Learning Objectives Learn some terminology involving solutions. Explain the significance of the statement "like dissolves like". Explain why certain substances dissolve in other substances. A solution is another name for a homogeneous mixture. A mixture as a material composed of two or more substances. In a solution, the combination is so intimate that the different substances cannot be differentiated by sight, even with a microscope. Compare, for example, a mixture of salt and pepper and another mixture consisting of salt and water. In the first mixture, we can readily see individual grains of salt and the flecks of pepper. A mixture of salt and pepper is not a solution. However, in the second mixture, no matter how carefully we look, we cannot see two different substances. Salt dissolved in water is a solution. The major component of a solution, called the solvent , is typically the same phase as the solution itself. Each minor component of a solution (and there may be more than one) is called the solute . In most of the solutions we will describe in this textbook, there will be no ambiguity about whether a component is the solvent or the solute.) For example, in a solution of salt in water, the solute is salt, and solvent is water Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Solutions come in all phases, and the solvent and the solute do not have to be in the same phase to form a solution (such as salt and water). For example, air is a gaseous solution of about 80% nitrogen and about 20% oxygen, with some other gases present in much smaller amounts. An alloy is a solid solution consisting of a metal (like iron) with some other metals or nonmetals dissolved in it. Steel, an alloy of iron and carbon and small amounts of other metals, is an example of a solid solution. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists some common types of solutions, with examples of each. Solvent Phase Solute Phase Example gas gas air liquid gas carbonated beverages liquid liquid ethanol (C2H5OH) in H2O (alcoholic beverages) liquid solid salt water solid gas H2 gas absorbed by Pd metal solid liquid Hg(ℓ) in dental fillings solid solid steel alloys Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Sugar and Water A solution is made by dissolving 1.00 g of sucrose (\(\ce{C12H22O11}\)) in 100.0 g of liquid water. Identify the solvent and solute in the resulting solution. Solution Either by mass or by moles, the obvious minor component is sucrose , so it is the solute . Water —the majority component—is the solvent . The fact that the resulting solution is the same phase as water also suggests that water is the solvent. Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\) A solution is made by dissolving 3.33 g of \(\ce{HCl(g)}\) in 40.0 g of liquid methyl alcohol (\(\ce{CH3OH}\)). Identify the solvent and solute in the resulting solution. Answer solute: HCl(g); solvent: CH 3 OH Like Dissolves Like A simple way to predict which compounds will dissolve in other compounds is the phrase "like dissolves like". What this means is that polar compounds dissolve polar compounds, nonpolar compounds dissolve nonpolar compounds, but polar and nonpolar do not dissolve in each other. Even some nonpolar substances dissolve in water but only to a limited degree. Have you ever wondered why fish are able to breathe? Oxygen gas, an nonpolar molecules, does dissolve in water and it is this oxygen that the fish take in through their gills. Or, one more example of a nonpolar compound that dissolves in water is the reason we can enjoy carbonated sodas. Pepsi-cola and all the other sodas have carbon dioxide gas, \(\ce{CO_2}\), a nonpolar compound, dissolved in a sugar-water solution. In this case, to keep as much gas in solution as possible, the sodas are kept under pressure. This general trend of "like dissolves like" is summarized in the following table: Solute Solvent Is Solution Formed? Polar Covalent Polar yes Non-polar Covalent Non-polar yes Polar Covalent Non-polar no Non-polar Covalent Polar no Ionic Polar yes Ionic Non-polar no Note that every time charged particles (ionic compounds or polar substances) are mixed, a solution is formed. When particles with no charges (nonpolar compounds) are mixed, they will form a solution. However, if substances with charges are mixed with other substances without charges a solution does not form. When an ionic compound is considered "insoluble", it doesn't necessarily mean the compound is completely untouched by water. All ionic compounds dissolve to some extent. An insoluble compound just doesn't dissolve in any noticeable or appreciable amount. What is it that makes a solute soluble in some solvents but not others? The answer is intermolecular interactions. The intermolecular interactions include London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding (as described in the previous section). From experimental studies, it has been determined that if molecules of a solute experience the same intermolecular forces that the solvent does, the solute will likely dissolve in that solvent. So, NaCl—a very polar substance because it is composed of ions—dissolves in water, which is very polar, but not in oil, which is generally nonpolar. Nonpolar wax dissolves in nonpolar hexane, but not in polar water. Liquids that dissolve in one another in all proportions are said to be miscible . Liquids that do not dissolve in one another are called immiscible . Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) Water (clear liquid) and oil (yellow) do not form liquid solutions. (CC BY-SA 1.0 Generic; Victor Blacus ) Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Polar and Nonpolar Solvents Would I 2 be more soluble in CCl 4 or H 2 O? Explain your answer. Solution I 2 is nonpolar. Of the two solvents, CCl 4 is nonpolar and H 2 O is polar, so I 2 would be expected to be more soluble in CCl 4 . Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\) Would C 3 H 7 OH be more soluble in CCl 4 or H 2 O? Explain your answer. Answer H 2 O because both experience hydrogen bonding Example \(\PageIndex{3}\) Water is considered a polar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in water? methanol (CH 3 OH) sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) octane (C 8 H 18 ) Solution Because water is polar, substances that are polar or ionic will dissolve in it. Because of the OH group in methanol, we expect its molecules to be polar. Thus, we expect it to be soluble in water. As both water and methanol are liquids, the word miscible can be used in place of soluble . Sodium sulfate is an ionic compound, so we expect it to be soluble in water. Like other hydrocarbons, octane is nonpolar, so we expect that it would not be soluble in water. Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\) Toluene (C 6 H 5 CH 3 ) is widely used in industry as a nonpolar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in toluene? water (H 2 O) sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) octane (C 8 H 18 ) Answer octane (C 8 H 18 ) will dissolve. It is also non-polar. The Dissolving Process Water typically dissolves most ionic compounds and polar molecules. Nonpolar molecules, such as those found in grease or oil, do not dissolve in water. We will first examine the process that occurs when an ionic compound, such as table salt (sodium chloride), dissolves in water. Water molecules move about continuously due to their kinetic energy. When a crystal of sodium chloride is placed into water, the water's molecules collide with the crystal lattice. Recall that the crystal lattice is composed of alternating positive and negative ions. Water is attracted to the sodium chloride crystal because water is polar; it has both a positive and a negative end. The positively charged sodium ions in the crystal attract the oxygen end of the water molecules because they are partially negative. The negatively charged chloride ions in the crystal attract the hydrogen end of the water molecules because they are partially positive. The action of the polar water molecules takes the crystal lattice apart (see figure below). After coming apart from the crystal, the individual ions are then surrounded by solvent particles in a process called solvation . Note in the figure above that the individual \(\ce{Na^+}\) ions are surrounded by water molecules with the oxygen atom oriented near the positive ion. Likewise, the chloride ions are surrounded by water molecules with the opposite orientation. Thus, numerous ion-dipole interactions are formed. Hydration is the process of solute particles being surrounded by water molecules arranged in a specific manner . Hydration helps to stabilize aqueous solutions by preventing the positive and negative ions from coming back together and forming a precipitate. Table sugar is made of the molecular compound sucrose \(\left( \ce{C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}} \right)\). Solid sugar consists of individual sugar molecules held together by intermolecular attractive forces. When water dissolves sugar, it separates the individual sugar molecules by disrupting the attractive forces, but it does not break the covalent bonds between the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Dissolved sugar molecules are also hydrated. The hydration shell around a molecule of sucrose is arranged so that its partially negative oxygen atoms are near the partially positive hydrogen atoms in the solvent, and vice versa. Summary Solutions are composed of a solvent (major component) and a solute (minor component). “Like dissolves like” is a useful rule for deciding if a solute will be soluble in a solvent. Liquids that dissolve in one another in all proportions are said to be miscible . Liquids that do not dissolve in one another are called immiscible . Ion-dipole interactions are formed when ionic compounds dissolve in water.