Damage to single peripheral nerves at the site of injection of heroin and from compression is a relatively common occurrence. However, bilateral compression of the sciatic nerves, the result of sitting or lying for a prolonged period in a stuporous state or in the lotus position, has occurred in several of our patients. In sciatic compression of this type, the peroneal branch has been more affected than the tibial, causing foot-drop with less weakness of plantar flexion. More difficult to understand in heroin abusers is the involvement of other individual nerves, particularly the radial nerve, and painful affection of the brachial plexus, apparently unrelated to compression and remote from the sites of injection. Possibly in some instances there was a vasculitis affecting peripheral nerves.
An acute generalized myonecrosis with myoglobinuria and renal failure has been ascribed to the intravenous injection of adulterated heroin. Brawny edema and fibrosing myopathy (Volkmann contracture) are the sequelae of venous thrombosis resulting from the administration of heroin and its adulterants by the intramuscular and subcutaneous routes. Occasionally, there may be massive swelling of an extremity into which heroin had been injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly; infection and venous thrombosis appears to be involved in its causation.
The diagnosis of drug addiction always raises the possibility of an assortment of infectious complications: AIDS, syphilis, abscesses and cellulitis at injection sites, septic thrombophlebitis, hepatitis, and periarteritis from circulating immune complexes. Tetanus, endocarditis (mainly caused by Staphylococcus aureus), spinal epidural abscess, meningitis, brain abscess, and tuberculosis have occurred less frequently.
This class of drugs consists of two main groups. The first includes the barbiturates, meprobamate, and chloral hydrate. These drugs are now little used, having been largely replaced by a second group, the benzodiazepines, the most important of which are chlordiazepoxide (Librium), lorazepam (Ativan), alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin), and diazepam (Valium). Closely related are the nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics, typified by zolpidem (Ambien). The advantages of the benzodiazepine drugs are their relatively low toxicity and addictive potential and their minimal interactions with other drugs.
In the past, about 50 barbiturates were marketed for clinical use, but now only a few are encountered: pentobarbital (Nembutal), secobarbital (Seconal), amobarbital (Amytal), thiopental (Pentothal), and phenobarbital. The first three were the ones most commonly abused. Barbiturates are also a component of combination preparations for the treatment of migraine (e.g., butalbital in Fiorinal).
Mechanism of Action
All the common barbiturates are derived from barbituric acid; the differences among them depend on variations in the side chains of the parent molecule. The potency of each drug is a function of the ionization constant and lipid solubility. The higher its lipid solubility, the greater the drug’s central nervous system potency and the quicker and briefer its action. The lowering of plasma pH increases the rate of entry of the ionized form into the brain. The action of barbiturates is to suppress neuronal transmission, presumably by enhancing GABA inhibition at preand postsynaptic receptor sites, and to reduce excitatory postsynaptic potentials. The major points of action in the CNS are similar to those of alcohol and other coma-producing drugs; impaired consciousness or coma relates to inactivation of neurons in the reticular formation of the upper brainstem. The liver is the main locus of drug metabolism and the kidney is the method of elimination of the metabolites. The clinical problems posed by the barbiturates are different depending on whether the intoxication is acute or chronic.