Before you move on to the next chapter, you should be comfortable with the following concepts and skills: Nucleophilic substitution basics Illustrate the transition state for an \(S_N2\) reaction Draw a complete mechanism for an \(S_N1\) reaction, in particular a hydrolysis or other solvolysis \(S_N1\) reaction. Illustrate all transition states that are part of an \(S_N1\) reaction. Understand that non-enzymatic \(S_N1\) reactions result in both inversion and retention of configuration (racemization) at the electrophilic carbon. Enzymatic \(S_N1\) reactions are stereospecific, usually resulting in inversion at the electrophilic carbon. Nucleophiles Be able to recognize the nucleophile, electrophile, and leaving group in an SN1 or SN2 reaction. Understand that – with the exception of the vertical periodic trend in protic solvents – in most cases anything that makes something a stronger base also makes it a more powerful nucleophile: The vertical periodic trend in nucleophilicity for reactions in polar aprotic solvents: chloride ion is a better nucleophile than bromide ion in acetone solvent. Inductive effect: electron-withdrawing groups decrease nucleophilicity Resonance effects: Delocalization of negative charge/electron density decreases nucleophilicity. For example, methoxide ion (CH3O-) is a stronger nucleophile than acetate ion. In addition: The vertical periodic trend in protic solvent (water or alcohol) is opposite the trend in basicity: for example, thiols are more nucleophilic than alcohols. Electrophiles Less hindered electrophiles will react faster in SN2 reactions: for example chloromethane is a better electrophile than a primary alkyl chloride. Leaving groups Common laboratory leaving groups are halides and para-toluenesulfonate (abbreviated tosyl, or OTs). Common biochemical leaving groups are phosphates and sulfide. Carbocation stability More substituted carbocations are more stable: for example, a tertiary carbocation is more stable than a secondary carbocation. The presence of electron-withdrawing groups (by inductive or resonance effects) decreases carbocation stability. The presence of a heteroatom can stabilize a nearby carbocation by the resonance-based electron donating effect. Otherwise, heteroatoms act as weakly electron withdrawing carbocation-destabilizing groups by inductive effects. General concepts and skills Be able to predict whether a given substitution reaction is likely to proceed by \(S_N2\) or \(S_N1\) mechanisms, based on the identity of the nucleophile, the electrophile, and the solvent. \(S_N1\) reactions involve weaker nucleophiles relatively stable carbocations, and are accelerated by protic solvents. Be able to 'think backwards' to show the starting compounds in a substitution reaction, given a product or products. Understand how \(S\)-adenosylmethionine (SAM) acts as a methyl group donor in biochemical \(S_N2\) reactions. Be able to select appropriate alkyl halide and alcohol starting compounds to synthesize a given ether product, using the Williamson ether synthesis procedure.