example, in some states, convicted offenders are required to self-identify as a felon on job applications. Do 
you think this helps their cause to reintegrate successfully into society? Perhaps not. Even though they may 
have “served their time,” they are still labeled as a criminal and punished further. Stigmatizing shaming 
propels people towards crime whereas reintegrative shaming seeks to correct the behavior through respect 
and empathy. Critical Theories 
Critical Theories 
Critical theories originated during the 1960-1970s in the United States. Immediately following World 
War II, Americans expected the United States to thrive economically, culturally, and politically. Massive 
political turmoil inside and outside of the country created a generation of scholars who became “critical” 
of society and more “traditional” theories of crime. According to Cullen, Agnew, and Wilcox (2018), 
critical theories share some five central themes. First, to understand crime, one must appreciate the fusion 
between power and inequality. People with power, political and economic, have an enormous advantage 
in society.
2 Second, crime is a political concept. Not all those who commit crime are caught, nor are those 
who are caught punished. The poor are injured the most by the enforcement of laws, while the affluent (i.e., 
powerful) are treated leniently. Third, the criminal justice system and its agents serve the ruling class, the 
capitalists. As Jeffrey Reiman’s (2004) book titled it, The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison. 
3 Fourth, the 
root cause of crime is capitalism because capitalism ignores the poor and their atrocious living conditions. 
Capitalism demands profits and growth over values and ethically considerations. Perhaps this is why crimes 
of the streets are punished more severely than crimes of the suites. Finally, critical theories believe the 
solution to crime is a more equitable society, both politically and economically. 
It is beyond the scope of this book to delve into all of the possible explanations of crime. Some theories 
try to explain the differences between male offending and female offending through feminist theories of 
crime. Other theories have integrated or combined concepts from other theories to create a newer model of 
explanation. Why do you think people commit crime? 
Gender and Crime Exercise 
Write about how you were raised and how sex/gender roles were reinforced through school, family, culture, 
etc. Do you think men/boys/males are more criminal because of their biology or because of cultural expectations 
of men/boys/males versus women/girls/females? You should support your claims with personal, vicarious, or well-
known examples. 
 
2. Cullen, F.T., Agnew, R., & Wilcox, P. (Eds). (2018). Criminological theory: Past to present (6th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University 
Press. 
3. Reiman, J. (2004). The rich get richer and the poor get prision: Ideology, class, and criminal justice. New York, NY: Pearson. 
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