Consequences of hardship posts upon corporate and social hierarchies 
This article shows that expatriate managers do accumulate various forms of capital during expatriation in hardship locations. However, the development of such capital depends in particular on expatriates’ country of origin and social status before expatriation. In proportion to their capital endowment before expatriation, expatriates from emerging countries and middle-class managers from developed countries increase their capital more than other expatriates do but they are faced with a “glass ceiling” that limits their upward mobility within the firm and the community of “global managers”.