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Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a state between normal ageing and dementia, where someone’s mind is functioning less well than would be expected for their age. This image is for illustrative purposes only. (Public Domain; Center For Functional Imaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). | |
Two pairs of Lewis structures are shown with a double-headed arrow in between each pair. The left structure of the first pair shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. It is also double bonded to an oxygen with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image of this pair depicts the mirror image of the left. Both images are surrounded by brackets and a superscripted negative sign. They are labeled, “For N O subscript two superscript negative sign.” The left structure of the second pair shows an oxygen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. It is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right structure appears as a mirror image of the left. These structures are labeled, “For O subscript three.”
Two pairs of Lewis structures are shown with a double-headed arrow in between each pair. The left structure of the first pair shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. It is also double bonded to an oxygen with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image of this pair depicts the mirror image of the left. Both images are surrounded by brackets and a superscripted negative sign. They are labeled, “For N O subscript two superscript negative sign.” The left structure of the second pair shows an oxygen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. It is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right structure appears as a mirror image of the left. These structures are labeled, “For O subscript three.” | |
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(left) Large-scale RO plants use multiple membrane cartridges. This one, in Tampa Bay FL, supplies desalinated drinking water to 2.4 million residents. (right) Many smaller RO units, suitable for home use, can fit under a kitchen sink. | |
The structure has a cyclohexene ring fused to a benzene ring; double bond in cyclohexene is opposite fusion.
The structure has a cyclohexene ring fused to a benzene ring; double bond in cyclohexene is opposite fusion. | |
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Figure 1.1.7 Illustration of the law of the multiple proportions for two generic, different atoms (red and blue balls). | |
Diagram showing three cubic crystal structures: simple cubic, face-centered cubic, and body-centered cubic. Each has its atomic arrangement illustrated in three styles: line, ball, and 3D models.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Three unit cells of the cubic crystal system. Each sphere represents an atom or an ion. In the simple cubic system, the atoms or ions are at the corners of the unit cell only. In the face-centered unit cell, there are also atoms or ions in the center of each of the six faces of the unit cell. In the body-centered unit cell, there is one atom or ion in the center of the unit cell, in addition to the corner atoms or ions. (CC BY-NC 3.0; Christopher Auyeung via CK-12 Foundation) | |
A chemical equation is shown. To the left, two hydrogen atoms are linked, each with a single dash to a central oxygen atom to the left and below the oxygen symbol, which has two pairs of dots, above and to the right of the atom. A plus sign is shown to the right, then a hydrogen atom linked to the left side of chlorine atom by a single dash with three pairs of dots, above, to the right, and below the element symbol. An arrow points to the products which are three hydrogen atoms linked by single dashes to a central oxygen atom shown in brackets with superscript plus. The oxygen atom has a single pair of dots above the element symbol. This is followed by a plus and C l superscript minus. This symbol is surrounded by four pairs of dots, above and below and to the left and right of the element symbol.
A chemical equation is shown. To the left, two hydrogen atoms are linked, each with a single dash to a central oxygen atom to the left and below the oxygen symbol, which has two pairs of dots, above and to the right of the atom. A plus sign is shown to the right, then a hydrogen atom linked to the left side of chlorine atom by a single dash with three pairs of dots, above, to the right, and below the element symbol. An arrow points to the products which are three hydrogen atoms linked by single dashes to a central oxygen atom shown in brackets with superscript plus. The oxygen atom has a single pair of dots above the element symbol. This is followed by a plus and C l superscript minus. This symbol is surrounded by four pairs of dots, above and below and to the left and right of the element symbol. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Different emissions exhibit different pentration powers. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; anonymous) | |
2 drawings and a photograph, as described in the caption.
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): (a) Different colors emerge in different directions, and so you must look at different locations to see the various colors of a rainbow. (b) The arc of a rainbow results from the fact that a line between the observer and any point on the arc must make the correct angle with the parallel rays of sunlight to receive the refracted rays. (c) Double rainbow. (credit: Nicholas, Wikimedia Commons) | |
These two graphs show how a supply shift affects price and quantity. Figure (a) shows how supply shifts when demand is inelastic and figure (b) shows how supply shifts when demand is elastic.
These two graphs show how a supply shift affects price and quantity. Figure (a) shows how supply shifts when demand is inelastic and figure (b) shows how supply shifts when demand is elastic. | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Types of crystal defects include vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutions impurities. | |
This diagram compared blue light (top) to orange light (middle) and red light (bottom). Next to each octahedral orbital splitting diagram, E equals h times nu is shown. The blue light energy is represented by a bracket that is taller than the delta-o gap between the lower energy and higher energy orbitals. The orange light bracket is equal to the delta-o gap. The red light is shorter than the delta-o gap.
Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): | |
Image A is of Justice Thurgood Marshall. Image B is of Donald B. Verrilli.
Image A is of Justice Thurgood Marshall. Image B is of Donald B. Verrilli. | |
Radioactive isotopes, shown in a diagnostic scan of a thyroid gland.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Medical Diagnostics. Radioactive iodine can be used to image the thyroid gland for diagnostic purposes. Source: Scan courtesy of Myo Han, en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thyroid_scan.jpg. | |
A single carbon with two bromines and two iodines attached to it.
A single carbon with two bromines and two iodines attached to it. | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A pre-1982 copper penny (left) contains approximately 3 \(\times\) 1022copper atoms (several dozen are represented as brown spheres at the right), each of which has the same chemical properties. (credit: modification of work by “slgckgc”/Flickr) | |
This diagram shows an arrow pointing from O subscript 2 into a tube that leads into a vessel containing a red material, labeled “Sample.” This vessel is inside a blue container with a red inner lining which is labeled “Furnace.” An arrow points from the tube to the right into the vessel above the red sample material. An arrow leads out of this vessel through a tube into a second vessel outside the furnace. An line points from this tube to a label above the diagram that reads “C O subscript 2, H subscript 2 O, O subscript 2, and other gases.” Many small green spheres are visible in the second vessel which is labeled below, “H subscript 2 O absorber such as M g ( C l O subscript 4 ) subscript 2.” An arrow points to the right through the vessel, and another arrow points right heading out of the vessel through a tube into a third vessel. The third vessel contains many small blue spheres. It is labeled “C O subscript 2 absorber such as N a O H.” An arrow points right through this vessel, and a final arrow points out of a tube at the right end of the vessel. Outside the end of this tube at the end of the arrow is the label, “O subscript 2 and other gases.”
This diagram shows an arrow pointing from O subscript 2 into a tube that leads into a vessel containing a red material, labeled “Sample.” This vessel is inside a blue container with a red inner lining which is labeled “Furnace.” An arrow points from the tube to the right into the vessel above the red sample material. An arrow leads out of this vessel through a tube into a second vessel outside the furnace. An line points from this tube to a label above the diagram that reads “C O subscript 2, H subscript 2 O, O subscript 2, and other gases.” Many small green spheres are visible in the second vessel which is labeled below, “H subscript 2 O absorber such as M g ( C l O subscript 4 ) subscript 2.” An arrow points to the right through the vessel, and another arrow points right heading out of the vessel through a tube into a third vessel. The third vessel contains many small blue spheres. It is labeled “C O subscript 2 absorber such as N a O H.” An arrow points right through this vessel, and a final arrow points out of a tube at the right end of the vessel. Outside the end of this tube at the end of the arrow is the label, “O subscript 2 and other gases.” | |
β-Elimination helps transfer the elements of dihydrogen from one organic compound to another.
β-Elimination helps transfer the elements of dihydrogen from one organic compound to another. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A visual summary of steps involved in validating the Agilent Cary UV-vis spectrophotometers. (CC-BY-NC-SA; Kathryn Haas) | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\):Mass and Surface Area Affect the Strength of London Dispersion Forces. (a) In this series of four simple alkanes, larger molecules have stronger London forces between them than smaller molecules and consequently higher boiling points. (b) Linearn-pentane molecules have a larger surface area and stronger intermolecular forces than spherical neopentane molecules. As a result, neopentane is a gas at room temperature, whereasn-pentane is a volatile liquid. | |
Two Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is double bonded to an oxygen with two lone pairs of electrons. Brackets surround this structure, and there is a superscripted negative sign. The right structure shows an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. Brackets surround this structure, and there is a superscripted negative sign. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The energy that comes from the sun and other stars is produced by fusion. (Public Domain; NASA). | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Water (clear liquid) and oil (yellow) do not form liquid solutions. (CC BY-SA 1.0 Generic; Victor Blacus) | |
A pentagonal carbon structure is shown with two of the H atoms replaced by a hydroxyl atom and a methyl molecule.
A pentagonal carbon structure is shown with two of the H atoms replaced by a hydroxyl atom and a methyl molecule. | |
Ice melting inside of a clear cup.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Ice melting is a physical change. When liquid water (\(H_2O\)) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears changed; however, this change is only physical, as the composition of the constituent molecules is the same: 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass. (Public Domain; Moussa). | |
Two images are shown. The first, labeled “Rate of radioactive decay measured in becquerels or curies,” shows a red sphere with ten red squiggly arrows facing away from it in a 360 degree circle. The second image shows the head and torso of a woman wearing medical scrubs with a badge on her chest. The caption to the badge reads “Film badge or dosimeter measures tissue damage exposure in rems or sieverts” while a phrase under this image states “Absorbed dose measured in grays or rads.”
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Different units are used to measure the rate of emission from a radioactive source, the energy that is absorbed from the source, and the amount of damage the absorbed radiation does. (CC BY 4.0; OpenStax) | |
A table is shown with 10 columns and 8 rows. The first row is the header, which shows element symbols with atomic numbers as superscripts to the upper left of the element symbols. The following element symbols and numbers are shown in this manner; S c 21, T i 22, V 23, C r 24, M n 25, F e 26, C o 27, N i 28, C u 29, and Z n 30. The second row shows the value 1 plus under C u. The third row shows the value 2 plus under V, C r, M n, F e, C o, N i, C u, and Z n. The fourth row shows the value 3 plus under S c, T i, V, C r, M n, F e, C o, N i, and C u. The fifth row shows the value 4 plus under T I, V, C r, and M n. The sixth row shows the value 5 plus only under V. The seventh row shows the value 6 plus under C r, M n, and F e. The eighth row shows the value 7 plus under Mn.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Transition metals of the first transition series can form compounds with varying oxidation states. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Niels Bohr with Albert Einstein at Paul Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925). | |
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Figure 5.1.1: Burning is a chemical process. The flames are caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning). Images used with permission (CC BY-SA 2.5; Einar Helland Berger for fire and for ash). | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A Wave in Water. When a drop of water falls onto a smooth water surface, it generates a set of waves that travel outward in a circular direction. | |
A twenty carbon fatty acid goes through beta-oxidation to form an eighteen carbon fatty acid and acetate.
A twenty carbon fatty acid goes through beta-oxidation to form an eighteen carbon fatty acid and acetate. | |
Five different representations of the molecular structure of butane.
Figure 3.3: Some representations of butane, C4H10. The molecule is the same regardless of how it’s drawn. These structures imply only that butane has a continuous chain of four carbon atoms; they do not imply any specific geometry. | |
The figure includes spheres in green to represent the relative sizes of A l and S atoms. The relatively large A l sphere in the upper left is labeled 118. The significantly smaller S sphere in the upper right is labeled 104. Beneath each of these spheres is a red sphere. The red sphere in the lower left is very small in comparison to the other spheres and is labeled, “A l superscript 3 plus 68.” The red sphere in the lower right is significantly larger than the other spheres and is labeled, “S superscript 2 negative 170. “
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The radius for a cation is smaller than the parent atom (Al), due to the lost electrons; the radius for an anion is larger than the parent (S), due to the gained electrons. | |
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Figure used with permission (CC-SA-BY-NC; Information and Communication Technology) | |
The top, central region of the figure shows solute particles as seven blue spheres and solvent particles as 16 red spheres in separate, labeled boxes. The particles in these boxes are touching. An arrow labeled “Step 1” points left of the solute box, and shows the blue spheres no longer touching in another box labeled “expanded solute.” An arrow labeled “Step 2” points right from the solvent box and shows the red spheres no longer touching in another box labeled “expanded solvent.” Arrows proceed from the bottom of the expanded solute and expanded solvent boxes and join at the bottom of the figure where a step 3 label is shown. The joined arrows point to a box just above in which the red and blue spheres are mixed together and touching. The solute and solvent boxes are joined by another arrow labeled “direct formation of solution” which points downward at the center of the figure. This arrow also points to the box containing mixed red and blue spheres near the bottom of the figure.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): This schematic representation of dissolution shows a stepwise process involving the endothermic separation of solute and solvent species (Steps 1 and 2) and exothermic solvation (Step 3). | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\):A Representation of Surface Tension in a Liquid. Molecules at the surface of water experience a net attraction to other molecules in the liquid, which holds the surface of the bulk sample together. In contrast, those in the interior experience uniform attractive forces. (CC BY-SA-NC; anonymous) | |
The diagram shows eight purple spheres labeled K superscript plus and eight green spheres labeled C l superscript minus mixed and touching near the center of the diagram. Outside of this cluster of spheres are seventeen clusters of three spheres, which include one red and two white spheres. A red sphere in one of these clusters is labeled O. A white sphere is labeled H. Two of the green C l superscript minus spheres are surrounded by three of the red and white clusters, with the red spheres closer to the green spheres than the white spheres. One of the K superscript plus purple spheres is surrounded by four of the red and white clusters. The white spheres of these clusters are closest to the purple spheres.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): As potassium chloride (KCl) dissolves in water, the ions are hydrated. The polar water molecules are attracted by the charges on the K+and Cl−ions. Water molecules in front of and behind the ions are not shown. | |
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Formula for naming oxyanions with -ate ending: Base name of oxyanion and -ic + acid. Example: H3PO4 is phosphoric acid. | |
Structure of a monoclinic crystal
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): (CCby-NC 3.0; Christopher Auyeung via CK-12 Foundation) | |
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NUf-33IJ5Gcoru_bAagb-NEudOl_qL6Q0xOJAPNpG_MFjXhOlRGmwOyWUjikLBy9s3AeZdB0orwwkDmdoa8DT_5JGsKZC8DEhQ-zQta2PHTXxrQUtR-EjvhsjRIGnavlIDjMJAI8Y5TndZzwwTfwakeu0-AQgt25KxrG9wprxP47iSy5sC6B0M2unkiUXg_xrbf | |
The structure of Azidobenzene features two lone pair on the nitrogen bonded to benzene and one lone pair on the terminal triple bonded nitrogen.
The structure of Azidobenzene features two lone pair on the nitrogen bonded to benzene and one lone pair on the terminal triple bonded nitrogen. | |
Diatomic lithium, berillium, boron, carbon, and nitrogen have M O's that are constructed from the lowest to highest energy in the order of: sigma(2 s), sigma(2 s)*, pi(x) and pi(y) which are degenerate, sigma(2 p), pi(x)* and pi(y)* which are degenerate, and ending with sigma(2 p)*. Oxygen, fluorine, and neon have sigma(2 p) below pi(x) and pi(y) with the rest of the order being the same.
Diatomic lithium, berillium, boron, carbon, and nitrogen have M O's that are constructed from the lowest to highest energy in the order of: sigma(2 s), sigma(2 s)*, pi(x) and pi(y) which are degenerate, sigma(2 p), pi(x)* and pi(y)* which are degenerate, and ending with sigma(2 p)*. Oxygen, fluorine, and neon have sigma(2 p) below pi(x) and pi(y) with the rest of the order being the same. | |
Left: Graph of energetically favorable reaction. Energy on x axis and reaction coordinate on y axis. Reactants start at a higher energy than products. Highest peak between reactants and products labeled barrier. Space between reactants and barrier is activation energy. Right: graph of energetically unfavorable reaction. Reactants are lower than products so there is a high activation energy.
Figure 4-4: Schematic energy diagrams for reactions that are energetically favorable and unfavorable when proceeding from left to right along the reaction coordinate | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent. (CC-BY-SA 3.0;Chris 73). | |
Ka is equal to the concentration of the concentration of the conjuate acid multiplied by the concentration of H3O plus which is then divided by the concentration of the acid. Ka can also be found but multiplying the concentration of the base to the concentration of H2O plus then dividing by the concentration of the base.
Ka is equal to the concentration of the concentration of the conjuate acid multiplied by the concentration of H3O plus which is then divided by the concentration of the acid. Ka can also be found but multiplying the concentration of the base to the concentration of H2O plus then dividing by the concentration of the base. | |
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde forms formic acid and acetic acid respectively upon oxidation.
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde forms formic acid and acetic acid respectively upon oxidation. | |
A: I R spectrum of benaldehyde. A broad peak from 3500 to 3100, is labelled as an alcohol peak. B: I R spectrum of benzaldehyde, virtually the same as the first except for the conspicuous absence of the alcohol peak.
Figure 5.8: a) IR spectrum of benzaldehyde before distillation (arrow points to the \(\ce{O-H}\) signal from the benzoic acid impurity), b) IR spectrum of benzaldehyde after distillation. | |
The sides of two cylindrical containers are shown. Each container’s label is partially visible. The left container’s label reads “Bleach.” The right label contains more information about the product including the phrase, “Contains: Sodium hypochlorite 7.4 %.”
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Liquid bleach is an aqueous solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). This brand has a concentration of 7.4% NaOCl by mass. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Types of Elements. Elements are either metals, nonmetals, or semimetals. Each group is located in a different part of the periodic table. | |
This figure has three parts in two rows. In the first row, two diagrams of acid-base pairs are shown. On the left, a space filling model of H subscript 2 O is shown with a red O atom at the center and two smaller white H atoms attached in a bent shape. Above this model is the label “H subscript 2 O (acid)” in purple. An arrow points right, which is labeled “Remove H superscript plus.” To the right is another space filling model with a single red O atom to which a single smaller white H atom is attached. The label in purple above this model reads, “O H superscript negative (conjugate base).” Above both of these red and white models is an upward pointing bracket that is labeled “Conjugate acid-base pair.” To the right is a space filling model with a central blue N atom to which three smaller white H atoms are attached in a triangular pyramid arrangement. A label in green above reads “N H subscript 3 (base).” An arrow labeled “Add H superscript plus” points right. To the right of the arrow is another space filling model with a blue central N atom and four smaller white H atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. The green label above reads “N H subscript 3 superscript plus (conjugate acid).” Above both of these blue and white models is an upward pointing bracket that is labeled “Conjugate acid-base pair.” The second row of the figure shows the chemical reaction, H subscript 2 O ( l ) is shown in purple, and is labeled below in purple as “acid,” plus N H subscript 3 (a q) in green, labeled below in green as “base,” followed by a double sided arrow arrow and O H superscript negative (a q) in purple, labeled in purple as “conjugate base,” plus N H subscript 4 superscript plus (a q)” in green, which is labeled in green as “conjugate acid.” The acid on the left side of the equation is connected to the conjugate base on the right with a purple line. Similarly, the base on the left is connected to the conjugate acid on the right side. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): An Equilibrium Mixture of Maltose Isomers | |
This figure includes a computer generated image of an enzyme molecule showing string and curled ribbon-like structural components in purple, green, and yellow hues.
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): A computer rendering shows the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. In the disease phenylketonuria, a defect in the shape of phenylalanine hydroxylase causes it to lose its function in breaking down phenylalanine. | |
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http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/Images3/vitamin1.gif | |
Illustration shows a twenty five milliliter pipette obtaining twenty five milliliters of stock solution from a volumetric flask. The contents of the pipette are emptied into an empty volumetric flask. The solution is then diluted with water up to the neck of the volumetric flask. Below the diagram is the steps needed to calculate molarity of diluted solution. Volume of stock solution is multiplied with molarity of stock solution to obtain moles of solute in stock solution. This is equals to moles of solute in diluted solution. This value is then divided by total volume of diluted solution to get the molarity of diluted solution. | |
Figure\(\PageIndex{3}\): A Catalytic Defense Mechanism. The scalding, foul-smelling spray emitted by this bombardier beetle is produced by the catalytic decomposition of \(\ce{H2O2}\). | |
A candle burning against a red background.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Burning of wax to generate water and carbon dioxide is a chemical reaction. (CC-SA-BY-3.0; Andrikkos ) | |
Sepia-toned portrait of a man with glasses, a thick beard, and mustache. He is wearing a dark suit with a high-collared shirt and appears to be looking slightly to the side. | |
Energy diagram for reaction of 2-methyl-1-propene with two profiles; one has higher barrier, higher energy intermediate, is labeled slower, corresponds to primary carbocation. The other corresponds to tertiary carbocation.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Energy diagrams for carbocation formation. The more stable tertiary carbocation is formed faster(green curve)because its increased stability lowers the energy of the transition state leading to it. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\):Čeština:Přibližné stupně radiace krátce po explozi 4. reaktoru v černobylské jaderné elektrárně.https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sandra_K%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%BEov%C3%A1&action=edit&redlink=1 | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): \(d^8\): Tanabe-Sugano Diagram for octahedral metal complex with eight\(d\) electrons. For convenience, terms that can accommodate spin-allowed transitions from the ground state are indicated by solid lines. Terms that have different multiplicity than the ground state are shown in dashed lines. (CC-BY-SA; Kathryn Haas) | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The arrow leads through each subshell in the appropriate filling order for electron configurations. This chart is straightforward to construct. Simply make a column for all the s orbitals with each n shell on a separate row. Repeat for p, d, and f. Be sure to only include orbitals allowed by the quantum numbers (no 1p or 2d, and so forth). Finally, draw diagonal lines from top to bottom as shown. | |
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File:/C:\Users\farmers\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image004.png | |
This image contains two equilibrium reactions. The first shows a C atom bonded to three H atoms and another C atom. The second C atom is double bonded to an O atom and also forms a single bond to another O atom. The second O atom is bonded to an H atom. There is a plus sign and then the molecular formula H subscript 2 O. An equilibrium arrow follows the H subscript 2 O. To the right of the arrow is H subscript 3 O superscript positive sign. There is a plus sign. The final structure shows a C atom bonded the three H atoms and another C atom. This second C atom is double bonded to an O atom and single bonded to another O atom. The entire structure is in brackets and a superscript negative sign appears outside the brackets. The second reaction shows C H subscript 3 C O O H ( a q ) plus H subscript 2 O ( l ) equilibrium arrow H subscript 3 O ( a q ) plus C H subscript 3 C O O superscript negative sign ( a q ).
This image contains two equilibrium reactions. The first shows a C atom bonded to three H atoms and another C atom. The second C atom is double bonded to an O atom and also forms a single bond to another O atom. The second O atom is bonded to an H atom. There is a plus sign and then the molecular formula H subscript 2 O. An equilibrium arrow follows the H subscript 2 O. To the right of the arrow is H subscript 3 O superscript positive sign. There is a plus sign. The final structure shows a C atom bonded the three H atoms and another C atom. This second C atom is double bonded to an O atom and single bonded to another O atom. The entire structure is in brackets and a superscript negative sign appears outside the brackets. The second reaction shows C H subscript 3 C O O H ( a q ) plus H subscript 2 O ( l ) equilibrium arrow H subscript 3 O ( a q ) plus C H subscript 3 C O O superscript negative sign ( a q ). | |
R and S enantiomers react with a chiral reagent to produce intermediate species of (R-R) and (R-S) diastereomers which produce R enantiomer and S-enantiomer.
Figure 5.8.1: | |
Tetrahedral orbital diagrams of low-spin versus high-spin with ten electrons. There are three higher energy orbitals and two lower energy orbitals. The low-spin and high-spin diagrams are identical with two pairs of electrons in the lower energy orbitals and three pairs of electrons in the higher energy orbitals.
Tetrahedral orbital diagrams of low-spin versus high-spin with ten electrons. There are three higher energy orbitals and two lower energy orbitals. The low-spin and high-spin diagrams are identical with two pairs of electrons in the lower energy orbitals and three pairs of electrons in the higher energy orbitals. | |
The figure includes a diagram representing the relative energy levels of the quantum numbers of the hydrogen atom. An upward pointing arrow at the left of the diagram is labeled, “E.” A grey shaded vertically oriented rectangle is placed just right of the arrow. The rectangle height matches the arrow length. Colored, horizontal line segments are placed inside the rectangle and labels are placed to the right of the box, arranged in a column with the heading, “Energy, n.” At the very base of the rectangle, a purple horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line extends to the right to the label, “1.” At a level approximately three-quarters of the distance to the top of the rectangle, a blue horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line extends to the right to the label, “2.” At a level approximately seven-eighths the distance from the base of the rectangle, a green horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line extends to the right to the label, “3.” Just a short distance above this segment, an orange horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line segment extends to the right to the label, “4.” Just above this segment, a red horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line extends to the right to the label, “5.” Just a short distance above this segment, a brown horizontal line segment is drawn. A black line extends to the right to the label, “infinity.” Arrows are drawn to depict energies of photons absorbed, as shown by upward pointing arrows on the left, or released as shown by downward pointing arrows on the right side of the diagram between the colored line segments. The label, “Electron moves to higher energy as light is absorbed,” is placed beneath the upward pointing arrows. Similarly, the label, “Electron moves to lower energy as light is emitted,” appears beneath the downward pointing arrows. Moving left to right across the diagram, arrows extend from one colored line segment to the next in the following order: purple to blue, purple to green, purple to orange, purple to red, purple to brown, blue to green, blue to orange, and blue to red. The arrows originating from the same colored segment are grouped together by close placement of the arrows. Similarly, the downward arrows follow in this sequence; brown to purple, red to purple, orange to purple, green to purple, blue to purple, red to blue, orange to blue, and green to blue. Arrows are again grouped by close placement according to the color at which the arrows end.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): The horizontal lines show the relative energy of orbits in the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, and the vertical arrows depict the energy of photons absorbed (left) or emitted (right) as electrons move between these orbits. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Hydrogen Bonding. (a) Amine molecules are associated through hydrogen bonding. (b) An amine molecule can form a hydrogen bond with water molecules. | |
A ball and stick model of 2-butanol is represented. The grey, white and red spheres are carbon, white, and oxygen.
A ball and stick model of 2-butanol is represented. The grey, white and red spheres are carbon, white, and oxygen. | |
Glycolic acid reacts with heat to form poly-glycolic acid. Lactic acid reacts with heat to form poly-lactic acid. 3-hydroxybutyric acid reacts with heat to form poly(hydroxybutyrate). Products are inside parentheses. | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Definition of Ionic Radius. (a) The internuclear distance is apportioned between adjacent cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions) in the ionic structure, as shown here for Na+and Cl−in sodium chloride. (b) This depiction of electron density contours for a single plane of atoms in the NaCl structure shows how the lines connect points of equal electron density. Note the relative sizes of the electron density contour lines around Cl−and Na+. | |
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Figure \(\sf{\PageIndex{6}}\). (A) Gold experiences relativistic expansion and contraction of its 5dand 6sorbitals, resulting in shifts to their relative energies. (B) This makes mixing of these orbitals more favorable, facilitating the ability of gold to form two-coordinate complexes with strong sigma bonds that involve considerable \(sd_{z^2}\) character. This work by Stephen Contakes is licensed under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. | |
Diagram of energy showing a low bar labeled "a" (the ground state) with an arrow pointing upward from it labeled "delta E) and a higher bar at the end of the arrow labeled "B" (the excited state)
Diagram of energy showing a low bar labeled "a" (the ground state) with an arrow pointing upward from it labeled "delta E) and a higher bar at the end of the arrow labeled "B" (the excited state) | |
Ka is equal to the concentration of the concentration of the conjuate acid multiplied by the concentration of H3O plus which is then divided by the concentration of the acid. Ka can also be found but multiplying the concentration of the base to the concentration of H2O plus then dividing by the concentration of the base.
Ka is equal to the concentration of the concentration of the conjuate acid multiplied by the concentration of H3O plus which is then divided by the concentration of the acid. Ka can also be found but multiplying the concentration of the base to the concentration of H2O plus then dividing by the concentration of the base. | |
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Figure 9-36: Infrared and nmr spectra for a compound of formula \(\ce{C_3H_3Br}\). The infrared spectrum here is different from others shown in this book in being linear in wavelength, \(\lambda\), instead of in wave numbers, \(\overset{\sim}{\nu}\). The units of wavelength here are microns \(\left( 10^{-6} \: \text{cm} \right)\). | |
Sigma bonds are bonds in which orbitals directly overlap, as seen in s-s, s p (z), and p (z) -p (z) orbitals. Pi bonds involve orbitals with sideways overlap as shown with p (y) - p (y) orbitals. Both orbitals point upward and are able to overlap next to each other. Similar overlap occurs in p (y) - d (y z) and d (y z) - d (y z) orbitals.
Sigma bonds are bonds in which orbitals directly overlap, as seen in s-s, s p (z), and p (z) -p (z) orbitals. Pi bonds involve orbitals with sideways overlap as shown with p (y) - p (y) orbitals. Both orbitals point upward and are able to overlap next to each other. Similar overlap occurs in p (y) - d (y z) and d (y z) - d (y z) orbitals. | |
Figure 12.3.3. Example showing how the mobile phase pH in liquid chromatography affects selectivity: (a) retention times for four substituted benzoic acids as a function of the mobile phase’s pH; (b) alpha values for three pairs of solutes that are difficult to separate. See text for details. The mobile phase is an acetic acid/sodium acetate buffer and the stationary phase is a nonpolar hydrocarbon. Data from Harvey, D. T.; Byerly, S.; Bowman, A.; Tomlin, J. “Optimization of HPLC and GC Separations Using Response Surfaces,”J. Chem. Educ.1991,68, 162–168. | |
H dash C dash N with 6 dots around the N. 4 of the dots are pointing to the dash connecting the C and the N. This turns the formula into H dash C and three lines connecting the C and N together, with two dots on the outside of the N. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\):Hybrid Orbitals InvolvingdOrbitals. The formation of a set of (a) fivesp3dhybrid orbitals and (b) sixsp3d2hybrid orbitals fromns,np, andndatomic orbitals wheren= 4. | |
This figure contains a diagram of an electrochemical cell. Two beakers are shown. Each is just over half full. The beaker on the left contains a blue solution and is labeled below as “1 M solution of copper (II) nitrate ( C u ( N O subscript 3 ) subscript 2 ).” The beaker on the right contains a colorless solution and is labeled below as “1 M solution of silver nitrate ( A g N O subscript 3 ).” A glass tube in the shape of an inverted U connects the two beakers at the center of the diagram. The tube contents are colorless. The ends of the tubes are beneath the surface of the solutions in the beakers and a small gray plug is present at each end of the tube. The plug in the left beaker is labeled “Porous plug.” At the center of the diagram, the tube is labeled “Salt bridge ( N a N O subscript 3 ). Each beaker shows a metal strip partially submerged in the liquid. The beaker on the left has an orange-brown strip that is labeled “C u anode negative” at the top. The beaker on the right has a silver strip that is labeled “A g cathode positive” at the top. A wire extends from the top of each of these strips to a rectangle indicating “external circuit” that is labeled “flow of electrons” with an arrow pointing to the right following. A curved arrow extends from the C u strip into the surrounding solution. The tip of this arrow is labeled “C u superscript 2 plus.” A curved arrow extends from the salt bridge into the beaker on the left into the blue solution. The tip of this arrow is labeled “N O subscript 3 superscript negative.” A curved arrow extends from the solution in the beaker on the right to the A g strip. The base of this arrow is labeled “A g superscript plus.” A curved arrow extends from the colorless solution to salt bridge in the beaker on the right. The base of this arrow is labeled “N O subscript 3 superscript negative.” Just right of the salt bridge in the colorless solution is the label “N a superscript plus.” Just above this region of the tube appears the label “Flow of cations.” Just left of the salt bridge in the blue solution is the label “N O subscript 3 superscript negative.” Just above this region of the tube appears the label “Flow of anions.”
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): A galvanic cell based on the spontaneous reaction between copper and silver(I) ions. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The Relationship between the Composition of the Mixture at Equilibrium and the Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant. The larger the K, the farther the reaction proceeds to the right before equilibrium is reached, and the greater the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium. | |
Illustration of atomic orbital hybridization. Shows transition from 1s and 2p orbitals to the sp3 hybrid orbital. Blue and orange lobes represent different phases.
Figure 10.1.7 : Formation of sp2Hybrid Orbitals. Combining one ns and two np atomic orbitals gives three equivalentsp2hybrid orbitals in a trigonal planar arrangement; that is, oriented at 120° to one another. | |
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Figure\(\PageIndex{3}\): Gibbs Free Energy can be viewed as the results of two energetic processes that are a function of the system, Enthalpy minimization and the temperature dependent entropy maximization. | |
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Figure \(\sf{\PageIndex{5}}\). These exist in different arrangements classified according to how the graphite sheet is oriented relative to the nanotube axis. | |
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\(\PageIndex{6}\): d-orbitals in the octahedral ligand field for the electron configuration \(d^4\). | |
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Figure 3.6 that each N atom has a pair of electrons that are not part of any chemical bonds. These are omitted from the structure above, and are not ordinarily shown when bonds are represented by lines. | |
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Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): CT scan of the human brain. These images assist in diagnosing migraines, brain tumors, strokes, bleeding, and head injuries. upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/5/50/Computed_tomography_of_human_brain_-_large.png | |
This Lewis structure is composed of a boron atom single bonded to three bromine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.
This Lewis structure is composed of a boron atom single bonded to three bromine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons. | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Sigma (σ) bonds form from the overlap of the following: (a) two s orbitals, (b) an s orbital and a p orbital, and (c) two p orbitals. The dots indicate the locations of the nuclei. | |
Figure 3.14: a) \(100 \: \text{mg}\) of trans-cinnamic acid in each test tube, b) Left tube contains trans-cinnamicacid with water (insoluble) and right tube containstrans-cinnamicacid with methanol (soluble). | |
A diagram is shown with a vertical arrow pointing upward along the height of the diagram at its left side. This arrow is labeled, “E.” to the right of this arrow are two rows of squares outlined in yellow. The first row has two adjacent squares. The second row is positioned just above the first and includes three adjacent squares. At the right side of the diagram, a short horizontal line segment is drawn just right of the lower side of the rightmost square in the first row. A double-headed arrow extends from this line segment to a second horizontal line segment directly above the first and right of the lower side of the squares in the second row. The arrow is labeled, “small capital delta subscript tet,” to the right. The lower horizontal line segment is similarly labeled, “e subscript,” and the upper line segment is labeled, “t subscript 2.”
A diagram is shown with a vertical arrow pointing upward along the height of the diagram at its left side. This arrow is labeled, “E.” to the right of this arrow are two rows of squares outlined in yellow. The first row has two adjacent squares. The second row is positioned just above the first and includes three adjacent squares. At the right side of the diagram, a short horizontal line segment is drawn just right of the lower side of the rightmost square in the first row. A double-headed arrow extends from this line segment to a second horizontal line segment directly above the first and right of the lower side of the squares in the second row. The arrow is labeled, “small capital delta subscript tet,” to the right. The lower horizontal line segment is similarly labeled, “e subscript,” and the upper line segment is labeled, “t subscript 2.” | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): (a) A water molecule has four regions of electron density, so VSEPR theory predicts a tetrahedral arrangement of hybrid orbitals. (b) Two of the hybrid orbitals on oxygen contain lone pairs, and the other two overlap with the 1s orbitals of hydrogen atoms to form the O–H bonds in H2O. This description is more consistent with the experimental structure. | |
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Figure\(\PageIndex{1}\):Some elements exhibit a regular pattern of ionic charge when they form ions. | |
Four Lewis structures are shown. The first structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to a hydrogen atom and a nitrogen atom. The second structure shows two carbon atoms single bonded to one another. Each is single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows two carbon atoms single bonded to one another and each single bonded to one hydrogen atom. The fourth structure shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms.
Four Lewis structures are shown. The first structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to a hydrogen atom and a nitrogen atom. The second structure shows two carbon atoms single bonded to one another. Each is single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows two carbon atoms single bonded to one another and each single bonded to one hydrogen atom. The fourth structure shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. | |
Simple and straightforward: nucleophile attacks electrophilic metal.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Simple and straightforward: nucleophile attacks electrophilic metal. (Copyright; author via source) | |
Structure of tantalum-nitrogen lattice, with geometries about different nitrogen atoms labelled as trigonal pyramidal and angular. | |
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Both attractive and repulsive dipole–dipole interactions occur in a liquid sample with many molecules. (CC BY-SA-NC; anonymous) | |
A periodic table in Russian, displaying elements organized by their atomic weight and chemical properties, created by D. Mendeleev.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table. (Public Domain; Dmitri Mendeleev viaWikipedia) | |
Closeup view of rusted battery terminal with white solid forming around screw head.
Closeup view of rusted battery terminal with white solid forming around screw head. | |
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Figure 8.2.15 Tanabe-Sugano diagram of the d7octahedral complex (Attribution: Chem507f091 / Public domainhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/F...no_diagram.png) | |
Three rows labeled a, b, and c are shown and each contains rectangles with two sides where the left side is labeled, “A,” and “B,” and the right is labeled, “C,” and “D.” Row a has three rectangles where the first has a dot above and below the letter A, the second has a dot above the A and B, and the third which has a dot above and below the letter B. Row b has four rectangles; the first has a dot above A and C, the second has a dot above A and D, the third has a dot above B and C and the fourth has a dot above B and D. Row c has three rectangles; the first has a dot above and below the letter C, the second has a dot above C and D and the third has a dot above and below the letter D.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): This shows a microstate model describing the flow of heat from a hot object to a cold object. (a) Before the heat flow occurs, the object comprised of particlesAandBcontains both units of energy and as represented by a distribution of three microstates. (b) If the heat flow results in an even dispersal of energy (one energy unit transferred), a distribution of four microstates results. (c) If both energy units are transferred, the resulting distribution has three microstates. |
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