When an extracellular signal molecule binds to a GPCR, the receptor undergoes a conformational change that enables it to activate a trimeric GTP-binding protein (G protein), which couples the receptor to enzymes or ion channels in the membrane. In some cases, the G protein is physically associated with the receptor before the receptor is activated, whereas in others it binds only after receptor activation. There are various types of G proteins, each specific for a particular set of GPCRs and for a particular set of target proteins in the plasma membrane. They all have a similar structure, however, and operate similarly.
G proteins are composed of three protein subunits—α, β, and γ. In the unstimulated state, the α subunit has GDP bound and the G protein is inactive (Figure 15–22). When a GPCR is activated, it acts like a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) and induces the α subunit to release its bound GDP, allowing GTP to bind in its place. GTP binding then causes an activating conformational change in the Gα subunit, releasing the G protein from the receptor and triggering dissociation of the GTP-bound Gα subunit from the Gβγ pair—both of which then interact with various targets, such as enzymes and ion channels in the plasma membrane, which relay the signal onward (Figure 15–23).
The α subunit is a GTPase and becomes inactive when it hydrolyzes its bound GTP to GDP. The time required for GTP hydrolysis is usually short because the GTPase activity is greatly enhanced by the binding of the α subunit to a second protein, which can be either the target protein or a specific regulator of G protein signaling (RGS). RGS proteins act as α-subunit-specific GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) (see Figure 15–8), and they help shut off G-protein-mediated responses in all eukaryotes. There are about 25 RGS proteins encoded in the human genome, each of which interacts with a particular set of G proteins.
Figure 15–21 A G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). (A) GPCRs that bind small ligands such as adrenaline have small extracellular domains, and the ligand usually binds deep within the plane of the membrane to a site that is formed by amino acids from several transmembrane segments. GPCRs that bind protein ligands have a large extracellular domain (not shown here) that contributes to ligand binding. (B) The structure of the β2-adrenergic receptor, a receptor for the neurotransmitter adrenaline, illustrates the typical cylindrical arrangement of the seven transmembrane helices in a GPCR. The ligand (orange) binds in a pocket between the helices, resulting in conformational changes on the cytoplasmic surface of the receptor that promote G-protein activation (not shown). (PDB code: 3P0G.)
Some G Proteins Regulate the Production of Cyclic AMP
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) acts as a second messenger in some signaling pathways. An extracellular signal can increase cAMP concentration more than twentyfold in seconds (Figure 15–24). As explained earlier (see Figure 15–14), such a rapid response requires balancing a rapid synthesis of the molecule with its rapid breakdown or removal. Cyclic AMP is synthesized from ATP by an enzyme called