Originally, Freud separated neuroses and psychoneuroses and both subjects became enmeshed in psychoanalytic theory. The assumption about neurosis was that an undercurrent of anxiety arising from unconscious conflict explained all the different types of neuroses as well as the psychopathies. Psychoneurosis was reserved for neurosis that had an additional aspect based in a brain (physical) trait—but the 2 differed very little. Later, psychiatrists uncommitted to psychoanalytic theory attributed these states to social forces leading to maladaptive behavior from childhood. Many of these notions were not acceptable to biologically oriented physicians, with the result that the term psychoneurosis was expunged from later editions of the DSM, and neurosis was replaced by anxiety disorders, phobic states, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. These terms are at present applied to mental disorders with the following characteristics: (1) symptoms that are distressing to the affected individual and regarded by the person as unacceptable or alien; (2) intactness of reality testing (the patient’s evaluation of the relationship between himself and the outside world); (3) symptomatic behavior that does not seriously violate social norms, although personal functioning may be considerably impaired; (4) a disturbance that has its onset early in life and is enduring—not a transitory reaction to stress; and (5) the absence of a discernible medical cause or structural disease of the brain. The foregoing definition of anxiety and its allied disorders has the virtue of being descriptive without committing one to any theory of causation.
The genesis of the anxiety, phobic, and obsessive states remains elusive. It is generally conceded that they do not arise de novo. The antecedents are thought in some quarters to be abnormalities in personality development, strongly influenced by genetic factors and molded by stressful events in the life of the individual (Noyes et al), introduced by Engel in 1977 as the biopsychosocial theory of mental health and mental illness. Traits of this nature undoubtedly arise in several individuals from the same family. Thus any discussion requires a brief digression into the origins of normal personality development and departures from it. Even if one is not certain of a relationship between development and psychologic disorders in the broad category of neurosis, it is clear from the interactions of daily life that minor forms of anxiety contribute to the makeup of the normal personality.
Chapter 27 introduced the concept of personality and its development. There it was pointed out that the term embraces the totality of a person’s mental attributes, observable behavior, and reportable subjective experience—the sum of which distinguishes one individual from all others. Thus it includes elements of what might be called the individual’s character and includes intelligence, drives, temperament, and sentiments—in short, all forces from within the organism that determine a person’s reactions to the prevailing environment. The term character is almost synonymous with personality but is less useful in medicine because of its emphasis on interpersonal and ethical aspects and its moralistic connotation. Pertinent to this subject matter is the assumption that in approximately 15 percent of the general population, certain personality traits are so pronounced as to be distressing to the individual and disturbing to others, even though the patient is not manifestly sociopathic or psychotic.