Infection of the fetus after the first trimester results in a less impressive neonatal syndrome. The infant may seem lethargic and fail to thrive. The cranium is abnormally small. Only a cardiac abnormality, deafness, or chorioretinitis may provide clues to the diagnosis. The CSF later may show an increase of mononuclear cells and an elevated protein. The infection may persist for a year or longer. Foci of calcification are rare, and CT and MRI are of little help in diagnosis. The maternal infection may be so mild that it is passed off as minor; but even when it is evident, the fetus is spared in approximately 50 percent of cases. Diagnosis can be verified in the neonate by demonstrating immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibodies to the virus or by the isolation of the virus from the throat, urine, stool, or CSF. Also, the virus has been obtained from cells in the amniotic fluid. In subsequent pregnancies, the fetus has been normal in our experience.
The neuropathology is of considerable interest. In the nervous system of fetuses exposed to maternal rubella in the first trimester, R.D. Adams found no visible lesions by light microscopy, even though the virus had been isolated from the brain by Enders (personal communications). At this period of development there is no inflammatory reaction because of the absence of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, lymphocytes, and other mononuclear cells in the fetus. At birth the brain is usually of normal size, and there may be no discernible lesions. There may be a mild meningeal infiltration of lymphocytes, and a few zones of necrosis and vasculitis with later calcification of vessels are seen, as are small hemorrhages, presumably related to the thrombocytopenia. Smallness of the brain and delay in myelination have been observed in children who died at 1 to 2 years of age. None of the brains in Adams’ series was malformed. Rubella virus continues to be recoverable from the CSF for at least 18 months after birth. A form of delayed progressive rubella encephalitis in childhood is also known and is described in Chap. 32 under “Progressive Rubella Panencephalitis.” Because there is no treatment for the active infection, the obvious approach to the problem of congenital rubella infection is to make sure that every woman of childbearing age has been vaccinated against rubella or has antibodies as a result of infection prior to pregnancy. The widespread use of rubella vaccine has reduced the chance of major outbreaks, but sporadic infections continue to be seen, and outbreaks of epidemic proportions continue to occur in developing countries.
For many years it was known that there were swollen cells containing intranuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions in the tissues of some infants who died in the first weeks and months of life. This cytologic change seemed related to the fatalities. In 1956 and 1957, three different laboratories isolated what has come to be called the human cytomegalovirus (see Weller). This has proved to be the most frequent intrauterine viral infection, rivaled in the current era only by HIV.