density fluid could be used instead of water, but this would only make a marginal difference. Using a launch tube provides a high density initial expulsion object, followed by less dense water and then followed by still less dense air. The launch tube also provides guidance to ensure the rocket commences travelling in the intended direction. This style of launcher requires the rocket to have an open mouth nozzle, producing greater thrust but for a briefer duration than a restricted nozzle rocket. A launching tube conserves water to provide additional thrust, effectively the rocket is launched at the end of the launching tube, by which time it may already be travelling at 15 m/s or more. The development, in 1997, of the T-nozzle by Scott Chestnut, enables an open mouth to be transformed into a restricted nozzle after leaving the launching tube. For this reason, I feel the launching tube style of launcher is the best option, allowing both open-mouth or restricted nozzles.
Following are some schematic diagrams for various release mechanisms used with launching tubes.
Following are some schematic diagrams for the construction of a launching-tube style rocket launcher.
A open-mouth nozzle, where water may easily escape, produces rapid, but brief, acceleration, at times lasting only a few hundredths of a second.
Restricted nozzles may be used to provide lower thrust for a longer duration, when compared with an open-neck nozzle. A restricted nozzle may provide more modest thrust and acceleration, but for up to several seconds duration. Restricted nozzles may be advantageous due to the rocket encountering lower drag at the lower speeds encountered (drag is proportional to the square of the speed), but this must be balanced against the greater work done in carrying water further aloft. For a certain rocket at a certain pressure and fill-ratio, there is an optimum nozzle diameter. As restricted nozzle rockets take longer to expel their water than open-mouthed rockets, much mass (water) is towards the rear of the rocket for a longer time, often enough time to create instability problems. A restricted nozzle rocket should be designed to be aerodynamically stable while still bearing water, ie. before the much of the water has been expelled. A cylindrical fin is ideal for use with a restricted nozzle, as the fin is positioned far back and has a large surface area, conventional fins used with a restricted nozzle also need to be larger and swept backwards more than with an open-mouth nozzle.
Scott Chestnut was the first person to build a T-nozzle. Below is my own approach to this concept, using alternate materials to those used by Scott. Also see the illustrations of my approach.
A nozzle from a caulking gun tube has its base adjacent to the screw fitting filed down so it only just fits through the neck of a PET bottle. Some nozzles can just be squeezed through without modification. The nozzle tip is cut in the appropriate position to obtain the desired nozzle diameter.
Around 4 or 5cm of PVC tubing, such as launching tube, is required so the nozzle will fit well-aligned in the bottle, directing the exhaust in the correct direction. The outer circumference of this tube should be a tight fit with the inner sides of the PET bottle neck, but allow easy insertion, the inner sides of the PVC tube should fit tightly with the caulking gun nozzle. Adhesive tape may be wound around the PVC tube and/or the caulking gun nozzle to reduce any gaps that occur between surfaces. One end of this tube should have a bevelled edge to prevent any difficulty in the T-nozzle entering the bottle neck.
A rubber washer is also required, the inner diameter should be slightly smaller than the widest part of the parallel sides of the caulking gun nozzle, the outer diameter should be substantially larger than the diameter of a PET bottle neck. The washer should be at least several millimetres thick. A rubber washer I have used successfully was obtained from the plastic screw fitting that attaches to a brass garden water tap, the washer sits between the brass tap and the plastic fitting. This washer has an outer diameter of 26mm, inner diameter 16mm and is 3.5mm thick.
Push the caulking gun nozzle inside the bottle. Push the rubber washer inside the bottle, holding on to it with one finger so that the caulking gun nozzle can be shaken into a position enabling its narrow end to pass through the rubber washer. Now insert a length of launching tube into the bottle so that it may be used to push the rubber washer all the way up to the widest part of the caulking gun nozzle, pushing the nozzle against the inside base of the bottle. Now withdraw the launch tube and insert the small length of PVC tube and again use the launching tube to push the small length, unbevelled end first, onto the caulking gun nozzle so it abuts the rubber washer. The T-nozzle is complete and should fall in and out of position in the bottle neck, but be unable to exit the bottle.
One problem with a water rocket is that the water (usually the major component of mass) lies towards the rear of the rocket, so the empty front of the rocket tends to be dragged around to the side (like throwing a dart backwards) as the rocket moves through the air. Rapid disposal of this water, via an open-mouth nozzle may overcome this problem, not allowing enough time for the rocket to change course. Alternatively, with a more restricted nozzle, larger fins towards the rear of the rocket are required to counteract the turning forces created at the front. One solution to restricted nozzle stability is a cylindrical fin, consisting of an open cylindrical section from a bottle, trailing behind the rocket, connected by struts.
In order for stable flight to occur, these two properties, centre of gravity and centre of pressure (exterior pressure) are required to be arranged so that the centre of gravity (CG) is ahead of the centre of pressure (CP). An open-nozzle rocket may briefly have the CP ahead of CG, but due to the rapid expulsion of water the rocket does not have time to commence unstable flight, this is at least true for smaller PET bottles, larger bottles require larger fins even with an open nozzle, though not as large as with a restricted nozzle.
The aerodynamic stability of a rocket, or lack of stability, may be investigated in several ways. The CG can be found at a point on a bottle where it balances horizontally, like a balanced see-saw. Finding the centre of pressure (a point where the rocket would be balanced vertically if held in a strong wind) is less simple, but with practice, predictions can be reliably made by looking at the appearance of the rocket. A good example of an object with CG ahead of CP is a dart. Objects with CG ahead of CP will naturally fall so that CG leads CP towards the ground. A rocketry rule of thumb is that rockets should ideally have CG one or two rocket diameters (calibres) ahead of CP. To test a water rocket's stability (when empty), a swing-test may be performed, a string is attached to a point on the circumference closest to the CG (CG is in fact located in thin air inside the bottle), and the rocket swung around in circles (larger circles are better). If the rocket consistently travels nose-first then it is aerodynamically stable. However, the swing-test is conservative, some stable rockets will fail this test. A windows-based computer simulation, CYBERROC, may also be used to test a rocket's stability, this can be downloaded from:
Conventional fins: These may be constructed in many ways. The most important thing is to minimise the drag they create, by keeping them small and also thin, so they present a small frontal area to the direction of motion. The further towards the rear fins are placed, the more effective they are. Small fins far back may be as effective as larger fins further forward. A screw-on fin platform may be made from the threaded screw section of a plastic PET bottle top and a plastic 35mm film canister. The top of the bottle cap may be removed with a hack-saw, leaving only a cylindrical threaded section. This threaded section is inserted into a modified 35mm film canister. The circular base of a film canister may be removed by cutting a circle slightly smaller in diameter than the inner diameter of the canister, this leaves a small lip which prevents the canister passing over the inserted bottle cap. This screw-on platform should be used in conjunction with the small ring on the bottle which originally proved the bottle had never been opened, this ring prevents the canister moving forward on impact, leave it in place when using this fin platform. Fins can be constructed by folding PET bottle material taken from the cylindrically curved sides of bottles, folding the material so that the faces originally inside the bottle become the outer surfaces of the fin. The fins can be cut using scissors and held together with glue, staples or electrical tape. Electrical tape is also useful for attaching fins to the film canister, some adhesive gum on either side of each fin may help hold them perpendicular to the canister. Removable fins are convenient because they may be readily moved between different bottles.
A cylindrical fin may be the easiest way to achieve stability with a restricted nozzle rocket. This is a cylindrical section from a PET bottle, trailing behind the rocket, attached by two struts made from timber strips, integrated circuit anti-static containers, windscreen wiper blade inserts, rulers, or whatever is available. This cylindrical fin is open at both ends so that air may pass freely through it, but has a large surface area when placed side on, so the rocket's course is self-correcting and continues in a straight path.
As far as I know Clifford Heath was the first person to make a cylindrical fin for a water rocket, after I suggested it to him as a possible means of obtaining stability. Cliff attached his cylindrical fin with thin strips of timber and packing tape. Since then Scott Chestnut has used integrated circuit containers (long plastic square tubes) as struts. I have also used stainless steel inserts from car wiper blades, though they were probably too flexible and also often became bent on impact. A cylindrical fin is obviously impractical for a rocket which obtains thrust from burning gases, the fin would be incinerated. Fuel-burning rockets do not have the "water toward the rear" instability problem of water rockets. Cylindrical fins are useful because they are easy to make and, particularly with restricted nozzle rockets, they help to move the CP far towards the rear, even behind the nozzle if the fin is far enough back. More recently I have seen a World War 2 television documentary, showing cylindrical fin equiped bombs dropped from aircraft in training exercises in Australia. Obviously the cylindrical fin idea is not new.
Mass addition: Addition of nose mass is another way to move the CG ahead of the CP. Surprisingly (to me anyway, at first) heavier rockets will often reach higher altitudes due to their slower decceleration after the thrust has finished. This is similar to what occurs when a thrown foam ball is compared with a thrown tennis ball: similar drag acts on different masses, the heavier ball travels further.
Drag = 1/2 * Cd * A * air-density * Velocity^2
where drag is measured in newtons (N), Cd (coefficient of drag, a constant for a given object in a certain orientation) is a measure of "dragginess", A is the frontal area of the rocket, square metres, (m^2), air-density is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m^3) (air density is typically around 1.2kg/m^3) and velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s).
The above formula indicates that doubling velocity will quadruple drag, if we triple the velocity then nine times as much drag results. This is why it is difficult to go very fast through air.
A streamlined shape (reduced Cd) and/or low frontal area and/or lower velocities and/or lower air density will result in reduced drag.
Lowering Cd by streamlining: A nose cone made from the top section of a PET bottle may be connected to the base of a rocket, often just by pushing it into place. As well as improving aerodynamics, this also protects the base of the bottle from impact damage. A semi-elliptical nose shape is desirable, similar to the nose of a passenger jet.
A tennis ball, partly enclosed by a PET nose cone, may provide some crash protection for the rocket, aid stability by moving CG further forward and also be moderately well streamlined.
Adding adhesive putty may help further smooth the nose shape while also adding mass, in some cases further improving stability and maximum altitude.
A tear-drop shaped rocket, tapered towards the rear, like the rear of a passenger jet, will reduce Cd further. Clifford Heath has developed a method of altering the shape of PET bottles, his Guppy rocket may have a Cd as low as 0.15, similar to a passenger jet. Cliff's original method has now been modified, bottles may be thermoformed by pressurising them using a screw cap with a tyre valve inserted and pumping air into the bottle, hot hair blown onto the bottle will allow the heated parts to be stretched by the internal air pressure. With practice, bottles may be re-shaped into more aerodynamic forms. Compressed air stores much energy, an over-heated bottle may burst. Pressures should be kept as low as possible and the bottle should be secured firmly to an object to prevent it becoming airborne in the event of a rupture during thermoforming. This procedure is experimental and potentially dangerous.
Reducing frontal area: This requires using narrower bottles, so longer skinnier bottles are desirable for a given volume.
Reducing velocity: A restricted nozzle will result in lower thrust of greater duration, more modest acceleration, lower speeds and less drag, but also increases the weight of the rocket due to water being carried higher. An optimum nozzle size may exist for a certain rocket.
Lowering air-density: For most purposes, this cannot be achieved, though it is possible that the lower air pressure at high altitudes may have some effect. Certainly, a water-rocket launched in a vacuum, as on the moon or in space, would experience no drag at all.
While it is desirable to reduce drag, many of the actions taken to achieve this may have detrimental effects on other factors affecting rocket performance. Reducing volume will result in less overall thrust. Lengthening thrust duration with a restricted nozzle will lead to slower acceleration, but greater weight carried to a higher altitude. Optimal rocket design requires many design compromises to be made.
As mentioned in the stability section, a PC program, CYBERROC, may be used to test stability for various rocket designs. Cyberroc may be downloaded from:
Timing the entire flight or just the descent tells you something, but drag makes things more complicated than they might appear. 4.9 * (descent time, seconds)^2 will give the upper possibility for altitude (in metres), this is how far something falls neglecting drag. I don't think it is too far out for heavy, low altitude rockets. For comparing similar rockets, the descent time will say which fill ratio or which launch went highest, but may not allow accurate measurement of apogee. Comparing flight times for different rockets may not be helpful in determining which reaches greater altitude, it is possible than the shorter flight time was at a greater average speed, a rapid ascent and descent may take a rocket higher than a flight of longer duration undertaken by a lighter, "draggier" and slower rocket.
Impact-resistant nose: A tennis ball nose provides protection to the bottle. See the streamlining section for an explanation of the tennis ball nose. A children's buoyancy aid, or other material, may be cut into a desired shape and will also provide impact protection. In Japan, a commercially manufactured foam nose-cone is available.
Parachute descents: Various means of deploying parachutes at or near apogee have been devised.
Nose falls off at apogee: Noses can be arranged so that they will stay in place during near vertical flight, but fall off when the rocket turns to commence descent. This method was developed in Japan by Dr. Michio Orii. An example of this method of parachute deployment, seen in Japan by Dave Johnson, can be seen at Dave's www page, the third picture down at:
Balloon: Gary Ensmenger has used a small inflated balloon inside the nose cone, the balloon is squashed down during high-speed flight, as the drag force on the front of the rocket decreases the balloon expands, pushing the nose open and allowing the parachute to be released.
Air-speed flap: In February 1997, Dave Johnson first successfully used a self-designed air-speed flap system to release a parachute when rockets slow down near apogee. An air-speed flap is held down by the force of high-speed air currents, but springs open at apogee when a rubber band is able to overcome the then negligible wind force. The air-speed flap allows the rocket's nose-cone to swing open, releasing a parachute or payload with an attached parachute. Even without a parachute, but with an open nose-cone, a rocket may be unstable during descent, thereby having a much lower impact speed that otherwise. While on the launch-pad an air-speed activated trigger holds the air-speed flap down, the trigger is released once the rocket has attained a certain speed. Herve Bregent has also held the air-speed flap down with a paper-clip, pulled away after launch by a string attached to the launcher. See Dave Johnson's or Herve Bregent's www pages.
Clockwork timer: Bruce Berggren has used a clockwork mechanism from a toy to provide a time release for a parachute. After launch the clockwork device unwinds, a string wound around a rotating rod is released after a certain number of turns.
Bruce Berggren - crushing sleeve staging mechanism, construction tips, propped lever release, 1000ft Millennium rocket: http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Lab/5402
To unsubscribe, the body of a message sent to the same address should contain the words "unsubscribe water-rockets"
My favourite, and simplest rocket is made using a 660ml PET bottle. This rocket has removable fins and nose cone, allowing for easy interchange if the bottle becomes damaged. I have only ever retired these 660ml bottles as a precaution, they are very tough, surviving impacts on to sun-dried grass.
Part of a similar bottle is used as a nose. The nose cone is simply pushed into place, no glue or tape is required, a gum-nut (Eucalyptus seed capsule) is pushed into the neck to act as a nose weight and to improve the aerodynamics, a table tennis ball or rubber ball may serve the same function. This rocket comes down fast, so the nose cone must withstand large impact forces.
The fins can be made from any material that is easy to cut into shape, not too fragile, not too flexible and not too thick. The fins are attached to a cylindrical section from a 35mm film canister, as described in the conventional fin section.
Simulations indicate that this rocket, with an open mouth nozzle, should have considerable mass added to achieve maximum altitude, depending on air pressure and the drag coefficient (Cd). Higher air-pressure or higher Cd rockets will benefit most if mass is added.
2 litre rocket with cylindrical fin:
This rocket has a cylindrical fin cut from a similar bottle. The fin is attached with packing tape to the rocket body by two struts. Integrated circuit containers, light timber, plastic rulers or other materials may be suitable for use as struts. A tennis ball inside the nose-cone helps with both stability and crash-worthiness. With an open-mouth nozzle, screw-on fins similar to those on the 660ml rocket may be adequate, but with the cylindrical fin a T-nozzle may be used to investigate the flight characteristics of restricted nozzle rockets.
Making fins: Many people use flat-sided sections from PET bottles, folding the material so that the concave surfaces are outermost, making a rigid and flat fin from two layers of PET (previously curved in opposite directions). Fins such as these can be attached to a screw-on film canister mount, the rocket body itself, or a cylindrical section joined at the sides of the rocket. See below:
Bruce Berggren, has expressed a preference for " 1/16 basswood fins attached with E6000 adhesive. Not interchangeable, but very thin and light, and just about impossible to destroy."
Attaching fins: Fins can be placed on a screw-on mount, the rocket body itself or a cylindrical section joined at the sides of the rocket.
Screw-on mount: Screw a cap onto a bottle, hold the bottle and, with a hacksaw, saw the top off the bottle cap, so that a threaded section is left. This threaded section may be placed inside a cylinder, such as a 35mm film canister, so that it makes a screw-on fin mount. The hole in the base of the film canister can be cut to equal the inner diameter of the threaded section, leaving a small lip, this way the film canister will not come away from the threaded section during launch, otherwise glue may be used.
Cylindrical mount: A cylindrical section is positioned at the rear of the rocket, fins are attached with tape, staples or glue. The cylindrical mount itself can be taped to the rocket body.
Attaching to rocket body: The fins are further forward this way, so not as effective as similar sized fins positioned further back. The fins may be attached with tape or glue, beware of glues that may weaken the pressure-containing bottle. This form of attachment has the disadvantage of fins being difficult to remove and place on another bottle if the rocket is damaged.
Children find the collaborative design and decision making a powerful learning experience. Concepts such as streamlining and stability are grasped by hands-on learning. Fins, nozzles and nose cones may be made from various materials, using very different approaches. Parachute attached payloads may be delivered into the air, providing yet another design and construction challenge.
1. Consider a few of the following plants and animals and describe how you think they may or may not be structured to move in air or water.
Dandelion seed, tumbleweed, coconut, wedge-tailed eagle, feather glider, fruit bat, wombat, jelly fish, dolphin, hippopotamus.
2. Build a paper plane. Find where the centre of gravity is. Try moving the centre of gravity by adding one or more paper clips to different parts of the plane. How does it fly when the centre of gravity (CG) is in the middle? CG far forward? CG towards the back? Can you make it fly backwards?
3. As part of a team, see if you can make a PET bottle more streamlined, and move the centre of gravity forward of the centre of surface area. You may use adhesive gum and parts of other bottles for weight and streamlining material, fins may also be added to give more surface area. Think about the shapes and structures that animals have to assist them moving through air or water.
Parachutes may be made from old plastic bags, the large surface area and consequent high drag may be compared to the shapes of plants and animals, eg. wind-dispersed seeds, feather gliders, flying birds and mammal, jellyfish.
Parachutes may be deployed to either slow the descent of the entire rocket or that of a payload, such as a plastic figurine. The differing masses of these objects demonstrate the advantages of reducing mass when attempting to stay air-borne. The light-weight bones of birds, with honey-combed internal structures could be compared to those of terrestrial or marine mammals, where weight reduction is not an evolutionary priority.
Water rockets can be related to function and structure of living organisms, perhaps mostly by making students consider the way motion through air or water may be accomplished, and what features are desirable or essential.
Multi-stage rockets may be constructed, simulating the method used to place objects in earth orbit, or even to travel to the moon, planets or beyond the solar system.
1. Why does thrust = 2 * pressure * nozzle area ?
The following explanation was generously provided by Bruce Berggren, after I expressed my opinion that this relationship was not obvious to me, thinking thrust might only be half this value.
Yes, not intuitive at all. For those of us that use internal launch tubes, it implies that the thrust doubles when the last of the tube passes out of the nozzle. I suspect Gary has observed this when he had to 'help' his Big Bertha off the pad (see his web page).
The exit velocity of the water is given by Bernoulli's law:
Pressure = (1/2)(density)(Velocity)^2
so Velocity = sqrt(2P/density) (eq. 1)
Rocket thrust is given by Newton's second principle
Thrust = Time rate of change of Momentum
= (Velocity)(Mass rate of change)
= (Velocity)[(Nozzle Area)(Velocity)(density)]
= (Velocity)^2 (Nozzle Area)(density) (eq. 2)
Substituting the definition of Velocity from eq. 1, the density cancels and the thrust is
Thrust = 2PA
i) angle of attack less than 10°
ii) air-speed well below speed of sound
iii) smooth air flow over rocket body
iv) rocket body is thin and long
v) rocket nose comes smoothly to point
vi) rocket has radial symmetry
vii) rocket fins are thin, flat plates.
Brad Calvert 27 June 1998.
Barrowman, Jim. 1970 Centuri TIR-33. (Reprinted in the March, 1998 issue of High Power Rocketry ("Centuri TIR-33: Calculating the Center of Pressure of a Model Rocket," by Jim Barrowman, p. 74).
Kagan, D., Buchholtz, L. and Klein, L. 1995. Soda-Bottle Water Rockets, The Physics Teacher, pp. 150-157, Vol. 33.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1996. ROCKETS: A Teacher's Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology
Stine, Harry G. Handbook of model rocketry .......
Whole Earth News
some of the above, and perhaps others may be available from:
Pet Bottle Craft Association
c/o Sayama Shiyakusko
1-23-5 Irumagawa Sayama shi
Saitama pref. Japan #350-13
Pet Bottle Craft Association (Canada branch)
contact details obsolete and requested to be removed May 2006, maybe they still exist somewhere.
Bookservice Co. is a Japanese bookstore which accepts international orders
Acceleration: the rate at which velocity is increasing. The acceleration (m/s2) of an object is equal to the resultant force (N) acting on that object divided by the object's mass (kg).
Adiabatic expansion: circumstances where a gas, eg. air, expands without external heat entering the system. In the case of a water rocket, the compressed air expands very rapidly, so that heat entering the bottle is negligible during the gas-expansion phase. During adiabatic expansion:
Pressure * (Volume ^ 1.4) = constant
Air-speed flap: a hinged flap which is held down by the force of passing air until that force is reduced and no longer able to hold the flap down, allowing it to flip open and release a parachute or payload.
Altitude: the vertical distance, at a certain time, between an object and some other level such as the ground or sea.
Angle-of-attack: the angle between the long axis of the rocket and the relative wind speed. Launching in a cross-wind will lead to a non-zero angle-of-attack. Apogee: the maximum altitude reached during an object's travel
Atmosphere: sometimes air pressure is measured in atmospheres. One atmosphere is approximately equal to 101kPa or 14.7 PSI.
Barrowman equations: A set of equations developed in 1966 by NASA aerospace engineer Jim Barrowman. Barrowman's equations allow the small-angle-of-attack CP to be estimated. First published in 1970 as a report, Centuri TIR-33, they have more recently been reprinted in the March, 1998 issue of High Power Rocketry ("Centuri TIR-33: Calculating the Center of Pressure of a Model Rocket," by Jim Barrowman, p. 74).
Booster: a water rocket used to launch a second pressurised bottle (the sustainer), providing the sustainer with greater altitude and initial velocity than without the booster. The booster and sustainer are temporarily coupled by a staging mechanism, such as the Berggren crushing sleeve.
Calibre: the cross-sectional diameter of a rocket.
Cd: coefficient of drag, a constant, a measure of an object's ability to pass easily through air at a given speed. Low Cd values are desirable for ease of motion through air.
Centre of gravity: The point where an object can be balanced horizontally, like a balance scale. This may be demonstrated with by holding an object at the point where it balances. The centre of gravity (CG) depends on how the mass of an object is distributed.
Centre of pressure (CP): If an object was held at its CP and able to swivel about this point, it could be balanced vertically if held in a strong horizontal wind.
Circumferential splice: A method of joining two bottles at their circumferences.
CG: see centre of gravity
Conventional fin: a flat surface with low frontal area presented to the direction of motion, but greater area presented if motion is in an unintended direction. A non-cylindrical fin.
CP: see centre of pressure
Crushing sleeve: part of a staging mechanism, a flexible semi-elastic tube. When the booster is depressurised, the greater internal pressure in the sustainer compared to the booster forces the crushing sleeve to expand, thereby releasing the sustainer nozzle housed in the crushing sleeve and allowing the sustainer to commence providing thrust unencumbered by the larger and "draggier" booster.
Cylindrical fin: a fin made from a cylindrical section of a PET bottle or other material. Such a fin is held by struts so that it travels behind a PET rocket in such a way that the open ends of the cylinder allow air to pass freely through the cylinder while the rocket is travelling in the intended direction. Usually only one cylindrical fin trails behind a water rocket, but it is possible to use several attached to the sides of the rocket.
Deceleration: negative acceleration, ie. the rate at which velocity is decreasing. (See acceleration).
Drag: the force acting on an object due to the object's motion through air. Drag resists an object's motion through air.
Elevation (angle of): i) the angle between the line of sight at which an object is observed and a horizontal line. ii) the angle between a rocket prior to launch and the horizontal, eg. a vertical launch has a 90 degree angle of elevation.
Feet: plural of foot, a unit often used to measure altitude. One hundred feet = 30.48 metres (exactly).
Fill ratio: the ratio between water and air in a bottle, eg. a bottle one-half filled with water may be said to have a fill ratio of one-half or 50%.
Fin: a structure, usually used several at a time, intended to result in an object being aerodynamically stable. Fins present a low frontal area when an object is travelling in the intended direction, but will present a large area if the object travels otherwise. Also see Cylindrical fin.
Foot: singlular of feet, see feet. FTC: Flourescent Tube Cover, a plastic tube that protects flourescent tubes, also used to construct water-rocket sustainers.
Force: an influence, measured in Newtons (N), which is required to alter the velocity of a mass.
Frontal area: the area an object presents facing its direction of motion.
FTC tube: Fluorescent tube container tube. A clear plastic tube manufactured to protect fluorescent lights, these have also been used to make long and narrow water rockets.
Guppy: A rocket that has been thermoformed to be a low-drag streamlined shape.
kg: kilogram, a unit of mass.
kPa: kilopascal, a unit of pressure, see Pascal.
Launching tube: a tube that passes through a PET bottle neck and inside the bottle. The launching tube provides both guidance and additional thrust to a water rocket.
Mass: often confused with weight, however a certain object will have the same mass even in different gravitational fields. On the moon objects have the same mass but one-sixth as much weight. Throwing a brick through a window on the moon will do just as much damage on earth, the brick has the same mass, it will take as much force to accelerate the brick, but only one-sixth as much force to lift it vertically.
N: Newton, a unit of force.
Nozzle: the opening through which water and air escapes from a PET bottle after it has been released.
Pa: see Pascal
Parallel staging: a sustainer commences thrust at the same time as a number of boosters attached at the side. The boosters fall away when exhausted, the sustainer continues for a longer thrust duration. The US Space Shuttle launch is an example of parallel staging. See also: series staging.
Pascal: a unit of pressure equal to one Newton per square metre. Standard atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa.
PET bottle: a plastic bottle made from polyethylene-terephthalate. These bottles are commonly used to contain carbonated drinks.
Propulsion: the process of propelling or forcing an object to move in a direction.
PSI: pounds per square inch, a unit of pressure. One atmosphere is approximately equal to 14.7 PSI. Relative wind speed: the wind speed as measured by an imaginary rocket passenger, ideally this is the exact reverse of the rocket's speed relative to the ground, but crosswinds may alter this, leading to a non-zero angle-of-attack. In still conditions, a cyclist travelling at 30km/h feels a relative wind speed of 30km/h, but windy weather will alter this.
Resultant force: the sum total of all the forces acting on an object. A PET rocket may have thrust, drag and weight due to gravity all acting simultaneously. Drag and gravity both act downwards during ascent but drag acts upwards during descent. During ascent, if thrust is greater than the sum of drag and weight, the resultant force causes the rocket to accelerate.
Robinson coupling: method of joining two pressure-containing bottles, base-to-base, using a threaded lamp-rod connector (a threaded pipe with two nuts tightened from inside the bottles). Named after Bill Robinson, the first person to use such a joining method, in January 1997.
Series staging: the sustainer does not commence thrust until the booster is exhausted. The two or more stages are used sequentially. Most satelite launch vehicles use series staging. Also see: parallel staging.
Speed: the rate at which an objects position changes, may be measured in metres per second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h) or other units.
Stability: An aerodynamically stable object passes through the air (or water) in one direction without tumbling end over end in a chaotic way. A gliding bird or a dart is aerodynamically stable, a football is not. To be aerodynamically stable, an object must travel so that its centre of gravity is positioned towards the front of the object, ahead of the centre of pressure.
Staging mechanism: a device, such as the Berggren crushing sleeve, which allows two previously connected PET bottles to decouple after one (the booster) has become depressurised, the second bottle (the sustainer) then commences thrusting. See also: parallel staging, series staging.
Streamlined shape: A streamlined shape, when travelling in a certain direction, experiences less drag than a similar-sized non-streamlined shape. A dolphin is streamlined, it travels more freely through water than does a non-streamlined jellyfish. Birds are more streamlined than terrestrial animals. Many cars use streamlined shapes to reduce drag so they will consume less fuel by passing more easily through the air.
Surface area: Surface area contributes to drag. If a large surface area faces into the direction of motion or wind, much drag is encountered. If motion in a certain direction is wished to be reduced, orientating surface areas to face in that direction will increase drag and reduce the motion in that direction. A paper plane has a low frontal surface area to reduce drag that would otherwise inhibit forward motion, but when observed from below has a large surface area, resisting downward motion.
Sustainer: a water rocket which has been launched using a booster rocket. After the booster is depressurised the sustainer is released by a staging mechanism and then commences thrust. Called a sustainer because it sustains its pressure until after the booster has been exhausted.
Swing-test: a test of a rocket's aerodynamic stability, conducted by attaching a string near the rocket's CG and swinging the rocket around in a circle.
Terminal velocity: The maximum speed attained by a falling object, occurring when acceleration ceases due to the drag force being equal and opposite to the weight force acting on the object.
Thrust: the force acting upon an object due to that object's propulsion system.
VCP: Visual Centre of Pressure, a freeware Windows computer program enabling the CP of a rocket to be determined.
Velocity: a speed in a specified direction, velocity occurs in a straight line. An object travelling in circular motion may have a constant speed but has a continuously changing velocity due to the direction component changing continuously.


With its consistency in providing exceptional service in the aviation sector since it debuted in over a year ago and consistently increasing its fleet to meet the growing demand in the industry, Nigerian’s youngest carrier, Ibom Air is setting its eyes on becoming a regional airline.
According to eways-aviation.com, Ibom Air is one of the youngest airlines in Africa, but could dramatically change the landscape of Nigeria’s aviation landscape forever.
Who is Ibom Air?
Ibom Air was only founded last year in the summer of 2019 in June, by the Nigerian state government of Akwa Ibom.
“Never in the history of this nation or indeed anywhere else in Africa that I can recall, has a state government gone into airline operations. Akwa Ibom State is, therefore, the first to achieve this. We should all collectively give ourselves a pat on the back.” – State Governor of Akwa Ibom, Udom Emmanuel.
This is a regional government within Nigeria, not the federal government that has dabbled before in aviation (and its efforts are highlighted in our article on Nigeria’s airport landscape).
So far the airline has been very successful, growing its fleet from a single Bombardier CRJ900 to five. These aircraft are very useful for regional air travel in Africa, with a capacity to carry 76–90 passengers to a range of 1,553 nautical miles (2,876 km). A range that has allowed Ibom Air to open up several routes from its hub of Akwa Ibom Airport in Uyo to: Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport in Abuja, Margaret Ekpo International Airport in Calabar, Akanu Ibiam International Airport in Enugu, Murtala Muhammed International Airport in Lagos.
“With the arrival of this [new] aircraft, our modern and efficient fleet grows to five aircraft and Ibom Air continues to operate the youngest fleet amongst Nigeria’s airlines. This fleet strategy is in line with our vision to be a world-class African regional airline”, the airline announced to media.
The airline’s Bombardier CRJ900 aircraft are less than five years old and are from Calgary in Canada, where they previously operated for defunct Slovenian Adria Airways, or were in private use with Suncor Energy (a resource energy firm). Needless to say, these aircraft are extremely well cared for, high quality and come equipped with the latest aviation technology (including the sought after HEPA filters that clear the air of contaminants like the COVID virus).
“The reason for this is that with the right aircraft type, we don’t have to carry hundred passengers in order to make good the business. Our break-even point is lower than many of our competitors and as long as we have certain number of passengers per flight we are comfortable, and certainly, the market provides the number of passengers per flights. As long as we have those passengers or more, we continue to be profitable”. – Chief Operating Officer George Uriesi, to press regarding the aircraft type.
What are the airline’s future plans?
Having a young fleet of aircraft is only the beginning for this airline, with the carrier expressing ambitious plans for not just Nigerian airspace, but all of Africa.
The airline originally planned to acquire another two aircraft for its growing fleet, however, these plans have stalled thanks to the current market forces.
“We are busy reviewing our business plan now and (are) waiting to see what kind of traction we get,” he said. “We intend to grow our fleet of CRJ900s to ten, and we will then change to another, bigger aircraft type. We were going to get to 10 in three years, but with COVID-19, only God knows what’s going to happen.” – Chief Operating Officer George Uriesi, quoted by CH-Aviation.
The coronavirus has taken a toll on the airline, but as it has deep ties with the state government, it has been able to draw on unparalleled loans during the crisis.
With new aircraft, Ibom Air will start to gaze further afield from just Nigeria. The first on the list of international destinations is the city of Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, which is surprisingly close to Uyo but without any direct link. From there, the carrier will look at expanding over West and Central Africa; such as flight offerings to Accra (Ghana), Libreville (Gabon) and Douala (Cameroon). The strategy will focus on providing one-stop connections to destinations in regions with poor connectivity, such as Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Cameroon, and São Tomé & Príncipe.
Plus, the airline is also bringing its MRO inhouse, with the construction of a special maintenance facility at its Uyo hub. This will match the new international terminal under construction, that will work with the new above mentioned international routes. It has also been rumored that Middle Eastern power players are courting the airline to fund the MRO base and/or invest in the airline itself.
“We are going to have the smartest airport terminal building in the whole of Africa and that is under construction. We are going to commission the terminal building by December next year and once we commission it, we are going to start full international flights of Ibom Air by the first quarter of 2022”, – State governor Udom Emmanuel in October 2020.
In recent news, the airline has restored many of its routes around the country that were suspended due to the coronavirus, such as to Enugu.
Expect big things to come
The bottom line is that Ibom Air is doing everything right in the marketplace, with new aircraft, ambitious plans, and plenty of support. It is only a matter of time until the carrier cracks open new routes and seizes market share from (in this scenario) slow-moving aviation dinosaurs.
“Investors will continue to flock into our state, given the ease of traveling; the launch of this airline will engender the peace we enjoy and the hospitality of our people. We are all winners in this.” – finished Udom Emmanuel, at the launch event.


The Route ahead
This is the basic rating required of all pilots. A Private certificate will allow you to carry passengers and enjoy the privileges and freedom of flight. All other ratings in the program build from this primary rating.
A Commercial rating is required for a pilot to be employed as a professional pilot. While this is not the only rating you will need to become employable, it is generally the second step in your flight training.
The CFI rating enables a pilot to teach other Private, Commercial and CFI students in the helicopter and in a classroom. We encourage students enrolled in our Professional Pilot Program to work towards their CFI rating at the same time they are preparing for their Commercial rating. A pilot’s first job flying will likely be as an instructor, which is why we include this training in the Professional Pilot Program.
The School is scheduled for 1,5 Years for the full course of these 5 Licenses.
Discover the different Stepping stones along the way.
The Instrument Rating enables a pilot
to fly the aircraft referencing only the instrument panel, a desirable skill to possess in clouds or any situation where visibility is impaired. In today’s job market, most employers require this rating.
Instrument Rating (IFR)
Instrument Instructor rating enables the pilot to teach Instrument and CFI-I students both in the helicopter and in a classroom. Although employers are not necessarily looking for CFI-I applicants, the rating adds depth to a pilot’s skills and is attractive to potential employers. Also, many schools, including Mauna Loa, require this rating in order to be employed as an instructor.
More about my Flight School
Donate & Join the Crew
Ask me anything
I know its a lot to take in. If you have more questions feel free to write or give me a Call.
You want to be a part of seeing this come together? Than help me get there by Adopting a Box.
Got more Questions?
Join the Crew
External Load Training
External Load or sling line training teaches the pilot to lift and move an external load by employing a sling line attached to the helicopter. Typically this skill will help pilots when looking for work with utility operations, such as logging, emergency evacuation, and moving objects into or out of remote locations.
Mountain & Valley Training
As with high altitude operations, flying in valleys and mountainous areas requires a specific set of skills. Unpredictable winds, downdrafts and other phenomenon can make mountain and valley flying particularly challenging.
Offshore training will help you develop the confidence and experience to be comfortable flying out of sight of land. Such experience is helpful for many jobs, especially in the oil industry, which can require pilots fly long distances over water.
This Training is integrated in the Licenses
External Load or sling line training teaches the pilot to lift and move an external load by employing a sling line attached to the helicopter.
As with high altitude operations, flying in valleys and mountainous areas requires a specific set of skills.
Offshore training will help you develop the confidence and experience to be comfortable flying out of sight of land.
Class B Airspace Training
Mastering the ins and outs of Class B prepares the pilot to operate comfortably in any airport environment.
High Altitude Training
This training, as the name suggests, teaches the pilot to fly safely at higher altitudes.
The nation’s busiest airports are surrounded by what is classified as Class B Airspace. Student pilots are often intimidated by the prospect of flying shoulder-to-shoulder with large aircraft in a quickly changing environment. Mastering the ins and outs of Class B prepares the pilot to operate comfortably in any airport environment. Students enrolled in our Commercial training typically receive Class B exposure, but the training can be requested by any rated pilot.
This training, as the name suggests, teaches the pilot to fly safely at higher altitudes. Because aircraft and engine performance at altitude is compromised, training is essential for student pilots to acquire the necessary finesse and skill. For those interested in eventually working in the mountains, this training is quite helpful.
MLH in association with Night Flight Concepts, has launched a night vision goggle (NVG) training program.
Robinson Safety Course
The Robinson Pilot Safety Course is a 3-1/2 day course.
MLH in association with Night Flight Concepts, has launched a night vision goggle (NVG) training program. The Mauna Loa NVG course provides in-depth academic curriculum and operational flight training in order to increase safety, situational awareness and mission operation capabilities during night flight.
The Robinson Pilot Safety Course is a 3-1/2 day course, which includes 2-1/2 days of classroom instruction and 1 day devoted to maintenance, pre-flight inspections, and flying with an experienced RHC pilot in the R22 or R44. The course is held at Robinson Helicopter Company headquarters in Torrance California. This course is not a requirement for graduation.


B34 polyimide glass laminate includes a high operating temperature bismaleimide resin pressed with glass reincorcements. The result is a high performance laminate capable of maintaining mechanical strength and rigidity in high temperature applications. Initially developed for the aerospace industry, B34 displays good electrical strength, dimensional stability and chemical resistance. This material is supplied as a direct alternative to genuine TUFNOL® 6G92.
B34 is typically manufactured into electrically insulating, high operating temperature components by CNC milling, routing, turning and drilling the material. Our in-house facilities allow us to manufacture custom components to your specific requirements. For additional information along with examples of our work, please visit our machining service page.
B34 is manufactured to BS EN 60893 Standard: 3-7-PIGC301.
High temperature electrical components, thermal splash barriers, welding jigs and fixtures, chemical resistant components.
- Temperature: Up to +200°C continuous (+250°C intermittent).
- Maintains properties at elevated temperatures.
- Excellent mechanical strength.
- Good dimensional stablity and chemical resistance.
- BS EN 60893 Standard: 3-7-PIGC301.
- BS 3953 Standard: PI1 (since superseded by BS EN 60893).


Your Brain on Love - AARP
Did you know that Love starts in the brain? Learn how relationships with others impact your brain.
Most Recent Similar Videos
Rocket Woman Peggy Whitson Breaks Records
At age 56, NASA Astronaut Peggy Whitson has spent more time in space than any woman in NASA history. On November 17, she'll become the first woman to command the U.S. space station twice! Follow her journey here: http://go.nasa.gov/2fuZ7Pt
Male Caregiving: Andres & Eva
Andres shares the challenges and triumphs of caring for a terminally ill partner.
Shipbuilding Made Possible by Bringing Generations Together - AARP
At Huntington Ingalls Shipbuilding, there are 1,200 employees that have been with the company for 40+ years building warships for the U.S. Navy.
Beginner Yoga – High Lunge Pose - AARP
Learn how to do the high lunge pose. Namaste!


Conventional Material Performance Comparison
Light weight, high specific strength, corrosion resistance, etc.
Light weight, high axial compressive strength, poor longitudinalimpact resistance, brittleness.
High strength, good tenacity, easy to be corroded
Automobile lightening, which can not only reduce energy consumption and pollution, but also save energy and improve driving performance, has become one of the focus of global automobile enterprises. Aluminum Alloys is a preferred material of lightening weight for the automobile industry because of its light specific gravity/light weight, superior corrosion resistance and formability.
Relative extrusions and cast structural parts produced by our 7A48 aldural has been applied to auto battery trays, anti-collision beams, frames, etc., which has higher strength, better fatigue resistance and stress corrosion cracking resistance performance than the commonly used aluminum alloy materials.
The implementation of China's major aerospace strategic project has put forward new requirements for the overall performance of high-performance and high-strength aluminum alloy. 7A48 high-strength aluminum alloy has excellent comprehensive properties such as high strength, corrosion resistance and weldability, and can be applied to aircraft landing gear, skin and the like in the aerospace field.
With the implementation of the maritime power strategy, a number of national heavy ships such as indigenous aircraft carriers and polar research ships have come out in succession. Our scandium-bearing 5000 series aluminium alloy has the characteristics of high specific strength, corrosion resistance, low temperature resistance and excellent welding performance, which has room for widespread application in the marine industry.
Three Cs Electronics(Computer, Communication, Consumer Electronic)
Aluminum alloy is widely used in high-end Three Cs electronic products because of its light weight, excellent thermal conductivity, non-magnetic, strong metal texture after anodizing and gorgeous color. Our 5000 series and 7000 series scandium-bearing aluminum alloys have high strength and meanwhile have both good anodizing properties and stamping performance. They have a wide range of applications in Three Cs electronic final products such as mobile phones, tablets, and all-in-one products.
In the field of bicycles, sports equipment (such as golf clubs, hockey sticks, flashlights, etc.), our 7A48 new high-strength aluminum alloy has extensive applications.
Hunan Oriental Scandium Co.,Ltd. Xiang ICP No. 17000457-1


Innovation in Shipmanagement
Bernhard Schulte Shipmanagement (BSM) has followed the aviation industry's lead and produced practical, easy-to-understand safety procedures in 'friendly' English.
INNOVATION can sometimes mean taking a bright idea from one industry and adapting it to meet a need in another one.
BSM has taken a leaf out of the aviation industry’s approach to safety management, according to chief operating officer David Furnival.
In short, the company used the aviation approach of having practical, easy-to-understand safety procedures.
It may seem remarkably straightforward, but BSM rewrote increasingly comprehensive and complex safety management tools to reflect the style used by airline crews.
The first result was the company’s marine manuals. Processes are now unified, with better cross-checking. Uniquely, says Mr Furnival, these end rather than begin with a checklist, which has been the more common practice.
The language of the manuals is also standardised. Given the multiple nationalities employed by a large shipmanager such as BSM, it is important to have instructions about processes and procedures in a unified format and use 'friendly' English, said Mr Furnival.
BSM has also advanced its planned maintenance systems, using its own bespoke IT platform to tie maintenance information across fleets. It is now looking at tying that into technology manufacturers' platforms to allow equipment performance to be better monitored and overhauls to be better controlled.
In an age where engineers get to see fewer maintenance overhauls, this is also allowing the company to plan which engineers need to be present when an overhaul is planned, to improve training and experience.
Published on Lloyd's List (October 25, 2016)


Skymaster owner Anton Lin and his staff have a well earned reputation for quality, design innovation and product performance from customers around the world.
Every Skymaster plane is hand build in moulds and provides exact form. The all composite structures are the strongest and lightest available. Skymaster customers have the option of white gel coat airframes that can be custom painted or the choice of many highly detailed scale or sport schemes. Skymaster externally paints the schemes onto the airframe, which means no visible seams.
Undercarriage components are CNC machined to exact model specifications and provide outstanding performance while in flight and on the ground. Scale cockpits and other accessories are also available for the truly scale look.
The X-Treme line includes nearly everything a new or seasoned jet owner would need. The X-treme line provides:
Skymaster Pro ARF Plus models are larger scale & higher performance sport / scale airframes. These planes are the envy of jet consumers around the world for there looks and amazing flight capabilities.


Jacob is a creative and crafty student who enjoys working with his hands; that’s why he chose Lehigh Career & Technical Institute. During rotations — a six-week period new students spend exploring three of LCTI’s career and technical education programs — he fell in love with Precision Machine Tool Technology, proving the apple doesn’t fall far from the tree. Jacob’s father, Stefan, is a machinist.
For Jacob, the best part of machining is moving from inception to production. You come up with an idea and then you make it happen, he explains. “You have the freedom to create something.”
Jacob is a William Allen High School senior who also takes his academics at LCTI. In addition to dozens of career and technology education programs, LCTI has an Academic Center that offers English, math science, social studies and physical education courses for full-day students.
Jacob is currently on co-op with Bihler of America. He hopes to secure an apprenticeship with the company so he can continue working there after graduation while he takes courses at Lehigh Carbon Community College. Ultimately, he’d like to transfer to Penn Tech or another school where he can earn a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering while minoring in exercise science, aerospace engineering or both.
Jacob developed an interest in aerospace engineering thanks to LCTI’s participation in NASA’s HUNCH program. “We made parts for the International Space Station,” he said. “It was fun, it was a great experience. It really opened us up to the things you could do with these skills.”
Through the program, students fabricate training and flight certified hardware and soft-goods that are then used by NASA astronauts and personnel. Jacob would love to go to work for NASA one day.
Learn more about the Precision Machine Tool Technology program and how it prepares high school students for college and career success.


Gogo and SES Sign Capacity Deals to Meet Surging Inflight Connectivity Demand
SES (Euronext Paris and Luxembourg Stock Exchange: SESG) today announced new satellite capacity deals with Gogo (NASDAQ: GOGO) to meet the growing demand for high-speed inflight connectivity services on travel routes over the US and Canada. The new contracts with Gogo include capacity on 12 additional Ku-band transponders, as well as supporting ground infrastructure. With these latest agreements, Gogo has now signed important capacity deals across 11 SES satellites around the world, including significant long-term agreements for Ku-band high throughput (HTS) capacity onboard two SES satellites (SES-14 and SES-15) scheduled for launch this year. SES continues to build a global network of multi-layered, multi-band capacity to meet the specific needs and requirements of the evolving aeronautical market.


Strapped to the back of a Boeing 747, Discovery space shuttle landed in Washinton D.C. to be permanently grounded. Discovery will be placed in a newly-added wing of the Smithsonian, which my husband and I saw being built the last time we were in D.C. When NASA laid off 1000 workers last year, we were crushed. My husband’s childhood dream was to work for NASA. To rub salt in the wound, Houston isn’t getting a shuttle, even though every astronaut that has flown in a shuttle has called Houston home. The space shuttle Endeavour is going to the California Science Center in Los Angeles. Even Manhattan is getting the Endeavor orbiter. Seattle! Why is Seattle getting anything? (ok, evidently a museum of flight) Space Center Houston, the museum down the road from Mission Control, is getting two seats from a shuttle’s flight deck. How kind. So when we watched the Discovery land today, it brought out a bit of sadness and, dare I say it, bitterness.
But we have to let all that go. Resentment, anger and negativity are only acid to our well being. So one dream landed today. All great changes are preceded with chaos and we’ve got infinite possibilities taking flight. Bet.


Sanjan graduated from Monash University with degrees in Aerospace Engineering and Law. He has also gained valuable industry experience working for both small and large engineering businesses, which has sparked a passion he has for protecting ideas, inventions and designs – be it for sole inventors, large corporate enterprises or anything in between.
For over seven years, Sanjan worked at an automotive workshop where he developed a practical understanding of mechanical systems and applications. He thereafter worked for a multinational defence contractor and a major commercial aircraft manufacturer, and in so doing was involved in design, repair and sustainment activities, including development of design methodologies for composite components. Although he no longer works in the aerospace industry Sanjan continues to enjoy designing, building and flying (and occasionally crashing) remotely piloted aircraft/drones.
Sanjan has an active role in the drafting, filing and prosecuting, through to grant/registration, of patent and design applications. He also assists in validity, infringement and due diligence assessments, including freedom-to-operate and patentability searches, as well as general advisory services in relation to IP portfolio review and management.
Sanjan’s technology practice areas include automotive, aerospace, manufacturing, medical device, household appliance and general “engineered” product spaces.
- Member: Intellectual Property Society of Australia and New Zealand
- Member: Institute of Patent and Trade Mark Attorneys of Australia
- Member: Engineers Australia – Mechanical Division
- Member: Law Institute of Victoria
- Bachelor of Aerospace Engineering (with Honours)
- Bachelor of Laws (with Honours)


EMS providers play a crucial role in facilitating helicopter operations and setting up landing zones for patient transport.
Here are key points they need to know:
Landing Zone Criteria:
- The landing zone should be a minimum of 100’x100', suitable for both day and night operations.
- Ensure the site is free of obstacles, hazards, and debris.
- Opt for a firm surface and avoid slopes greater than five degrees whenever possible.
- Soft sand or dirt landing sites should be avoided, but can be wet down as a last resort.
- Conduct a thorough survey of the landing site to identify overhead power lines, telephone wires, antennas, buildings, or tall trees.
- Attempt to remove or limit any obstructions from the landing location.
- If obstructions cannot be removed, inform the flight crew, and be prepared to find an alternative location if necessary.
Marking the Landing Zone:
- Mark the landing zone using weighted cones or position emergency vehicles at the corners, with headlights facing inward to form an X.
- Clearly visible markings help pilots identify the designated landing area, especially during low-light conditions.
- Inform the flight crew of wind direction and speed, particularly if strong winds exist.
- Weather conditions can impact helicopter operations, and pilots need this information to make informed decisions.
- Ensure all nonessential personnel, bystanders, and vehicles are at least 200 feet away from the landing zone.
- This safety buffer protects individuals from potential hazards associated with helicopter operations.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
- Responders operating near the landing zone should wear appropriate PPE, including helmets with chin straps, ear protection, and face shields or other eye protection.
- Be prepared for high wind and noise associated with helicopter take-offs and landings.
- Maintain effective communication with the flight crew before, during, and after the landing.
- Be prepared to provide updated information about the landing zone, weather conditions, and any changes in the situation.
- By adhering to these guidelines, EMS providers can contribute to the safe and efficient operation of helicopter transports, ensuring the well-being of both the patient and the emergency response team.


This course provides an opportunity for high school students to pursue and receive credit for college-level course work at the same time high school graduation requirements are completed. In this course, the student will be introduced to aircraft hardware and materials, precision measuring and non-destructive testing, aircraft ground operations, fuels, cleaning and corrosion control methods, and the use of aircraft drawings. Identification and selection of aircraft hardware, performance of non-destructive testing, fabrication and inspection of flexible fluid lines, identification of fuels, use of cleaning materials, and corrosion control programs are emphasized. Upon completion students should be able to perform nondestructive tests, use precision measuring tools, fabricate and install rigid and flexible fluid lines, select hardware and fuels, handle and secure an aircraft, and identify, read, create, and interpret aircraft drawings. College credit is earned through the Dual Enrollment/Accelerated Learner Program with Enterprise State Community College.


Exercise TIGER SOAR 15 was a two week Adventurous Training Expedition in the French Alps run by the Army Gliding Association (AGA) 18 Apr – 3 May 15. Seven Army glider pilots deployed, two of whom are reservists: Lt Col Ian McFarlane YORKS and Maj Jamie Sage RE (Chairman AGA). Both Jamie and Ian are instructors at the Army clubs at Upavon and Wattisham Airfields.
The group included two experienced mountain instructors, of which Jamie was one; one instructor on a development programme and four experienced pilots ready for advanced development.
The expedition was based at Sisteron Airfield to facilitate advanced training and cross country flying into the mountainous terrain where thermal (warm air rising) and dynamic (wind onto ridges) lift conditions enabled flights lasting more than 6 hours and in excess of 500Km.
Jamie is an experienced Alpine and mountain instructor with four Alpine expeditions in his log book and he flies regularly at a mountain site in Wales. His role was to train and supervise the other pilots to the new challenges of this environment.
This was Ian’s first experience of the Alps; he began with flights in a two seat glider to familiarise himself with the area and begin to understand how this challenging environment interacts with the elements. He was taken to a variety of ridges and shown the new skills required to fly safely and efficiently often within 50m of imposing rock faces. New navigation techniques were learned and emergency landing procedures practised with a requirement to stay in range of known emergency outlanding sites (suitable fields are few and far between in this part of the world).
After 8 hours of gruelling lessons, Ian was despatched for a 3 hour local solo sortie to consolidate his new skills.
With the prospect of stronger winds the next day, Jamie and Ian planned a flight to exploit conditions which allow flights into much higher airspace. The wind “bounces” upwards and enables gliders to achieve altitudes of 20,000 feet and higher above sea level. After ensuring that their Oxygen systems, radios and procedures for high flying were in order, the pair launched and worked their way upwards using the system of ridges and peaks that provided the lift. Using Oxygen at altitudes greater than 10,000 feet, Jamie and Ian soared for over an hour beneath the clouds at 15,000 feet and explored some areas of the Alps into which Jamie had not previously flown.
As the expedition continued, confidence and abilities improved so that a plan was made for an iconic flight to Mont Blanc. Jamie and Ian were in separate dual seat gliders and flew a similar route northwards, into the higher ground. Conditions weren’t as good as forecast, but as Ian was in a higher performance aircraft with another instructor; they made their goal at Mont Blanc. Jamie’s glider was more limited so he had to revise his objective and decided to explore the Grenoble – Albertville Valley and meet with Ian’s glider on their return.
The favourable conditions declined and by late afternoon, both gliders were struggling to find sources of workable lift. Everyone was now working very hard, using all of the skills learnt but the likelihood of making it back to Sisteron was looking less likely. By now, the gliders were working independently and looking at the options for a safe outlanding. Charts were checked; the list of fields and their details were consulted and plans made. When the safety heights were reached, the gliders flew to their chosen (farmers’) fields, made a recce, and landed – all quite safely. Ian’s glider drew little attention and after contacting their retrieve crew with the details, retired to the local village for a refreshment. Jamie’s landing however attracted a lot more attention, with the local Gendermarie promptly on the scene, quickly followed by a large crowd who hosted an impromptu party until the retrieve crew arrived – by now in the dark.
Further training and experience was developed until the final day when Ian was sent solo again, with a plan to conduct a “lead and follow” sortie for a route deep into the mountains. This final flight saw all gliders and pilots airborne and working mutually to complete flights in excess of 250Km.
A total of 38 flights for 127 hours were flown, of which Jamie added 35 to his log book and Ian gained a further 32 hours experience. The benefits to individual pilots were considerable and will enable all to take their skills to a higher level, especially during the annual Interservices Gliding Competition at Bicester in August and for instructing students and visitors to their home clubs.
We are very grateful to the Ulysses Trust for their generous support for this high level, very committing, Alpine expedition.


Functions of an Aviation Consultant
Aviation consultants are the people who work with aviation companies, attorneys, and insurance companies. They are there to provide the solution to some complicated technical issues. They are involved in the development of the aviation certification programs and also overseeing all the procedures involved in the surveillance of traffic in the air. Dealing with the accident in the air can be difficult because it is also dangerous. These service providers will ensure that the accident cases are not recorded because they will be dealing with the safety of the air crafts. Now look at the following things and know everything you will get when you consider hiring an aviation consultant. The main duty of these service providers is to offer technical reviews.
That is, they are well experienced in conducting operational analysis. All this service will be aimed at knowing how the operation is going and the performance of the machines that are involved. All the safety procedures are supposed to be performed by the aviation consultant. An aviation consultant is also allowed to establish new consultant management so long as safety is recorded. All thee will be done to suites the needs of the companies that they are working for. Another work that these people will do is the maintenance off the aircraft. They know everything about managing airports and other related practices and procedures. All the airport transport terms are in the mind of these service providers to help them provide safety.
There is something called an aircraft control systems. If you do not have the information about these systems as a company, then there are a lot of mistakes that you might do out there. Therefore, you should be thinking of getting an aviation consultant who will advise you about the control systems. When the repair of aircraft has been completed, the aircraft will be used until the aviation consultant approves of them. They have all the knowledge of diagnosing all the systems and ensuring that they are safe to be used. In case of some legal problems, the service providers will also give you the related advice that will help you get everything that you need. When the company is taken to court because of some reason, these service providers will ensure that they represent you in court.
They know every legal process that is involved that will help them know how to win all the cases that are before the court. As mentioned above, they work with the best aviation lawyers that will also help you gather the right information you will use in court. After doing everything analyzing everything that is needed, the aviation consultant will create a report containing all the information that you require. It is good to get the best services by hiring a good aviation consultant to help you with the work. You might get a lot of them in the market but ensure that you investigate to get the best. Some of the information that you need to know about these service providers are on the internet. Consider doing the search there and get the best aviation consultant according to your needs.


Scientists say the probe's instruments indicate it has moved beyond the bubble of hot gas from our Sun and is now moving in the space between the stars.
Launched in 1977, Voyager was sent initially to study the outer planets, but then just kept on going.
This distance is so vast that it takes 17 hours now for a radio signal sent from Voyager to reach receivers here on Earth.
"This is really a key milestone that we'd been hoping we would reach when we started this project over 40 years ago - that we would get a spacecraft into interstellar space," said Prof Ed Stone, the chief scientist on the venture.
"Scientifically it's a major milestone, but also historically - this is one of those journeys of exploration like circumnavigating the globe for the first time or having a footprint on the Moon for the first time. This is the first time we've begun to explore the space between the stars," he told BBC News.
Sensors on Voyager had been indicating for some time that its local environment had changed.
The data that finally convinced the mission team to call the jump to interstellar space came from the probe's Plasma Wave Science (PWS) instrument. This can measure the density of charged particles in Voyager's vicinity.
Readings taken in April/May this year and October/November last year revealed a near-100-fold jump in the number of protons occupying every cubic metre of space.
Scientists have long theorised such a spike would eventually be observed if Voyager could get beyond the influence of the magnetic fields and particle wind that billow from the surface of the Sun.
When the Voyager team put the new data together with information from the other instruments onboard, they calculated the moment of escape to have occurred on or about 25 August, 2012.
- India Violet Updated at: Saturday, September 14, 2013


|Other titles||Space Ship One|
|Statement||Dan Linehan ; foreword by Arthur C. Clarke.|
|LC Classifications||TL795 .L56 2008|
|The Physical Object|
|Pagination||160 p. :|
|Number of Pages||160|
|LC Control Number||2007043098|
May 22, · “SpaceShipOne is the detailed story of the path to winning the Ansari X prize, a process that proved that ordinary people could fly into space without a so-called rocket This book would appeal to anyone, in middle school and up, who is interested in flying, designing planes or spacecraft, and the details of how someone tried and succeeded in reaching a seemingly unattainable goal/5(17). Sep 29, · SpaceShipOne (SS1), the first private manned space vehicle, which flew past the boundary of space (, metres, or , feet) over the United States in in competition for the Ansari X Prize. Inspired by the Orteig Prize won by Charles Lindbergh for . May 15, · SpaceShipOne book. Read reviews from world’s largest community for readers. “One of the most remarkable accomplishments in our conquest of gravity.” — Si /5(16). “SpaceShipOne is the detailed story of the path to winning the Ansari X prize, a process that proved that ordinary people could fly into space without a so-called rocket This book would appeal to anyone, in middle school and up, who is interested in flying, designing planes or spacecraft, and the details of how someone tried and succeeded 5/5(1).
Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for SpaceShipOne: An Illustrated History by Dan Linehan (, Paperback) at the best online prices at eBay! Free shipping for many products! Jun 14, · Before SpaceShipOne, space travel was only possible through the collective aspirations of entire nations. After all, it was the former Soviet Union’s space program that put humans in space on April 12, , while the United States’ own National Aeronautics and Space Administration leapfrogged them eight years later by being the first country to put a human on the moon. Virgin Galactic recognizes that the answers to many of the challenges we face in sustaining life on our beautiful planet, lie in making better use of space. A major turning point for private spaceflight occurred on June 21, , when SpaceShipOne, the first nongovernmental crewed spacecraft, flew miles ( kilometers) above Earth's surface.
SpaceShipOne won the $10 million Ansari X Prize for repeated flights in a privately developed reusable spacecraft, the Collier Trophy for greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics in , and the National Air and Space Museum Trophy for Current Achievement. The Museum will host a reception and panel discussion with best-selling author Julian Guthrie, who will discuss her new book about the Ansari XPRIZE competition, “How to Make a Spaceship: A Band of Renegades, an Epic Race, and the Birth of Private Spaceflight.”Joining Guthrie will be three major figures in the story, Ansari XPRIZE founder Peter Diamandis, cofounder Erik Lindbergh, and Dave. SpaceShipOne Program Summary SpaceShipOne (Tier-1) test program nor about details of the design and fabrication of SS1 and its systems. This presentation tells the story of how a seen in Paul’s book “Idea Man”, and in two Discovery video documentaries titled. SpaceShipOne. SpaceShipOne raced to space on October 4, and won the $10 million Anasari X-Prize. A bit earlier, on June 21, , SpaceShipOne was the first privately-funded human-operated spacecraft to venture into space when it flew to approximately kilometers (60 miles) in height twice over a two week period.


Forty years ago, the U.S. Apollo program put the first human on the moon. Now, NASA is gearing up to go back.
"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." On July 20, 1969, millions of Americans turned on their televisions to see American astronaut Neil Armstrong, who spoke these words from the surface of the moon. For 19 minutes, Armstrong stood alone where no human had ever stood before. Then crewmember Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin joined him on the gray, dusty soil. Though the black-and-white television images were jerky and blurred, ecstatic earthlings felt as if they, too, had soared above the world.The Eagle Has Landed
In the 1950s and '60s, two countries raced to get to the moon first: the U.S. and the Soviet Union (a large nation of republics, including Russia, that existed until 1991). Unmanned Soviet rockets got to the moon first, but the Apollo program made history.
Three astronauts manned the Apollo 11 mission: Armstrong, Aldrin and Michael Collins. The trip from Earth to the moon took four days. A special lunar module, nicknamed Eagle, carried Armstrong and Aldrin to and from the moon while Collins remained in lunar orbit. The landing was tense. It took Armstrong longer than expected to find a level place to land. The lunar module had less than 40 seconds of fuel remaining when it safely touched down. "The Eagle has landed," Armstrong reported. "You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue," responded Charles Duke, at NASA's headquarters in Houston, Texas. "We're breathing again."
Armstrong and Aldrin spoke to President Richard Nixon by radio telephone. They set up scientific experiments, collected soil samples and planted an American flag on the surface of the moon. They also left behind a plaque that reads: "We came in peace for all mankind." Though the flag was blown over when the lunar module took off, the footprints left by the astronauts are still there.Back to the Moon
NASA aims to send people back to the moon in 2020. Plans are already in high gear. "We'll launch the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in June, which is the first step," explains Grey Hautaluoma, who works for NASA's moon exploration program. "It will map the moon in more detail than ever before to help select a landing site for the future missions."
NASA's goal is to build a lunar outpost, a place where astronauts could live for months at a time while doing scientific research and experiments. NASA is also building lunar rovers, vehicles astronauts could use to explore large sections of the moon. "We're excited about going back to the moon," Hautaluoma told TFK. "We've only really been there a handful of days, so there's a lot that we have yet to learn."


In a statement posted Wednesday, Southwest CEO Gary Kelly said he experienced a quiet and smooth ride when he joined one of the more than 200 Max readiness flights that the airline has conducted since late last year. “To be clear, I have the utmost confidence in our ability to safely operate the Boeing 737 MAX,” he said. “I hope you will be reassured, as I am, to know all that has gone into making the MAX among the most-reviewed planes in the world.”
On March 13, 2019, the Federal Aviation Administrationthe 737 Max in the US, becoming the last major country in the world to ground the plane. The decision came after in Indonesia and Ethiopia killed a combined total of 346 people.
The FAAorder 18 months later, on Nov. 19, on the condition that Boeing and airlines modify the flight control system and increase pilot training. In his March 10 statement, Kelly detailed the software changes and said Southwest’s pilots will complete simulator training before being allowed back into the cockpit.
“These changes have been reviewed and approved by the FAA, he said. “With these enhancements, I am confident we will be ready to operate the MAX in accordance with the FAA’s requirements.”
Though American resumed 737 Max flights initially on its New York La Guardia to Miami route, Southwest won’t be limiting the plane to certain routes. And, as spotted by aviation journalist Jason Rabinowitz this morning, a handful of Max Southwest aircraft were flying all over the country.
Through May 31, passengers booked on a Max flight (you can find your aircraft type on your itinerary) can change to a flight on without paying a fee (but subject to availability). If they don’t wish to fly at all, they can get a refund or a credit for future travel, depending on their ticket type (contact Southwest for the exact terms).
In addition to the FAA, other safety agencies around the world have lifted their own grounding orders after conducting independent reviews of the aircraft. The list includes Brazil, Canada, , Australia and most recently Argentina.,


The following commercial airlines have daily scheduled flights to the Mara:
Mombasa Air Services
Boskovic Air Charters
**** Please Note ****
**Landing Fees can be paid at the KAPS Office in Nairobi, or at the Serena airstrip. Any cheques should be made payable to the Mara Conservancy.
** Planes can be parked at any of the airstrips; however security is not provided.
** There is no avgas available in the Mara Triangle.


The introductory flight includes instruction with a ceritfied flight instructor. You will spend some of the time learning about the airplane on the ground, as taught by the flight instructor. You will then take to the air with the flight instructor, where you will get takeoff, control and pilot the aircraft. At the end of the flight, the flight instructor will land the aircraft. The aircraft will be a Piper Cherokee 140.


||26 Dec 1919
||, Ontario
||World War II - Royal Canadian Air Force - 105 (R.A.F.) Squadron  |
|Eby ID Number
||13 Nov 1942
||Atlantic Ocean
||Flushing (Vilissingen) Northern Cemetery, Zeeland, Netherlands
||14 Mar 2017 |
||Fred Milton "Fred" Anderson, b. 29 Oct 1897, Guelph City, Wellington Co., Ontario , d. 1972 |
||Irene Marie Richards, b. 25 Feb 1899, Toronto, York Co., Ontario , d. 1958 |
||14 Oct 1918
||Toronto, York Co., Ontario
- Flying a de Havilland DH. 98 Mosquito FB. Mk IV (#DZ320), Flying Officer CHARLES ANDRE GRAHAM of the Royal Australian Air Force (the Pilot) and Flying Officer ROBERT FRED LINDSAY ANDERSON of the Royal Canadian Air Force (the Navigator) departed from RAF Marham, Norfolk, England; and were shot down by Anti-Aircraft Artillery fire from the German merchant ship "Neumark", at 12:51 o'clock, at Oostkapelle, during an attack on German ships off Vlissingen.
- [S1886] Military - Canada - Second World War Service Files Canadian Armed Forces War Dead.
Anderson, Robert Fred Lindsay 22 years Birthdate: 1919 Dec 26 Died: 1942 Nov 13 Rank: Flying Officer Unit: Royal Canadian Air Force Force: Air Service Number: J10415 Additional Details son of Fred M. & Irene M. Anderson of Waterloo, Ontario


How long does it take to fly between perth, australia and dubai, united arab emirates get the flight duration use the calculator to view a. Flight duration time and distance from perth to dubai time difference between perth, australia and dubai, uae see how far it is from perth to dubai in miles and kilometers. Emirates lounge - perth international airport, perth, western australia 29 likes emirates has got to be my favorite airline of all time and the perth airport one. How long is the flight from perth, western australia to if you take emirates airlines via dubai the total travel time oh to perth, western australia. How long is a flight from london england to perth australia how long flight from perth australia to dubai how long is flight time from perth western.
Book your flights to perth australia with qantas codeshare flights between dubai and perth are operated by take a flight to perth, western australia's. Flight status and timetable of all flights, arriving from and departing to perth from dubai international airport emirates airlines operates on dubai-perth-dubai segment. Flights to perth, australia qantas codeshare flights between dubai and perth are operated by emirates and take a flight to perth, western australia's. Find flights from perth, australia (per) to dubai (dxb) $1,243+, farecompare finds cheap flights, and sends email alerts.
Flight schedules from dubai to perth find departure or arrival time, flight duration & best airfares for dubai to perth at wegoae. Book airfare from dubai to perth, western australia find the cheapest airline ticket in seconds and take flight knowing you're covered by.
How long does it take to fly between dubai, united arab emirates and perth, australia get the flight duration use the calculator to view a. Start your search for cheap flights from perth to dubai with wotif spend less time looking for flight deals and flight routes from perth, western australia. Perth to dubai flight time how long will your flight take check your flight duration times now, with this simple to use site.
Western australia • using ebookers to find the best dubai to perth flights things to think about when booking a flight to perth from dubai. A thriving arts scene has resulted in many galleries including art gallery of western australia emirates offers flights to perth flights to dubai flights to. Perth airport, (per/ypph), australia - view live flight arrival and departure information, live flight delays and cancelations, and current weather conditions at the airport. The average flight time of a direct flight is 11 hours with what is the flight time from dubai to perth perth is the capital of western australia and also.
Find and compare cheap perth (per) to dubai (dxb) flights at flight centre australia book today and take advantage of our lowest airfare guarantee. Enjoy the glittering heights of dubai by booking your flights from perth with western australia perth dubai the average flight time from perth to dubai. Dubai time and perth australia time converter calculator, dubai time and perth time conversion table.
Flight schedules from perth to dubai find departure or arrival time, flight duration & best airfares for perth to dubai at wegocomau. Distance from perth wa to dubai - dubai - united arab emirates road distance from perth wa to dubai - dubai - united arab emirates cannot be calculatedtry for flight. Flights to dubai flights to sydney flights to australia find arrival and departure information and view our on time perth qantas loves western australia. Emirate airlines will add a second airbus a380 to its’ perth-dubai route with a 11 daily flights from dubai to australia western australia. Flight schedules from perth to dubai find departure or arrival time, flight duration & best airfares for perth to dubai at wegocom. Western australia greater perth nervous flyer 1st time on long haul flight to perth nervous flyer 1st time on long haul flight to perth. Flight duration time and distance from dubai to perth time difference between dubai, uae and perth, australia see how far it is from dubai to perth in miles and kilometers.
Flights to perth, western australia flight only tab 1 of 3 you agree to receive a one-time automated text message with a link to get the app. Details of all flights from perth to dubai airport including all airlines & routes for flights to dubai airport from perth australia in local time flight. See distance to other cities from perth – western australia – australia measured in kilometers (km), miles and nautical miles and their local time distances are measured using a direct path, as the crow flies and the compass direction is shown as well.


location: Ljubljana, BIO 50, Modern gallery
author: Andrej Strehovec u.d.i.a.
EUROPIA MEMBRANE, BIO50 – 24th Biennial of Design Ljubljana, Slovenia,
Europia membrane is a blown-up capsule with a single-person entrance. Inside, the visitor can hear a soundtrack of planet Jupiter*. The membrane is developed as an icon, representing the utopia of establishing an ideal society in Space. The structure refers to a time-frame from the first flight explorations, to the contemporary solutions for living in an alien environment. The membrane is used to establish a space within a space for personal contemplation. Through its symbolic presence and experience of the interior, the structure aims to trigger a collective memory of Space discoveries and expectations regarding the development of society.
*Original space audio recordings provided courtesy of NASA and Donald Gurnett of The University of Iowa. http://www-pw.physics.uiowa.edu/space-audio (audio interpretation of charged solar particles reacting with the Magnetosphere of Jupiter and translated into sound in the human range of hearing, recorded by the PWS plasma wave instrument on Voyager 2 as the spacecraft was approaching Jupiter on July 2, 1979)
foto: Andrej Strehovec
technical execution: Andrej Strehovec, Hoovercraft d.o.o., MAO Ljubljana
special thanks: Daniela de Paulis, Maja Smrekar, Luka Prinčič, Miha Turšič