As was indicated briefly in Chap. 17, blood pressure depends on the adequacy of intravascular blood volume, on systemic vascular resistance, and on the cardiac output. Both the autonomic and endocrine systems influence the muscular, cutaneous, and mesenteric (splanchnic) vascular beds, heart rate, and stroke volume of the heart. Together, these actions serve to maintain normal blood pressure and allow reflex maintenance of blood pressure with changes in body position. Two types of baroreceptors function as the afferent component of this reflex arc by sensing pressure gradients across the walls of large blood vessels. Those in the carotid sinus and aortic arch are sensitive to reductions in pulse pressure (the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure), while those in the right heart chambers and pulmonary vessels respond more to alterations in blood volume. The carotid sinus baroreceptors are rapidly responsive and capable of detecting beat-to-beat changes, in contrast to the aortic arch nerves, which have a longer response time and discriminate only the larger and more prolonged alterations in pressure.
The nerves arising from these receptors are small-caliber, thinly myelinated fibers that course in cranial nerves IX and X and terminate in the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS). In response to increased stimulation of these receptors, vagal efferent activity is reduced, resulting in reflex cardioacceleration. This is accomplished through polysynaptic connections between the NTS and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; it is from this structure that vagal neurons project to the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, and the muscle of the left ventricle. Thus, vagal activity results in reduction in heart rate and in the contractile force of the myocardium (negative inotropy). Increased systemic vascular resistance is mediated concurrently through parallel connections between the NTS and the medullary pressor areas that project to the intermediolateral cells of the midthoracic cord. The main sympathetic outflow from these thoracic segments is via the greater splanchnic nerve to the celiac ganglion, the postganglionic nerves of which project to the capacitance vessels of the gut. The splanchnic capacitance veins act as a reservoir for as much as 20 percent of the total blood volume, and interruption of the splanchnic nerves results in severe postural hypotension. After a high-carbohydrate meal there is a marked hyperemia of the gut and compensatory peripheral vasoconstriction in the muscles and skin. It has also been noted that the mesenteric vascular bed is responsive to the orthostatic redistribution of blood volume but not to mental stress.
The opposite response to the one described earlier, namely bradycardia and hypotension, results when vagal tone is enhanced and sympathetic tone reduced. This response can be triggered by baroreceptors, or it may arise from cerebral stimuli such as fear or sight of blood in susceptible individuals as well as from extreme pain, particularly arising in the viscera.
Two slower-acting humoral mechanisms regulate blood volume and complement the control of systemic vascular resistance. Pressure-sensitive renal juxtaglomerular cells release renin, which stimulates production of angiotensin and influences aldosterone production, both of which affect an increase of blood volume. Of lesser influence in the control of blood pressure is antidiuretic hormone, discussed in the next chapter; but the effects of this peptide become more important when autonomic failure forces a dependence on secondary mechanisms for the maintenance of blood pressure. In addition to its presence in autonomic ganglia, nitric oxide has been found to have an important local role in maintaining vascular tone, mainly by way of attenuating the response to sympathetic stimulation. The extent to which this latter function is under neural control is not clear.
Regulation of Bladder Function