Personality Adaptation 
Cultural Goals 
Institutionalized Means 
I. Conformity 
+ 
+ 
II. Innovation 
+ 
– 
III. Ritualism 
– 
+ 
IV. Retreatism 
– 
– 
V. Rebellion 
+ / – 
+ / – 
Conformists are the most common adaptation. Without it, societal norms and values would undermine the 
cultural goals. Conformists accept the goals and legitimate means to achieve the goal. Innovators accept the 
goal, but they reject the means or have their means blocked. Thus, they innovate ways to meet society’s 
goal. Ritualists conform to the predominant means of achieving wealth and success through hard work, but 
they may be blocked from achieving success, or they drop the social goal. For example, some people work 
hard for the sake of working hard. They want their children to see the significance of work ethic above all 
else, including monetary achievement. Retreatists do not share the shared values of society. Thus, they adjust 
by dropping out of conventional society. Drug addicts, alcoholics, and vagrants are just some examples who 
select this adjustment. Finally, rebels reject the current goals and means of society, but they want to replace 
them with new goals and standards. They seek to establish a new social order. 
Even though Merton’s theory could explain any strain, he emphasized economic strains. Cohen (1955) 
claimed stress could come from a lack of status.
2 Cohen wanted to know why most juvenile crimes occurred 
in groups. He explained that many youths, especially those in lower class families, rejected education and 
other middle-class values. Instead, many teenagers would seek status and self-worth as a new value system. 
When teens have no status, reputation, or self-worth, it led to severe strain. To achieve status, youths commit 
a crime to gain status among their peer group. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) claimed more serious delinquents 
sought “fast cars, fancy clothes, and well dames” (p. 97).
3 Assuming youths had no legitimate opportunities 
to improve their economic position, youths would join gangs to pursue illegitimate opportunities to 
achieve financial success. Criminal gangs provided youths illicit opportunities to gain money, conflict gangs 
permitted youths to vent their frustrations, and retreatist gangs were double failures; they had no legitimate 
or illegitimate means to increase income. 
The general strain theory, by Robert Agnew, claimed strains come from myriad sources. Agnew defined 
strain as any event that a person would rather avoid. Three types of strains include the failure to achieve 
a positively valued stimulus, the removal of a positively valued stimulus, and the confrontation of negative 
stimuli. Examples include parental rejection, child abuse, bullying, loss of job, loss of a loved one, 
discrimination, and criminal victimization. However, the characteristics of some strains are more likely to 
lead to crime. When a person views a strain as high in magnitude and unjust, and the pressure promotes 
criminal coping mechanism, people with minimal social control are more likely to commit a crime. Strains 
lead to negative emotions such as anger, depression, and fear. Some people without prosocial coping 
mechanisms may commit a crime to vent, which can create social control issues (trouble in school, parents, 
2. Cohen, A.K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. New York, NY: Free Press. 
3. Cloward, R.A., & Ohlin, L. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity: A theory of delinquent gangs. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. 
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