  Evidence has accumulated that prediction error processing plays a role in the
enjoyment of music listening. The present study examined listeners' neural
responses to the signed reward prediction errors (RPEs) arising from switches
between major and minor modes in music. We manipulated the final chord of J. S.
Bach's keyboard pieces so that each major-mode passage ended with either the
major (Major-Major) or minor (Major-Minor) tonic chord, and each minor-mode
passage ended with either the minor (Minor-Minor) or major (Minor-Major) tonic
chord. In Western music, the major and minor modes have positive and negative
connotations, respectively. Therefore, the outcome of the final chord in
Major-Minor stimuli was associated with negative RPE, whereas that in
Minor-Major was associated with positive RPE. Twenty-three musically
experienced adults underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while
listening to Major-Major, Major-Minor, Minor-Minor, and Minor-Major stimuli. We
found that activity in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (extending into
the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) during the final chord for Major-Major was
significantly higher than that for Major-Minor. Conversely, a frontoparietal
network for Major-Minor exhibited significantly increased activity compared to
Major-Major. The contrasts between Minor-Minor and Minor-Major yielded regions
implicated in interoception. We discuss our results in relation to executive
functions and the emotional connotations of major versus minor mode.

Neurons and Cognition