Munger, K.L., Levin, L.I., Hollis, B.W., Howard, N.S., and Ascherio, A.: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2006, 296:2832–2838.
15-25 Infection can lead to autoimmune disease by providing an environment that promotes lymphocyte activation.
Bach, J.F.: Infections and autoimmune diseases. J. Autoimmunity 2005, 25:74–80.
Moens, U., Seternes, O.M., Hey, A.W., Silsand, Y., Traavik, T., Johansen, B., and Hober, D., and Sauter, P.: Pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus: interplay between enterovirus and host. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2010, 6:279–289.
Sfriso, P., Ghirardello, A., Botsios, C., Tonon, M., Zen, M., Bassi, N., Bassetto, F., and Doria, A.: Infections and autoimmunity: the multifaceted relationship. J. Leukocyte Biol. 2010, 87:385–395.
Takeuchi, O., and Akira, S.: Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation. Cell 2010, 140:805–820.
15-26 Cross-reactivity between foreign molecules on pathogens and self molecules can lead to anti-self responses and autoimmune disease.
Barnaba, V., and Sinigaglia, F.: Molecular mimicry and T cell-mediated autoimmune disease. J. Exp. Med. 1997, 185:1529–1531.
Rose, N.R.: Infection, mimics, and autoimmune disease. J. Clin. Invest. 2001, 107:943–944.
Rose, N.R., Herskowitz, A., Neumann, D.A., and Neu, N.: Autoimmune myocarditis: a paradigm of post-infection autoimmune disease. Immunol. Today 1988, 9:117–120.
15-27 Drugs and toxins can cause autoimmune syndromes.
15-28 Random events may be required for the initiation of autoimmunity.
Eisenberg, R.A., Craven, S.Y., Warren, R.W., and Cohen, P.L.: Stochastic control of anti-Sm autoantibodies in MRL/Mp-lpr/lpr mice. J. Clin. Invest. 1987, 80:691–697.
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15-29 Graft rejection is an immunological response mediated primarily by T cells.
Cornell, L.D., Smith, R.N., and Colvin, R.B.: Kidney transplantation: mechanisms of rejection and acceptance. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2008, 3:189–220.
Wood, K.J., and Goto, R.: Mechanisms of rejection: current perspectives. Transplantation. 2012, 93:1–10.
15-30 Transplant rejection is caused primarily by the strong immune response to nonself MHC molecules.