The terminals of autonomic nerves and their junctions with smooth muscle and glands have been more difficult to visualize and study than the motor end plates of striated muscle. As the postganglionic axons enter an organ, usually via the vasculature, they ramify into many smaller branches and disperse, without a Schwann cell covering, to innervate the smooth muscle fibers, the glands, and, in largest number, the small arteries, arterioles, and precapillary sphincters (see Burnstock). Some of these terminals penetrate the smooth muscle of the arterioles; others remain in the adventitia. At the ends of the postganglionic fibers and in part along their course there are swellings that lie in close proximity to the sarcolemma or gland cell membrane; often the muscle fiber is grooved to accommodate these swellings. The axonal swellings contain synaptic vesicles, some clear and others with a dense granular core. The clear vesicles contain acetylcholine and those with a dense core contain catecholamines, particularly norepinephrine (Falck). This is well illustrated in the iris, where nerves to the dilator muscle (sympathetic) contain dense-core vesicles and those to the constrictor (parasympathetic) contain clear vesicles. A single nerve fiber innervates multiple smooth muscle and gland cells.
Visceral afferents Somewhat arbitrarily, anatomists have declared the autonomic nervous system to be purely efferent motor and secretory in function. However, most autonomic nerves are mixed, also containing afferent fibers that convey sensory impulses from the viscera and blood vessels. The cell bodies of these sensory neurons lie in the posterior root sensory ganglia; some central axons of these ganglionic cells synapse with lateral horn cells of the spinal cord and subserve visceral reflexes; others synapse in the dorsal horn and convey or modulate impulses for conscious sensation. Secondary afferents carry sensory impulses to certain brainstem nuclei, particularly the nucleus tractus solitarius, as described later, and the thalamus via the lateral spinothalamic and polysynaptic pathways.
The Central Regulation of Visceral Function
The principal functions of central autonomic network are the modulation of stress responses, baroregulation, thermoregulation and energy balance. Integration of autonomic function takes place at two levels, the brainstem and the cerebrum. In the brainstem, the main visceral afferent nucleus is the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). Cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal afferents, carried in cranial nerves X and IX via the nodose and petrosal ganglia, terminate on specific subnuclei of the NTS. The caudal subnuclei are the primary receiving site for viscerosensory fibers; other less-well-defined areas receive baroreceptor and chemoreceptor information. The caudal NTS integrates these signals and projects to a number of critical areas in the hypothalamus, amygdala, and insular cortex, involved primarily in cardiovascular control, as well as to the pontine and medullary nuclei controlling respiratory rhythms. The NTS therefore serves a critical integratory function for both circulation and respiration, as described further on.