The Sympathetic Nervous System (See Fig. 25-3)
The preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division originate in the intermediolateral cell column of the spinal gray matter, from the eighth cervical to the second lumbar segments. Low and Dyck (1977) have estimated that each segment of the cord contains approximately 5,000 lateral horn cells and that there is an attrition of 5 to 7 percent per decade in late adult life. The axons of the nerve fibers originating in the intermediolateral column are of small caliber and are myelinated; when grouped, they form the white communicating rami as shown in Fig. 25-1. These preganglionic fibers synapse with the cell bodies of the postganglionic neurons, which are collected into two large ganglionated chains or cords, one on each side of the vertebral column (paravertebral ganglia), and several single prevertebral ganglia. These constitute the sympathetic ganglia.
Axons of the sympathetic ganglion cells are also of small caliber but are unmyelinated. Most of the postganglionic fibers pass via gray communicating rami to their adjacent spinal nerves of T5 to L3; they supply blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles, and also form plexuses that supply the heart, bronchi, kidneys, intestines, pancreas, bladder, and sex organs. The postganglionic fibers of the prevertebral ganglia (located in the retroperitoneal posterior abdomen rather than paravertebrally, along the sides of the spinal column) form the hypogastric, splanchnic, and mesenteric plexuses, which innervate the glands, smooth muscle, and blood vessels of the abdominal and pelvic viscera (see Fig. 25-3).
The sympathetic innervation of the adrenal medulla is unique in that its secretory cells receive preganglionic fibers directly, via the splanchnic nerves. This is an exception to the rule that organs innervated by the autonomic nervous system receive only postganglionic fibers. This special arrangement can be explained by the fact that cells of the adrenal medulla are the morphologic homologues of the postganglionic sympathetic neurons and secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine (the postganglionic transmitters) directly into the bloodstream. In this way, the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla act in unison to produce diffuse effects, as one would expect from their role in emergency reactions.
There are 3 cervical (superior, middle, and inferior, or stellate), 11 thoracic, and 4 to 6 lumbar sympathetic ganglia. The head receives its sympathetic innervation from the eighth cervical and first two thoracic cord segments, the fibers of which pass through the inferior to the middle and superior cervical ganglia. Postganglionic fibers from cells of the superior cervical ganglion follow the internal and external carotid arteries and innervate the blood vessels and smooth muscle, as well as the sweat, lacrimal, and salivary glands of the head. Included among these postganglionic fibers, issuing mainly from T1, are the pupillodilator fibers and those innervating the Müller muscle of the upper eyelid (it connects the upper tarsus to the undersurface of the levator); there is a separate small inferior tarsus muscle that is also sympathetically innervated. The arm receives its postganglionic innervation from the inferior cervical ganglion and uppermost thoracic ganglia (the two are fused to form the stellate ganglion). The cardiac plexus and other thoracic sympathetic nerves are derived from the stellate ganglion and the abdominal visceral plexuses, from the fifth to the ninth or tenth thoracic ganglia. The lowermost thoracic ganglia have no abdominal visceral connections; their axons course rostrally and caudally in the sympathetic chain. The upper lumbar ganglia supply the descending colon, pelvic organs, and legs.