Back in Amsterdam, Ruitenbeek now points out that even before the Ming dynasty (AD 1369-1644) foreigners were in fact available for Chinese artists to incorporate into their work, such as the Persians who arrived at the imperial court bearing tribute from surrounding states. With their pointed caps, beards and high noses, they appear in books, paintings and pottery.
魯克思指出，中國早在明清之前，工藝品中就有「外國人」的出現，像歷代職貢圖中的南蠻四夷、唐三彩中尖帽高鼻大鬍子的波斯人，都在書畫器物中佔有一席之地。