Statute of the International Court of Justice, international customs are “accepted as law” (Clarkson, Miller, &
Cross, 2018, p. 439). While customary international law (CIL) is not written, nor does it require ratification to
become binding, CIL nonetheless provides guidelines for how nations conduct business affairs (Bradley &
Gulati, 2010, p. 204). One example of a custom is the international protection of ambassadors. For thousands
of years, ambassadors have been protected while serving diplomatic missions. For this reason, countries
protect foreign ambassadors with the understanding that any harm caused to ambassadors would be a
violation of international law.
International Treaties
Treaties and other agreements between nations are authorized and ratified by the countries that acknowledge
their legality. There are two different types of agreements: bilateral, which is formed by two nations; and
multilateral, which is formed by several nations. The Peru-United States Trade Promotion Agreement is an
example of a bilateral agreement. It was signed in 2006, ratified by Peru the same year, and ratified by the
United States in 2007. This bilateral agreement is considered beneficial to the United States because it
improves access to Peruvian goods, while promoting security and democracy in the South American country.
The North American Free Trade Agreement, or NAFTA, is an example of a multilateral agreement. It was
ratified in 1994, when Mexico joined the previous trade agreement between the United States and Canada. In
September 2018, the Trump administration successfully completed re-negotiations with Mexico and Canada
that lasted over one year. Among other aims, these negotiations worked to increase auto industry wages for
workers in Mexico and modify pharmaceutical regulations with Canada.
International Organizations
International organizations are comprised of officials who represent member nations that have established a
treaty to oversee shared interests, including trade and commerce. The U.S. participates in more than 120
bilateral and multilateral organizations around the world. International organizations adopt resolutions that
standardize behavior and create uniform rules related to trade and commerce. Two of the most significant
international organizations established in the twentieth century that significantly impact U.S. trade and
commerce are the United Nations and the European Union.
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) was created as a multilateral treaty in 1945. The UN’s organizational goals include
maintaining global peace and security, promoting economic and social cooperation, and protecting human
rights, especially related to women and children (Cheeseman, 2016, p. 905). The UN General Assembly
includes representatives from each member nation. As of 2018, the UN acknowledges 195 sovereign states,
with all but two participating as full members. These two, Palestine and the Vatican City, are classified as
“observer states.” Six additional countries are not UN members, but are recognized as a country by at least
one UN member country: Abkhazia, Kosovo, Northern Cypress, South Ossetia, Taiwan, and Western Sahara.
The UN Security Council includes five permanent members and 10 countries selected by the General
Assembly to serve two-year terms. The five countries that hold permanent membership are China, France,
Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Cheeseman, 2016, p. 558). This Council is primarily
responsible for overseeing global peace and security measures. The World Bank is a UN organization, financed
by contributions from developed countries and headquartered in Washington, D.C. Its primary functions
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Chapter 13 International Law
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