The ophthalmoscopic appearance of retinal hemorrhage is determined by the structure of the particular tissue in which it occurs. In the superficial layer of the retina, they are linear or flame-shaped (“splinter” hemorrhages) because of their confinement by the horizontally coursing nerve fibers in that layer. These hemorrhages usually overlie and obscure the retinal vessels. Round or oval (“dot-and-blot”) hemorrhages lie behind the vessels, in the outer plexiform layer of the retina (synaptic layer between bipolar cells and nuclei of rods and cones—Fig. 12-3); in this layer, blood accumulates in the form of a cylinder between vertically oriented nerve fibers and appears round or oval when viewed end-on with the ophthalmoscope. Rupture of arterioles on the inner surface of the retina—as occurs with ruptured intracranial saccular aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations, and other conditions causing sudden severe elevation of intracranial pressure—permits the accumulation of a sharply outlined lake of blood between the internal limiting membrane of the retina and the vitreous or hyaloid membrane (the condensed gel at the periphery of the vitreous body); this is the subhyaloid or preretinal hemorrhage, termed Terson syndrome (Fig. 12-7). Either the small superficial or deep retinal hemorrhage may show a central or eccentric pale (Roth) spot, which is caused by an accumulation of white blood cells, fibrin, histiocytes, or amorphous material between the vessel and the hemorrhage. This lesion is said to be characteristic of bacterial endocarditis, but it is also seen in leukemia and occasionally in embolic retinopathy caused by carotid disease.
Cotton-wool patches, or soft exudates, refer to areas of inner retinal opacification resulting from ischemia due to occlusion of precapillary arterioles. These patches, even large ones, rarely cause serious disturbances of vision unless they involve the macula. They are composed of clusters of ovoid structures called cytoid bodies, representing the terminal swellings of interrupted axons. Hard exudates appear as punctate white or yellow bodies; they lie in the outer plexiform layer, behind the retinal vessels, like the punctate hemorrhages. If present in the macular region, they are arranged in lines radiating toward the fovea (macular). Hard exudates consist of lipid and other serum precipitants as a result of abnormal vascular permeability of a type that is not completely understood. They are observed most often in cases of diabetes mellitus and chronic hypertension.
Drusen in the retina (colloid bodies) appear ophthalmoscopically as pale yellow spots and are difficult to distinguish from hard exudates except when they occur alone; as a rule, hard exudates are accompanied by other funduscopic abnormalities. Although retinal drusen may be a benign finding, in many cases they reflect an ARMD and their accumulation in the macula eventually leads to significant visual loss. The source of retinal drusen is uncertain, but they may result from chronic inflammation generated by degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium. Hyaline bodies, located on or near the optic disc, are also referred to as drusen but must be distinguished from those occurring peripherally. In contrast to peripheral retinal drusen, drusen of the optic discs are probably mineralized residues of dead axons and can be seen on CT in some cases. Their main significance for neurologists is that drusen that are buried under the disc (“buried drusen”) are often associated with anomalous elevation of the disc that can be mistaken for papilledema (see further on).