The pathologic process takes the form of a diffuse, although uneven, degeneration of white matter of the spinal cord and occasionally of the brain. The earliest histologic event is swelling of myelin sheaths, characterized by the formation of intramyelinic vacuoles and separation of myelin lamellae. This is followed by a coalescence of small foci of tissue destruction into larger ones, imparting a vacuolated, sieve-like appearance to the tissue, an appearance also observed in HIV myelopathy and rarely in lupus erythematosus. The myelin sheaths and axis cylinders are both involved in the degenerative process, the former more obviously and perhaps earlier and more severely than the latter. There is relatively little fibrous gliosis in the early lesions, but in more chronic ones, particularly those in which considerable tissue is destroyed, the gliosis is pronounced. The changes begin in the posterior columns of the lower cervical and upper thoracic segments of the cord and spread from this region up and down the cord as well as forward into the lateral and anterior columns. The lesions are not limited to systems of fibers within the posterior or lateral columns but are scattered irregularly through the white matter, thereby representing a myelinopathy.
In rare instances, foci of spongy degeneration are found in the optic nerves and chiasm and in the central white matter of the brain (Adams and Kubik). The peripheral nerves may show a loss of myelin, but there is no unequivocal evidence that axons are significantly affected.
Agamanolis and colleagues (1978) showed that monkeys sustained on a vitamin B12-deficient diet for a prolonged period develop neuropathologic changes indistinguishable from those of SCD in humans. The time required for the production of nervous system changes in monkeys, 33 to 45 months, is comparable to the time required to deplete the vitamin B12 stores of patients with pernicious anemia in whom parenteral vitamin B12 therapy had been discontinued. It is noteworthy that vitamin B12-deprived monkeys do not become anemic despite the prolonged period of vitamin B12 deficiency. Also in distinction to the human condition, involvement of the optic nerves is particularly severe in the monkey and probably precedes the degeneration of the spinal cord. The optic nerve lesions appear first in the papillomacular bundles, in the retrobulbar portions of the nerves; it subsequently spreads beyond the confines of this bundle and caudally in the optic nerves, chiasm, and tracts. These changes are much the same as those of “Tobacco–Alcohol Amblyopia” (see the section on this subject further on). The peripheral nerves are not affected in the experimentally produced vitamin B12 deficiency.
Paresthesia, impairment of deep sensation, and ataxia are caused by lesions in the posterior columns. Weakness, spasticity, increased tendon reflexes, and Babinski signs depend on involvement of the corticospinal tracts. The spinothalamic tracts may rarely be involved in the pathologic process, which explains the rare finding of a sensory level for pain and temperature on the trunk. The distal and symmetrical impairment of superficial sensation and loss of tendon reflexes that occur in advanced cases, however, may be explained by involvement of peripheral nerves and are then reflected in nerve conduction studies (see further on, under “Diagnosis”).