(a) Spike raster of all 10 neurons in a balanced network with adaptation in response to a pulse stimulus (). Neurons are ordered from weakly excitable (top, dark blue) to highly excitable (bottom, light blue). (b) Both the error (, blue) and cost (, orange) accumulate over time. (c) The network estimate (, orange) tracks the stimulus (, gray) with increasing variance. (d) The smoothed network estimate (blue line) shows a biased estimate with increasing variance (blue shade, standard deviation). (e) Instantaneous spiking rates of 3 example neurons in the network. Inset shows the voltage trace, , and spike train, , for each example neuron. (f) Schematic of 10-neuron balanced network showing only connections to and from the middle neuron. Excitatory connections are shown as triangles and in this particular network are only found in the feedforward and output connections. Inhibitory connections are shown with small circles and make up only the recurrent connections.