text: ## Counting linear lambda terms: Mersenne numbers
  
  In a previous post I posed the challenge of coming up with polymorphic types admitting certain numbers of linear inhabitants. (If you didn’t see the previous post and want to puzzle over an interesting lambda-calculus based problem, stop reading now and go read the previous post first.) In this post I’ll outline some solutions and some further questions.
  
  First, we can make the easy observation that if we have polymorphic types admitting $m$ and $n$ linear inhabitants respectively, we can easily construct a type with $mn$ inhabitants, by first alpha-varying the types so they have disjoint type parameters, then concatenating their inputs and pairing their outputs. For example, we can use $\forall a. (a,a) \to (a,a)$, with two linear inhabitants, to construct the type $\forall a b. (a,a) \to (b,b) \to ((a,a),(b,b))$ with four.
  
  OK, so we can construct types with any power of two number of inhabitants. In fact, we can get any factorial number of linear inhabitants with functions from n-tuples to n-tuples, whose linear inhabitants correspond to permutations. For example, $\forall a. (a,a,a,a) \to (a,a,a,a)$ has $4! = 24$ linear inhabitants. So now we can get any number which can be decomposed as a product of factorials.
  
  But what about 3, or 5, or 7, or…? After thinking for several days I finally stumbled upon this type:
  
  $\forall a b. (a \to b) \to (b \to a) \to a \to b \to (a,b)$
  
  which has exactly three linear inhabitants, namely
  
  • $\lambda f g a b. (g (f a), b)$
  • $\lambda f g a b. (g b, f a)$
  • $\lambda f g a b. (a, f (g b))$
  
  That is, we can pair up the function inputs with the other inputs, or we can apply both functions to one input, or both functions (in the other order) to the other input. In each of these cases, the types ensure that we have no further choice — for example, we can’t swap the order of the outputs since then they would have the wrong types.
  
  Generalizing a bit, consider the type
  
  $\forall a_1, \dots, a_n. (a_1 \to a_2) \to \dots \to (a_{n-1} \to a_n) \to (a_n \to a_1) \\ \to a_1 \to \dots \to a_n \to (a_1,\dots,a_n)$
  
  That is, we take as inputs $n$ functions arranged in a cycle (the first function maps from $a_1$ to $a_2$, the second from $a_2$ to $a_3$, and so on, with the $n$th function mapping from $a_n$ back to $a_1$), and $n$ inputs of types $a_1$ through $a_n$, and output an $n$-tuple of values with types $a_1$ to $a_n$. How many linear inhabitants does this type have, as a function of $n$?
  
  Well, if we compose all the functions together we can make them into a function $a_i \to a_i$ for any $i$, depending on the order in which we compose them. So we can take all the functions and apply them to any one of the other inputs, passing through the remaining $n-1$ inputs unchanged. We can also apply each function individually to its matching input, “shifting” the types of all the inputs by one. Is there anything else we can do?
  
  Indeed there is. For example, we could chain together some of the functions to make a function (say) $a_2 \to a_7$, and if we compose the remaining functions we get a function $a_7 \to a_2$ — so we can apply these functions to the inputs of type $a_2$ and $a_7$ respectively, swapping their positions in the output, and passing through the remaining inputs unchanged. In fact, given a choice of any non-empty subset of the non-function inputs, there is exactly one way to use the given functions to cyclically permute them and pass through the other inputs unchanged. For example, if we choose $a_1$, $a_3$, and $a_6$, then we must apply the first two functions to the $a_1$ to give an $a_3$, the next three functions to the $a_3$ which will give us an $a_6$, and the remaining functions applied to the $a_6$ will give us an $a_1$ again.
  
  So the linear inhabitants of this type are in one-to-one correspondence with the non-empty subsets of $\{a_1, \dots, a_n\}$, which means there are $2^n - 1$ inhabitants. This gives us 3, as we saw before, and it also tells us that
  
  $\forall a b c. (a \to b) \to (b \to c) \to (c \to a) \to a \to b \to c \to (a,b,c)$
  
  has 7 linear inhabitants.
  
  Great, so now we can create arbitrary products of factorials and Mersenne numbers. But what about, say, 5?
  
  Well… I conjecture that no types with five linear inhabitants exist, but I don’t have a proof yet!
  
  Assistant Professor of Computer Science at Hendrix College. Functional programmer, mathematician, teacher, pianist, follower of Jesus.
  This entry was posted in combinatorics. Bookmark the permalink.
  
  ### 18 Responses to Counting linear lambda terms: Mersenne numbers
  
  1. Luke Palmer says:
  
  I just wanted to say that I find this a very interesting exploration and I enjoy reading about this a lot. This question has occurred to me in the past, but I never took the time to explore it in detail. Thanks!
  
  2. gasche says:
  
  ∀α₁α₂α₃α₄.(∀β.β→β)→(α₁,α₂,α₃,α₄)→(α₁,α₂,α₃,α₄)
  
  • gasche says:
  
  Gah, I forgot that they had to be observationally different. I liked the (∀β.β→β) trick but as it’s the identity, it doesn’t change the observable behaviour.
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Yeah, too bad! After reading your comment for about 20 seconds I was thinking, “Oh, that’s so simple! Why didn’t I think of that?” …and then I realized that there was only one possible behavior.
  
  • gasche says:
  
  If you liked that one, I have another solution which is “too bad” for a different reason.
  
  ∀α.(α)⁵→(α→∀β.β→β)⁴→α
  
  (where (σ)ⁿ is a notation for the tuple (σ,σ,…,σ) of size n)
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Hmm, intriguing. So the problem here is that the functions provided as arguments in the 4-tuple are necessarily nonlinear? I guess whether this is a solution depends on how precisely you interpret the original formulation of the problem!
  
  3. roy_hu says:
  
  Do you foresee any interesting theory and/or application out of this exercise?
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Nope, not really! That’s not to say there isn’t. But I’m just playing around.
  
  4. Have you given any thought to (deriving and) applying the free theorems from Jianzhou’s paper? They seem able to disprove the existence of functions with certain linear types…
  
  • Brent says:
  
  I hadn’t, but that’s a great suggestion.
  
  5. Tillmann Rendel says:
  
  forall a . (a -> a) -> (a -> a, a -> a, a -> a, a -> a, a -> a)
  
  Linear inhabitants of this term need to return the argument in one of the five components of the result. The other components can only be identity functions. So we seem to have five different linear inhabitants.
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Yes, I believe this works! Brilliant!
  
  • Tillmann Rendel says:
  
  So it seems that
  
    φ = ∀α . (α, α) → α
  
  corresponds to
  
    ψ = ∀α . (α → α) → (α → α, α → α)
  
  in the sense that there is an isomorphism between the linear inhabitants of ψ and the usual inhabitants of φ. This isomorphism is witnessed by the Λ-terms
  
    λt . λf . (t (f, λx . x), t (λx . x, f)) : φ → ψ
  
  and
  
    λt . λ(x, y) . (λ(f, g) . f x ) (t (λx. y)) : ψ → φ.
  
  Can this observation be extended to yield an encoding of structural typing in linear typing and/or the other way around?
  
  Such an encoding could play a similar role as double negation for classical and intuitionistic logics: τ has a classical proof if and only if not (not τ) has an intuitionistic proof.
  
  • Brent says:
explanation: This text extract is a detailed exploration of a specific problem in the lambda calculus, focusing on the construction of polymorphic types with a specific number of linear inhabitants. The author discusses various techniques to construct types with a certain number of inhabitants, including using factorials and Mersenne numbers. The text also includes a conjecture about the non-existence of types with exactly five linear inhabitants, along with a discussion of potential solutions and related questions.
  
  The document contains a question and multiple responses to it, making it a discussion rather than a single question-and-answer pair.
distilabel_metadata.content: Evaluate the user given text extract and determine if it contains a math question and optionally and answer to this question.
  
  Output rules:
  
  1. Briefly describe the document and mention if it contains a question or a question and answer.
  2. Finalize the output with: Label: no-question,question,question-and-answer,multiple-question,multiple-question-and-answer
distilabel_metadata.role: system
distilabel_metadata.content: ## Counting linear lambda terms: Mersenne numbers
  
  In a previous post I posed the challenge of coming up with polymorphic types admitting certain numbers of linear inhabitants. (If you didn’t see the previous post and want to puzzle over an interesting lambda-calculus based problem, stop reading now and go read the previous post first.) In this post I’ll outline some solutions and some further questions.
  
  First, we can make the easy observation that if we have polymorphic types admitting $m$ and $n$ linear inhabitants respectively, we can easily construct a type with $mn$ inhabitants, by first alpha-varying the types so they have disjoint type parameters, then concatenating their inputs and pairing their outputs. For example, we can use $\forall a. (a,a) \to (a,a)$, with two linear inhabitants, to construct the type $\forall a b. (a,a) \to (b,b) \to ((a,a),(b,b))$ with four.
  
  OK, so we can construct types with any power of two number of inhabitants. In fact, we can get any factorial number of linear inhabitants with functions from n-tuples to n-tuples, whose linear inhabitants correspond to permutations. For example, $\forall a. (a,a,a,a) \to (a,a,a,a)$ has $4! = 24$ linear inhabitants. So now we can get any number which can be decomposed as a product of factorials.
  
  But what about 3, or 5, or 7, or…? After thinking for several days I finally stumbled upon this type:
  
  $\forall a b. (a \to b) \to (b \to a) \to a \to b \to (a,b)$
  
  which has exactly three linear inhabitants, namely
  
  • $\lambda f g a b. (g (f a), b)$
  • $\lambda f g a b. (g b, f a)$
  • $\lambda f g a b. (a, f (g b))$
  
  That is, we can pair up the function inputs with the other inputs, or we can apply both functions to one input, or both functions (in the other order) to the other input. In each of these cases, the types ensure that we have no further choice — for example, we can’t swap the order of the outputs since then they would have the wrong types.
  
  Generalizing a bit, consider the type
  
  $\forall a_1, \dots, a_n. (a_1 \to a_2) \to \dots \to (a_{n-1} \to a_n) \to (a_n \to a_1) \\ \to a_1 \to \dots \to a_n \to (a_1,\dots,a_n)$
  
  That is, we take as inputs $n$ functions arranged in a cycle (the first function maps from $a_1$ to $a_2$, the second from $a_2$ to $a_3$, and so on, with the $n$th function mapping from $a_n$ back to $a_1$), and $n$ inputs of types $a_1$ through $a_n$, and output an $n$-tuple of values with types $a_1$ to $a_n$. How many linear inhabitants does this type have, as a function of $n$?
  
  Well, if we compose all the functions together we can make them into a function $a_i \to a_i$ for any $i$, depending on the order in which we compose them. So we can take all the functions and apply them to any one of the other inputs, passing through the remaining $n-1$ inputs unchanged. We can also apply each function individually to its matching input, “shifting” the types of all the inputs by one. Is there anything else we can do?
  
  Indeed there is. For example, we could chain together some of the functions to make a function (say) $a_2 \to a_7$, and if we compose the remaining functions we get a function $a_7 \to a_2$ — so we can apply these functions to the inputs of type $a_2$ and $a_7$ respectively, swapping their positions in the output, and passing through the remaining inputs unchanged. In fact, given a choice of any non-empty subset of the non-function inputs, there is exactly one way to use the given functions to cyclically permute them and pass through the other inputs unchanged. For example, if we choose $a_1$, $a_3$, and $a_6$, then we must apply the first two functions to the $a_1$ to give an $a_3$, the next three functions to the $a_3$ which will give us an $a_6$, and the remaining functions applied to the $a_6$ will give us an $a_1$ again.
  
  So the linear inhabitants of this type are in one-to-one correspondence with the non-empty subsets of $\{a_1, \dots, a_n\}$, which means there are $2^n - 1$ inhabitants. This gives us 3, as we saw before, and it also tells us that
  
  $\forall a b c. (a \to b) \to (b \to c) \to (c \to a) \to a \to b \to c \to (a,b,c)$
  
  has 7 linear inhabitants.
  
  Great, so now we can create arbitrary products of factorials and Mersenne numbers. But what about, say, 5?
  
  Well… I conjecture that no types with five linear inhabitants exist, but I don’t have a proof yet!
  
  Assistant Professor of Computer Science at Hendrix College. Functional programmer, mathematician, teacher, pianist, follower of Jesus.
  This entry was posted in combinatorics. Bookmark the permalink.
  
  ### 18 Responses to Counting linear lambda terms: Mersenne numbers
  
  1. Luke Palmer says:
  
  I just wanted to say that I find this a very interesting exploration and I enjoy reading about this a lot. This question has occurred to me in the past, but I never took the time to explore it in detail. Thanks!
  
  2. gasche says:
  
  ∀α₁α₂α₃α₄.(∀β.β→β)→(α₁,α₂,α₃,α₄)→(α₁,α₂,α₃,α₄)
  
  • gasche says:
  
  Gah, I forgot that they had to be observationally different. I liked the (∀β.β→β) trick but as it’s the identity, it doesn’t change the observable behaviour.
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Yeah, too bad! After reading your comment for about 20 seconds I was thinking, “Oh, that’s so simple! Why didn’t I think of that?” …and then I realized that there was only one possible behavior.
  
  • gasche says:
  
  If you liked that one, I have another solution which is “too bad” for a different reason.
  
  ∀α.(α)⁵→(α→∀β.β→β)⁴→α
  
  (where (σ)ⁿ is a notation for the tuple (σ,σ,…,σ) of size n)
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Hmm, intriguing. So the problem here is that the functions provided as arguments in the 4-tuple are necessarily nonlinear? I guess whether this is a solution depends on how precisely you interpret the original formulation of the problem!
  
  3. roy_hu says:
  
  Do you foresee any interesting theory and/or application out of this exercise?
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Nope, not really! That’s not to say there isn’t. But I’m just playing around.
  
  4. Have you given any thought to (deriving and) applying the free theorems from Jianzhou’s paper? They seem able to disprove the existence of functions with certain linear types…
  
  • Brent says:
  
  I hadn’t, but that’s a great suggestion.
  
  5. Tillmann Rendel says:
  
  forall a . (a -> a) -> (a -> a, a -> a, a -> a, a -> a, a -> a)
  
  Linear inhabitants of this term need to return the argument in one of the five components of the result. The other components can only be identity functions. So we seem to have five different linear inhabitants.
  
  • Brent says:
  
  Yes, I believe this works! Brilliant!
  
  • Tillmann Rendel says:
  
  So it seems that
  
    φ = ∀α . (α, α) → α
  
  corresponds to
  
    ψ = ∀α . (α → α) → (α → α, α → α)
  
  in the sense that there is an isomorphism between the linear inhabitants of ψ and the usual inhabitants of φ. This isomorphism is witnessed by the Λ-terms
  
    λt . λf . (t (f, λx . x), t (λx . x, f)) : φ → ψ
  
  and
  
    λt . λ(x, y) . (λ(f, g) . f x ) (t (λx. y)) : ψ → φ.
  
  Can this observation be extended to yield an encoding of structural typing in linear typing and/or the other way around?
  
  Such an encoding could play a similar role as double negation for classical and intuitionistic logics: τ has a classical proof if and only if not (not τ) has an intuitionistic proof.
  
  • Brent says:
distilabel_metadata.role: user
distilabel_metadata.raw_output_q_a_detector_0: This text extract is a detailed exploration of a specific problem in the lambda calculus, focusing on the construction of polymorphic types with a specific number of linear inhabitants. The author discusses various techniques to construct types with a certain number of inhabitants, including using factorials and Mersenne numbers. The text also includes a conjecture about the non-existence of types with exactly five linear inhabitants, along with a discussion of potential solutions and related questions.
  
  The document contains a question and multiple responses to it, making it a discussion rather than a single question-and-answer pair.
  
  Label: multiple-question-and-answer