Fig. 3.28 Properties of selected human chemokines. Chemokines fall mainly into two related but distinct groups: the CC chemokines, which have two adjacent cysteine residues near the amino terminus; and the CXC chemokines, in which the equivalent cysteine residues are separated by a single amino acid. In humans, the genes for CC chemokines are mostly clustered in one region of chromosome 4. Genes for CXC chemokine genes are found mainly in a cluster on chromosome 17. The two groups of chemokines act on different sets of receptors, all of which are G-proteincoupled receptors. CC chemokines bind to receptors designated CCR1–10. CXC chemokines bind to receptors designated CXCR1–7. Different receptors are expressed on different cell types, and so a particular chemokine can be used to attract a particular cell type. In general, CXC chemokines with a Glu-Leu-Arg tripeptide motif immediately before the first cysteine promote the migration of neutrophils. CXCL8 is an example of this type. Most of the other CXC chemokines, including those that interact with receptors CXCR3, 4, and 5, lack this motif. Fractalkine is unusual in several respects: it has three amino acid residues between the two cysteines, and it exists in two forms, one that is tethered to the membrane of the endothelial and epithelial cells that express it, where it serves as an adhesion protein, and a soluble form that is released from the cell surface and acts as a chemoattractant for a wide range of cell types. A more comprehensive list of chemokines and their receptors is given in Appendix IV.
cells secrete a diverse group of cytokines that includes IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, and the chemokine CXCL8 (formerly known as IL-8).
Among the cytokines released by tissues in the earliest phases of infection are members of a family of chemoattractant cytokines known as chemokines. These small proteins induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells, resulting in the movement of the cells toward the source of the chemokine. Because chemokines were first detected in functional assays, they were initially given a variety of names, which are listed along with their standardized nomenclature in Appendix IV. All the chemokines are related in amino acid sequence, and their receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors (see Section 3-2). The signaling pathway stimulated by chemokines causes changes in cell adhesiveness and changes in the cell’s cytoskeleton that lead to directed migration. Chemokines can be produced and released by many different types of cells, not only those of the immune system. In the immune system they function mainly as chemoattractants for leukocytes, recruiting monocytes, neutrophils, and other effector cells of innate immunity from the blood into sites of infection. They also guide lymphocytes in adaptive immunity, as we will learn in Chapters 9–11. Some chemokines also function in lymphocyte development and migration and in angiogenesis (the growth of new blood vessels). There are more than 50 known chemokines, and this striking multiplicity may reflect their importance in delivering cells to their correct locations, which seems to be their main function in the case of lymphocytes. Some of the chemokines that are produced by or that affect human innate immune cells are listed in Fig. 3.28 along with their properties.