text: # How do you report non-significant results?
  
  ## How do you report non-significant results?
  
  A more appropriate way to report non-significant results is to report the observed differences (the effect size) along with the p-value and then carefully highlight which results were predicted to be different.
  
  ## How do you know if a significance is significant?
  
  In principle, a statistically significant result (usually a difference) is a result that’s not attributed to chance. More technically, it means that if the Null Hypothesis is true (which means there really is no difference), there’s a low probability of getting a result that large or larger.
  
  How do you know if standard error is significant?
  
  The standard error determines how much variability “surrounds” a coefficient estimate. A coefficient is significant if it is non-zero. The typical rule of thumb, is that you go about two standard deviations above and below the estimate to get a 95% confidence interval for a coefficient estimate.
  
  ### What is considered a good standard error?
  
  Thus 68% of all sample means will be within one standard error of the population mean (and 95% within two standard errors). The smaller the standard error, the less the spread and the more likely it is that any sample mean is close to the population mean. A small standard error is thus a Good Thing.
  
  ### What is a significant standard error?
  
  When the standard error is large relative to the statistic, the statistic will typically be non-significant. However, if the sample size is very large, for example, sample sizes greater than 1,000, then virtually any statistical result calculated on that sample will be statistically significant.
  
  How do you interpret residual standard error?
  
  The residual standard error is the standard deviation of the residuals “ Smaller residual standard error means predictions are better ¢ The R2 is the square of the correlation coefficient r “ Larger R2 means the model is better “ Can also be interpreted as proportion of variation in the response variable accounted for …
  
  ## What does residual error mean?
  
  : the difference between a group of values observed and their arithmetical mean.
  
  ## How do you find the residual error?
  
  The residual is the error that is not explained by the regression equation: e i = y i – y^ i. homoscedastic, which means “same stretch”: the spread of the residuals should be the same in any thin vertical strip. The residuals are heteroscedastic if they are not homoscedastic.
  
  How do you find the predicted and residual value?
  
  So, to find the residual I would subtract the predicted value from the measured value so for x-value 1 the residual would be 2 – 2.6 = -0.6.
  
  ### What does the residual tell you?
  
  A residual value is a measure of how much a regression line vertically misses a data point. You can think of the lines as averages; a few data points will fit the line and others will miss. A residual plot has the Residual Values on the vertical axis; the horizontal axis displays the independent variable.
  
  ### How do you know if a residual plot is appropriate?
  
  A residual plot is a graph that shows the residuals on the vertical axis and the independent variable on the horizontal axis. If the points in a residual plot are randomly dispersed around the horizontal axis, a linear regression model is appropriate for the data; otherwise, a nonlinear model is more appropriate.
  
  What does it mean when a residual is positive?
  
  If you have a positive value for residual, it means the actual value was MORE than the predicted value. The person actually did better than you predicted. Under the line, you OVER-predicted, so you have a negative residual. Above the line, you UNDER-predicted, so you have a positive residual.
  
  ## What does it mean when a residual is zero?
  
  A residual is the vertical distance between a data point and the regression line. They are positive if they are above the regression line and negative if they are below the regression line. If the regression line actually passes through the point, the residual at that point is zero.
  
  ## Is residual positive or negative?
  
  A residual is a measure of how well a line fits an individual data point. This vertical distance is known as a residual. For data points above the line, the residual is positive, and for data points below the line, the residual is negative. The closer a data point’s residual is to 0, the better the fit.
  
  What is the most important feature of a residual scatterplot?
  
  Residuals show how far data fall from regression line and thus help us assess how well the line fits/describes the data.
  
  ### What is the meaning of least squares?
  
  The least squares method is a statistical procedure to find the best fit for a set of data points by minimizing the sum of the offsets or residuals of points from the plotted curve. Least squares regression is used to predict the behavior of dependent variables.
  
  ### What is the principle of least squares?
  
  MELDRUM SIEWART HE ” Principle of Least Squares” states that the most probable values of a system of unknown quantities upon which observations have been made, are obtained by making the sum of the squares of the errors a minimum.
  
  What is the key characteristic of a least squares fit?
  
  The least squares criterion is determined by minimizing the sum of squares created by a mathematical function. A square is determined by squaring the distance between a data point and the regression line or mean value of the data set.
  
  ## How do you find the least squares error?
  
  Steps
  
  1. Step 1: For each (x,y) point calculate x2 and xy.
  2. Step 2: Sum all x, y, x2 and xy, which gives us Î£x, Î£y, Î£x2 and Î£xy (Î£ means “sum up”)
  3. Step 3: Calculate Slope m:
  4. m = N Î£(xy) ˆ’ Î£x Î£y N Î£(x2) ˆ’ (Î£x)2
  5. Step 4: Calculate Intercept b:
  6. b = Î£y ˆ’ m Î£x N.
  7. Step 5: Assemble the equation of a line.
  
  ## How is regression calculated?
  
  The Linear Regression Equation The equation has the form Y= a + bX, where Y is the dependent variable (that’s the variable that goes on the Y axis), X is the independent variable (i.e. it is plotted on the X axis), b is the slope of the line and a is the y-intercept.
  
  What is a good mean squared error?
  
  Long answer: the ideal MSE isn’t 0, since then you would have a model that perfectly predicts your training data, but which is very unlikely to perfectly predict any other data. What you want is a balance between overfit (very low MSE for training data) and underfit (very high MSE for test/validation/unseen data).
  
  ### What is the difference between least squares and linear regression?
  
  They are not the same thing. Given a certain dataset, linear regression is used to find the best possible linear function, which is explaining the connection between the variables. Least Squares is a possible loss function.