Finally, one might correctly suppose that axons of the motor or sensory nerves, sympathetic fibers of varying diameter and length, or the end organs to which they are attached would each have its own particular liability to disease. At present we can cite only a few examples of diseases that cause disease through these mechanisms exclusively: for example, diphtheria, in which the bacterial toxin acts directly on the membranes of the Schwann cells near the dorsal root ganglia and adjacent parts of motor and sensory nerves (the most vascular parts of the peripheral nerve); polyarteritis nodosa, which causes occlusion of vasa nervorum, resulting in multifocal nerve infarction; tabes dorsalis, in which there is a treponemal meningoradiculitis of the posterior roots (mainly of the lumbosacral segments); poisoning by arsenic, which combines with the axoplasm of the largest sensory and motor nerves via sulfhydryl bonds; and vincristine toxicity, which damages the microtubular transport system. Analogous anatomic pathways are probably implicated in other diseases by mechanisms that remain to be discovered.
Among the genetically determined neuropathies, the altered gene products are known in some cases to lead to defective myelination, which greatly slows conduction along nerves. In other genetic diseases it is known that structural components of the axon are disrupted, leading to axonal degeneration and impaired electrical conduction.
Pathologic Reactions of Peripheral Nerve
Several distinct histopathologic changes are recognized in the peripheral nerve, although they are not disease-specific and they may be present in varying combinations in any given case. The three main ones are segmental demyelination, wallerian degeneration, and axonal degeneration (diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 43-2).
The myelin sheath is the most susceptible element of the nerve fiber, for it may break down as part of a primary process involving the Schwann cells or of the myelin itself, or it may be damaged secondarily as a consequence of disease affecting its axon. Focal degeneration of the myelin sheath with sparing of the axon is called segmental demyelination. The characteristic change of segmental demyelination is the disappearance of the sheath over segments of variable length, bounded on each end by one side of a node of Ranvier and an adjacent preserved segment of myelin. This exposes long segments of the axon to the interstitial environment. Myelin may also degenerate from axonal disease in a general process that may occur either proximal or distal to the site of axonal interruption.
Common to many lesions of the peripheral nerve is wallerian degeneration, a reaction of both the axon and myelin distal to the site of disruption of an axon. Wallerian degeneration might be described as “dying forward,” a process in which the nerve degenerates from the point of axonal damage outward. In contrast, when the axon degenerates as part of a “dying-back” phenomenon in a more generalized metabolically determined polyneuropathy, it is termed axonal degeneration. Here, the axon is affected progressively from the distal-most site to the proximal, with dissolution of myelin that occurs roughly in parallel with the axonal change. One possible explanation for this process is that the primary damage is to the neuronal cell body, which fails in its function of synthesizing proteins and delivering them to the distal parts of the axon. Certain toxic and metabolic processes affect axons uniformly along their length or impair anterograde axonal transport to the periphery; the functional impairment is then proportional to the size and length of the blocked axons.