In the conflict between Canada and the United States over softwood lumber, U.S. producers have consistently maintained the upper hand, in spite of free trade agreements and in spite of the importance of U.S. softwood consumers as an economic and political force. Why have American softwood consumers not been nearly as efficient as producers in their lobbying efforts? Anti-protection groups have consistently failed to prevail because the industrial diversity of their members hampered their lobbying efforts, U.S. trade laws limit the actions of consumers in cases of administrative protection; and some Canadian actors in this conflicts undermined their efforts and favoured the protectionist position of U.S. producers.