Fast Inverse Square Root
I remember re-deriving this a few years ago. Short answer: If x = 2^n then rsqrt(x) = 2^(-n/2), so the exponent just gets negated and divided by 2. If x = (1 + m) 2^n where |m| This immediately suggests getting an initial guess for Newton's method by just shifting the bitwise form of an IEEE-754 floating point number by 1 and then doing some fix-ups for the negation.The only hitch is that the exponent is stored in biased form rather than 2's complement form, so you have to first subtract out the bias, do the shift, and add back in the bias. Also, shifting can cause a least-significant 1 bit from the exponent to shift down into the most significant bit of the mantissa. But that turns out to be useful since it amounts to using the approximation sqrt(2) ~= 1.5. But doing all these bitwise operations is a lot of extra work compared to just doing a single shift. It turns out you can get almost the same effect with just a single addition of an immediate operand. Most of the bits of this addend are already predetermined by the need to handle the biasing and unbiasing in the exponent, and the remainder can easily be determined by brute force (the search space is only of size 2^24 or so) by just minimizing the approximation error over some test set. Doing that, I was able to converge to almost exactly the same 'magic number' as in Carmack's method.My coworker Charles Bloom has a series of posts on this and related matters: http://cbloomrants.blogspot.com/2010/11/11-20-10-function-ap...Here's an old email exchange I had with another coworker last time I was thinking about this stuff, where I tried to derive as many bits of the constant as possible by reasoning: https://gist.github.com/4e1d0dff97193fe5d745Historical aside: How this algorithm came to be associated with Carmack is an amusing and roundabout tale. My partner in crime on Telemetry at RAD is Brian Hook. Hook was one of the first employees at 3dfx, where he designed and implemented the GLIDE graphics API. Gary Tarolli was the co-founder and CTO at 3dfx, and Hook got the rsqrt code from him. When Hook left 3dfx to work with Carmack on Quake 2 and 3 at id software, he brought that code with him and copied it into the codebase. Carmack never had anything to do with it. It's my recollection Tarolli didn't develop the algorithm either--he had gotten it from someone else in turn.