Finally, in regard to disorders of the sodium channel, it should be mentioned that the marine toxins (ciguatoxin, tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin), discussed in Chap. 41, produce their effects on the peripheral and central nerves by blocking sodium channels, but have little obvious effect on muscle function.
Pathophysiology of Myotonia and Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis (See Also Chap. 2)
In both myotonia congenita and hyperkalemic paralysis, the absence of major morphologic changes and the prominence of the myotonic phenomenon in individual muscle fibers is consistent with a disorder of the sodium channel. This is also compatible with the observation that myotonia persists after the administration of curare, thereby exonerating neural input as the source of myofiber hyperexcitability.
The electromyographic pattern of a myotonic muscle reveals highly characteristic discharges that persist following the cessation of voluntary contraction. The tension of the myotonic muscle fibers is slow to diminish as a result of these greatly prolonged trains of muscle action potentials (see Fig. 2-19). Some of these afterdischarge potentials are the size of fibrillations, but others are as large as normal motor units. Thus myotonia can be distinguished electrophysiologically from contracture (e.g., that encountered in McArdle disease, in which the muscle is electrically silent). In experiments conducted in the 1940s, Denny-Brown and Foley, stimulating single muscle fibers directly, found that myotonic discharges could be elicited only by a volley of stimuli and not by a single stimulus. They also noted that the series of myotonic potentials progressively diminished in size. Percussion elicits myotonia by imparting a brief but relatively intense repetitive excitation of the muscle membrane.
The biophysical basis of myotonia is now well understood in terms of the functioning of chloride and sodium channels in the muscle membrane and internal structures. The correspondence between mathematical models of the electrical properties of the membrane and the clinical features of the myotonic and periodic paralyses is quite remarkable. During the normal action potential in all neural and muscular tissue, membrane depolarization is terminated by 2 events: the depolarization-induced inactivation of the sodium channel (which ends the inward sodium current) and the subsequent action of the outward potassium current. In muscle, the termination of an action potential requires an additional factor. Because of its large size, excitation of the muscle fiber involves depolarization that propagates not only along the cell surface but also radially into the center of the muscle cell through the transverse tubules (T tubules). The tubules are very narrow structures whose internal spaces are in continuity with the extracellular space. When the repolarizing outward potassium current is activated, potassium ions flood into the tubules from the muscle cytoplasm. By itself, this tubular K accumulation would depolarize the muscle membrane and prolong excitation. Normally, this does not occur because there is a large opposing chloride conductance in the tubules that counteracts the influence of potassium accumulation.
The first clues to the importance of the chloride channel in this electrical stabilizing process were obtained by Bryant who performed in vitro studies of myotonic goat muscle and found a reduced chloride conductance in the transverse tubular system. Subsequent studies of muscle from patients with myotonia congenita by Lipicky and Bryant (1971) demonstrated a similarly low chloride conductance. That a mutation in a muscle chloride channel could produce myotonia was confirmed in a mouse model by Jentsch and Steinmeyer and colleagues (see Koch et al), who subsequently also described the first human chloride channel (CLCN1) mutations.