The 1998–99 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a quiet season that had the fourth-lowest number of days with tropical storm or tropical cyclone activity. Most of the storms formed either in the Mozambique Channel or in the far eastern portion of the basin, with five storms crossing from the adjacent Australian basin east of 90° E. As a result, few storms impacted Madagascar, and none made landfall on the African continent. Throughout most of the season, there was below-normal sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar. In February, typically the peak in activity, Réunion island recorded its highest average monthly pressure since 1953. Due to generally unfavorable conditions, there were only six tropical storms tracked by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion. There were only two tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph).

Activity began late, with the first tropical storm – Alda – forming on January 16, the third latest ever recorded at the time. Alda formed in the Mozambique Channel, which was one of few favorable areas for tropical cyclogenesis in the season. It brought rainfall to southwestern Madagascar that alleviated previously dry conditions. The next five tropical storms either originated or crossed into the adjacent Australian basin, where storms were monitored by the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM). Both Tropical Storm Chikita and Tropical Cyclone Davina brought beneficial rainfall to the Mascarene Islands. The latter storm caused two drowning deaths on Réunion and caused some crop damage. The strongest storm – Evrina – peaked as a strong cyclone in the Australian but weakened upon crossing 90°E, with 10-minute maximum sustained winds of 175 km/h (110 mph) in the basin. The final storm was unnamed, crossing from the Australian basin on April 21 as a minimal tropical storm before quickly dissipating. There were also several tropical disturbances or depressions, many short-lived. The first of these formed on September 3 in the northeastern portion of the basin, and there was a tropical depression in February in the Mozambique Channel that approached tropical storm status.

## Season summary

The Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin during the season. The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique, and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90° E, south of the equator. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center – a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force – also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the region. Wind estimates from Météo-France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes, while estimates from the United States-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute. 10 minute winds are about 1.14 times the amount of 1 minute winds. Most storms formed and dissipated within the tropics, with the exception of Severe Tropical Storm Alda.

During the season, atmospheric conditions shifted from El Niño to La Niña, but despite the shift, the season was similarly inactive as its predecessor. In general, sea surface temperatures were below normal, and atmospheric pressures were above normal, both unfavorable for tropical cyclogenesis. In the month of February, on average the peak time for activity, there was a general lack of convection, or thunderstorms, east of Madagascar. The average monthly pressure on Réunion was the highest since reliable records began in 1953. The low number of storms occurred despite an otherwise active cyclone year in the southern hemisphere. In its summary of the season, the MFR described the lack of activity as "rare and remarkable", possibly related to a Walker circulation. The agency monitored 14 tropical disturbances, of which only eight were tropical depressions for at least 24 hours. Six of these intensified into tropical storms, three less than the average of nine, of which only two attained tropical cyclone status, or half the average. There were 28 days in which there was storm or tropical cyclone activity, less than the average of 42 and at the time the fourth lowest since reliable record-keeping began in 1967 with the advent of satellite imagery. The only seasons with a lower number of storm days were 1982–83, 1986–87, and 1997–98.

## Systems

### Severe Tropical Storm Alda

After a subtropical depression exited the Mozambique Channel, another area of convection formed in the region on January 8, which fluctuated in intensity for several days. A passing cold front increased convection further on January 12, which split off a cutoff low-pressure area. Two days later, a subtropical disturbance formed offshore Beira, Mozambique, classified due to the extratropical origins and lack of centralized convection. The system remained nearly stationary, with the convection extending well to the east. On January 16, the MFR reclassified the system as a tropical depression after the thunderstorms increased near the center, the increasing organization due to moderate but decreasing wind shear. By that time, the depression had begun an eastward movement, but soon turned to the south in the weakness between two high-pressure areas. Late on January 16, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alda after the convection organized into a central dense overcast. Also that day, the JTWC began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 12S. This marked an unusually late start for the first named storm, at the time the third-latest on record.

Neither the MFR nor the JTWC anticipated much strengthening after Alda attained tropical storm status. Around the time of its upgrade, Alda passed about 20 km (12 mi) west of Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel, where sustained winds reached 72 km/h (45 mph) and gusts were as strong as 90 km/h (56 mph). A building ridge southeast of Madagascar turned the storm to the southwest. After an increase in wind shear diminished the convection, the JTWC discontinued advisories on January 17, although the thunderstorms redeveloped following an unexpected decrease in wind shear. Alda turned to the southeast ahead of an approaching trough, and developed a ragged eye feature on January 18. That day, the MFR estimated peak 10-minute winds of 95 km/h (60 mph), and the JTWC estimated one-minute winds of 120 km/h (75 mph), equivalent to a minimal hurricane. The latter agency also reissued one advisory when the storm was at its peak. Alda accelerated to the southeast and gradually lost tropical characteristics, becoming extratropical on January 19 before being absorbed by the approaching cold front.

Following rainfall from an earlier subtropical depression, Alda dropped 198 mm (7.8 in) of rainfall in Morombe in southwestern Madagascar. The rainfall caused flooding that affected thousands of people. The rainfall was beneficial in alleviating previously dry conditions that had prevented crops to be planted. The passage of the storm also caused temperatures to decrease in Mozambique and Madagascar.

### Moderate Tropical Storm Damien–Birenda

On January 21, a tropical disturbance formed in the Australian region about 500 km (310 mi) south of the Indonesian island of Java. Moving west-southwestward, the system intensified into Tropical Storm Damien on January 23, and attained tropical cyclone status two days later while passing 400 km (250 mi) south of the Cocos Islands. Subsequently, an increase in wind shear induced steady weakening, causing the circulation to be briefly exposed from the convection on January 26. Damien maintained an area of convection nearby the circulation, and exited into the south-west Indian Ocean on January 28 as a minimal tropical storm; at that time, the Mauritius Meteorological Services renamed the storm as Birenda. The storm turned more to the west and west-northwest due to a building ridge to the south. Increasing wind shear weakened Birenda to tropical depression status on January 29 and into a tropical disturbance the next day. Although convection was intermittent, the circulation dissipated on February 3.

### Moderate Tropical Storm Chikita

Soon after Damien-Birenda exited the Australian region, another tropical disturbance formed north of the Cocos on January 29, which was initially weak but gradually organized. The disturbance tracked quickly west-westward due to a powerful ridge to the south, remaining in tandem with Tropical Storm Birenda about 1,300 km (810 mi) to the east. On January 31, the system crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean. The fast forward motion caused the effects of wind shear to diminish as well as increase the circulation's strength, and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chikita on January 31. At that time, the storm attained its peak intensity of 65 km/h (40 mph). Almost immediately thereafter, the convection began weakening due to lukewarm water temperatures, and Chikita weakened to tropical depression status on February 1. Continuing rapidly to the west, the circulation became exposed from the convection on February 3 due to increased wind shear. Around that time, Chikita passed about 75 km (47 mi) north of Rodrigues island, and shortly thereafter weakened into a tropical disturbance. On the next day, the circulation passed north of both Mauritius and Réunion, presenting an asymmetric structure with the strongest winds to the south. Chikita dissipated on February 5 off the southeast coast of Madagascar.

On Rodrigues, Chikita produced wind gusts of 92 km/h (57 mph) and a rainfall total of 113 mm (4.4 in), the rainfall proving beneficial due to previously dry conditions. Despite only being a tropical disturbance, Chikita produced wind gusts of 89 km/h (55 mph) on Mauritius and 104 km/h (65 mph) in the mountainous peaks of Réunion. The rainfall rates in both islands varied greatly; the peak total on Mauritius was 160 mm (6.3 in) compared to the peak of 560 mm (22 in) in Bébourg in the heights of Réunion. Also on the latter island, there was a six-hour rainfall total of 132 mm (5.2 in) at Piton de la Fournaise. Wet weather persisted after Chikita dissipated, resulting in four-day totals of 953 mm (37.5 in) in Bébourg on Réunion, and easing drought conditions on Mauritius.

### Intense Tropical Cyclone Davina

After an extended period with no activity across much of the Indian Ocean, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rebuilt toward the end of February, and spawned an area of convection on March 1 in the extreme eastern portion of the basin. The next day, a circulation was noted on satellite imagery to the northeast of the convection, which indicated that a tropical disturbance had developed. The influence of the monsoon trough steered the disturbance to the southeast into the Australian basin, where moderate wind shear prevented quick development. A building ridge to the south turned the system to the southwest, bringing it back into the south-west Indian on March 3 as a tropical depression. With decreasing wind shear, the depression slowly intensified as convection increased, becoming Tropical Storm Davina on March 4. An eye developed the next day, signaling Davina had intensified into a tropical cyclone, or reaching 10-minute winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph). On March 7, Davina became an intense tropical cyclone, with sustained 10-minute winds of 165 km/h (105 mph). At around the same time, the JTWC estimated peak 1-minute winds of 205 km/h (125 mph).

Continuing quickly to the west-southwest, Davina moved over an area of cooler waters and began weakening. On March 8, the system passed about 140 km (87 mi) northwest of Rodrigues as a minimal tropical cyclone. The next day, Davina re-intensified slightly to winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), and while near that intensity its eyewall crossed over Mauritius. After passing the island, the eye increased to a diameter of 50 km (31 mi) before deteriorating. On March 10, Davina passed about 35 km (22 mi) southeast of Réunion as a severe tropical storm. The next day, the storm slowed its forward motion and rapidly weakened due to increasing wind shear, becoming a tropical depression on March 12. The circulation turned to the northeast and later to the west in the trade winds. Davina looped off the east coast of Madagascar, eventually dissipating on March 19.

Cyclone Davina affected Rodrigues as a weakening storm, which limited wind gusts to 137 km/h (85 mph) and rainfall to only 40 mm (1.6 in). After moving toward Mauritius for several days, the cyclone produced a peak wave height of 7.73 m (25.4 ft). On the island, the airport at Plaisance recorded a peak gust of 169 km/h (105 mph), strong enough to cause crop damage and injure 60 people. Rainfall peaked at 227 mm (8.9 in), which failed to break the island's worst drought since 1904. On Réunion, wind gusts also peaked at 169 km/h (105 mph) at Piton Sainte-Rose. Davina produced wave heights of 8.84 m (29.0 ft) at Saint-Pierre. Rainfall on Réunion was highest in the southern portion of the island, mainly through the process of orographic lift; over a three-hour period, 180 mm (7.1 in) of precipitation was recorded at Piton de la Fournaise, and the highest total was 1,200 mm (47 in) in the island's center. Due to the storm's slow movement, Davina produced scattered rainfall over Réunion for several days. Two people drowned in the Rivière des Galets, but otherwise the rainfall proved beneficial in alleviating dry conditions. The gusty winds damaged the sugar cane and banana crops, but overall damage was minor.

### Intense Tropical Cyclone Frederic–Evrina

On March 25, an area of convection formed along the monsoon trough in the Australian basin, gradually organizing into a tropical storm while moving west-southwestward and given the name Frederic. On March 29, the storm attained tropical cyclone status, and continued to strengthen due to warm waters. At its peak on March 31, Frederic developed a well-defined 40 km (25 mi) eye within a circular central dense overcast. The MFR estimated peak 10-minute winds of 195 km/h (120 mph), and the JTWC estimated maximum 1-minute winds of 260 km/h (160 mph), equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Subsequently, Frederic encountered the combination of wind shear and cooler, dry air, which caused weakening. On April 1, the cyclone crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean with 10-minute winds of 175 km/h (110 mph), at which time it was renamed Evrina.

Continuing to the west-southwest upon entering the basin, Evrina gradually weakened as the eye gradually dissipated. It soon encountered the same cooler waters of the southern Indian that affected previous storms Chikita and Davina. By April 2, Evrina had weakened below tropical cyclone status, just 30 hours after it was at peak intensity. Around that time, the circulation became exposed from the deepest convection, and the track shifted more to the west. On April 5, Evrina weakened to tropical depression status. Two days later, the system turned toward the south, moving in a circular track around the island of Rodrigues while remaining far enough away not to cause any effects. On April 8, the circulation turned to the east, dissipating two days later to the south of Rodrigues.

### Moderate Tropical Storm F1 (Hamish)

On April 17, an area of convection persisted near the border of the south-west Indian and the Australian regions. The system moved eastward into the Australian basin, becoming a tropical disturbance on April 19. Turning to the southeast, the system gradually organized as the convection persisted. On April 20, the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm and was named Hamish. Shortly thereafter, the ridge to the south turned the storm to the southwest. After the BoM estimated peak winds of 100 km/h (60 mph), Hamish began quickly weakening due to increasing wind shear. On April 21, the storm crossed into the south-west Indian basin, still maintaining 10-minute winds of 65 km/h (40 mph). Although the Mauritius Meteorological Services should have classified the system as Tropical Storm Francine, the storm remained unnamed, referred as Tropical Storm F1. However, the system weakened to tropical depression status within six hours of entering the basin, and dissipating on April 24.

### Other storms in 1998

At the time, the MFR's cyclone season began on August 1, although the JTWC's cyclone season for the southern hemisphere began on July 1. The latter agency tracked a short-lived tropical storm toward the end of July, classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 01S. The MFR named it Tropical Depression H4, estimating peak 10-minute winds of 55 km/h (35 km/h).

The first system of the season proper originated out of an area of convection in early September in the northeast portion of the basin. On September 3, the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance A1 about 1435 km (890 mi) east of Diego Garcia. The system tracked westward, and the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) on September 4. Failing to intensify beyond winds of 45 km/h (30 mph), the disturbance dissipated on September 6. Later in the month, Tropical Disturbance A2 formed in a similar region within the monsoon trough, with the MFR initiating advisories on September 29. Also on that day, the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02S. That day, the JTWC upgraded the system to tropical storm status, although strong wind shear prevented intensification. The MFR quickly discontinued advisories, but the JTWC continued tracking it, again upgrading the system to tropical storm status on October 1. After the shear again increased, the storm weakened, dissipating on October 2.

In November, rapidly weakening Tropical Cyclone Alison moved from the Australian basin and dissipated immediately upon entering the south-west Indian Ocean on November 13. On December 4, short-lived Tropical Disturbance A3 was classified by MFR, subsequently drifting into the Australian region. Possibly related to the previous system, Tropical Cyclone Cathy moved from the Australian basin into the basin on December 28, quickly dissipating.

### Other storms in 1999

On January 1, an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel, with an associated circulation located on land in Mozambique. The system drifted to the east and southeast over warmer waters, gradually organizing. On January 3, the MFR classified the system as Tropical Disturbance A4 near the Mozambique coastline. The disturbance accelerated to the southeast, passing southwest of Madagascar with an asymmetric structure; most of the convection was on the eastern periphery due to strong wind shear. Heavy rainfall occurred along the southwest Madagascar coast, peaking at 322 mm (12.7 in) over a 48‐hour period in Morombe. Wind gusts there reached 180 km/h (110 mph), although the disturbance's maximum sustained 10-minute winds were 55 km/h (35 mph). The disturbance transitioned into a subtropical depression on January 5, but soon after became extratropical while accelerating southeastward.

During an extended period of quiet conditions across much of the basin, an area of low pressure persisted along the eastern coast of Mozambique. Convection fluctuated daily but became more persistent on February 11. That day, the thunderstorms organized into a circulation that had formed less than 200 km (120 mi) southeast of Beira, Mozambique, becoming Tropical Disturbance D1. After forming, the system moved southward, developing a central dense overcast with northeasterly outflow. Based on the organization, the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression on February 13. Although there were gale-force winds in the southwest periphery, the circulation was located on the northern edge of the convection. The depression neared tropical storm intensity, but an increase in wind shear from a nearby trough prevented further intensification. The JTWC estimated peak 1-minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), making the system a tropical storm by their assessment. A building ridge to the south turned the depression to the northeast, bringing the system near Europa Island. A station on the island recorded sustained winds of 65 km/h (40 mph) with gusts to 104 km/h (65 mph) about three hours before and after the closest approach; the observations suggested that the depression could have become a tropical storm. Soon thereafter, the associated convection dissipated and the circulation turned westward. After crossing over its former path, the depression dissipated on February 17 very close to where it developed.

Similar to the previous depression and Tropical Storm Alda, Tropical Disturbance D2 developed in the Mozambique Channel, initially subtropical in nature. On February 20, a cold front exited the African coast off Mozambique, spawning an area of convection. A weak low-pressure area developed on February 23, which proceeded to move southeastward. Due to unfavorable wind shear, the system failed to organize much, although initially it produced strong wind gusts. On February 28, much of the convection was removed from the circulation, which looped over southwestern Madagascar to turn back to the west. On March 4, when Tropical Storm Davina was named, the disturbance was renamed E1. The next day, the circulation executed a small loop, dissipating on March 6 over eastern Mozambique.

A long-lived system developed on February 28 in the Australian region south of February 28, and moved westward. On March 7, the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 26S, briefly estimating peak 1-minute winds of 65 km/h (40 mph) the next day. Soon after, the system weakened into a tropical depression, crossing into the south-west Indian Ocean late on March 8. At that time, it was designated Tropical Disturbance E2. Continuing westward along the northern edge of a strong ridge, the disturbance failed to intensify due to easterly wind shear. Although the MFR ceased issuing advisories, they noted that a distinct circulation persisted, reaching a location to the north of Mauritius by March 16. That day, it turned back to the east with a sporadic area of convection, influenced by the larger Tropical Depression E3. Two days later, the system organized enough for the MFR to reclassify it as a tropical disturbance. The system failed to reorganize much, and dissipated on March 20. Another tropical disturbance, named E3, formed on March 11 in the eastern portion of the basin. It initially failed to develop more, but after an increase in convection, the system intensified into a tropical depression on March 14 while moving generally west-northwestward. On the next day, the system began drifting to the southwest due to weak steering currents. On March 16, the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 28S, briefly upgrading it to tropical storm status on the next day. On March 18, the depression began weakening, dissipating three days later.

## Storm names

A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm. If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55°E and 90°E, then the Sub-regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm. A new annual list is used every year, and this list was provided by the country of Seychelles.

## Season effects

\|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Diego Garcia \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Diego Garcia \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\|Unknown \|\| bgcolor=#\|Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \|\| \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|-

## See also

- List of Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons
- Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1998, 1999
- Pacific hurricane seasons: 1998, 1999
- Pacific typhoon seasons: 1998, 1999
- North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1998, 1999

Cyclone season in the Southwest Indian Ocean


Elmo Hope

St. Elmo Sylvester Hope (June 27, 1923 – May 19, 1967) was an American jazz pianist, composer, and arranger, chiefly in the bebop and hard bop genres. He grew up playing and listening to jazz and classical music with Bud Powell, and both were close friends of another influential pianist, Thelonious Monk.

Hope survived being shot by police as a youth to become a New York-based musician who recorded with several emerging stars in the early to mid-1950s, including trumpeter Clifford Brown, and saxophonists John Coltrane, Lou Donaldson, Jackie McLean, and Sonny Rollins. A long-term heroin user, Hope had his license to perform in New York's clubs withdrawn after a drug conviction, so he moved to Los Angeles in 1957. He was not happy during his four years on the West Coast, but had some successful collaborations there, including with saxophonist Harold Land.

More recordings as leader ensued following Hope's return to New York, but they did little to gain him more public or critical attention. Further drug and health problems reduced the frequency of his public performances, which ended a year before his death, at the age of 43. He remains little known, despite, or because of, the individuality of his playing and composing, which were complex and stressed subtlety and variation rather than the virtuosity predominant in bebop.

## Early life

Elmo Hope was born on June 27, 1923, in New York City. His parents, Simon and Gertrude Hope, were immigrants from the Caribbean, and had several children. Elmo began playing the piano aged seven. He had classical music lessons as a child, and won solo piano recital contests from 1938. Fellow pianist Bud Powell was a childhood friend; together, they played and listened to jazz and classical music. Hope attended Benjamin Franklin High School, which was known for its music program. He developed an excellent understanding of harmony, and composed jazz and classical pieces at school.

At the age of 17, Hope was shot by a New York policeman. He was taken to Sydenham Hospital, where doctors reported that the bullet had narrowly missed his spine. Six weeks later, after Hope had been released from the hospital, he appeared in court, charged with "assault, attempted robbery and violation of the Sullivan Law". The police officers involved testified in court that Hope had been part of a group of five involved in a mugging. None of the other four, or any of the three alleged white victims, was identified by police; Hope stated that he had been running away with other passers-by after police started shooting, and was hit while trying to enter a hallway. The judge freed Hope of all the charges, after which Hope's attorney described the shooting as an "outrage", and the charges as "an attempted frameup".

Hope's recovery was slow, and he did not go back to school. Instead, he played the piano in an assortment of taxi dance halls and other establishments in the city. Hope and Powell met fellow pianist Thelonious Monk in 1942, and the three young men spent much time together. This was interrupted in March 1943, when Hope enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army. In the enlistment records, Hope was listed as being single, with dependents. He had been married and had a son, who died. The terms of enlistment stated that Hope would be in the army "for the duration of the War [World War II] or other emergency, plus six months".

## Later life and career

### In New York – 1947–56

Hope's absence from the early bebop scene largely continued after he left the army, as he played principally in rhythm and blues bands for a few years. He was part of an octet led by trumpeter Eddie Robinson late in 1947, and played briefly with Snub Mosley around the same time. Hope had his first long-term association, with the Joe Morris band, from 1948 to 1951, including for several recordings. This band toured all over the United States.

Some of those Hope met in Morris' band were also interested in jazz. One, saxophonist Johnny Griffin, recalled a group of musicians, including Hope, who practiced and learned together in New York in the days of late-1940s bebop: "We'd go to Monk's house in Harlem or to Elmo's house in the Bronx, we just did a lot of playing. I played piano a bit, too, so I could hear what they were all doing harmonically. But if something stumped me, I'd ask and Elmo would spell out harmonies. We'd play Dizzy [Gillespie]'s tunes or Charlie Parker's."

This interest had expanded by June 1953, when Hope recorded in New York as part of a quintet led by trumpeter Clifford Brown and alto saxophonist Lou Donaldson. Critic Marc Myers suggested that the six songs the band recorded were the first in a new form of jazz, 'hard bop', that became highly influential. That 1953 session also helped Hope gain exposure with Blue Note Records' producer Alfred Lion, who supervised his debut recording as a leader around a week later. This resulted in the 10-inch album Elmo Hope Trio, which had Morris alumni Percy Heath on bass and Philly Joe Jones on drums. The tracks recorded illustrated, according to critic Kenny Mathieson in 2012, that Hope was interested in the architecture and aural detail of the music more than in individual virtuosity. A further Blue Note recording session 11 months later led to Elmo Hope Quintet, Volume 2.

In August 1954, Hope was pianist for a Prestige Records session led by saxophonist Sonny Rollins, which was released as Moving Out, and for another session with Donaldson. Hope signed to Prestige in 1955, and recorded the trio album Meditations for them that year. This was followed by the sextet Informal Jazz the following year, with Donald Byrd (trumpet), John Coltrane and Hank Mobley (tenor saxophones), Paul Chambers (bass), and Jones (drums). Some commentators have suggested that sessions such as this and the ones with Brown and Rollins were a hindrance to Hope's career: "He too often recorded with young, rising overshadowing talents" wrote a Buffalo Jazz Report reviewer in 1976.

In January 1956, Hope recorded with another rising star, Jackie McLean, for the saxophonist's Lights Out!, again for Prestige. In April of the same year, Hope should have appeared on saxophonist Gene Ammons' The Happy Blues, but he left the record company's building before the session began and did not return. Hope claimed that he had gone to visit an aunt in hospital, but his absence was attributed by others to his heroin addiction. This had existed on and off for several years, and had led to at least one spell in prison. His drug problem and associated criminal record led to the withdrawal of Hope's New York City Cabaret Card around 1956, so he was no longer permitted to play in clubs in the city.

### In Los Angeles – 1957–61

Unable to earn a living in New York because of the performance ban, Hope toured with trumpeter Chet Baker in 1957 and then began living in Los Angeles. He soon found other musicians who had been influenced by bebop, including saxophonist Harold Land and bassist Curtis Counce. Hope played with Rollins again, and, in October 1957, recorded a session known as The Elmo Hope Quintet Featuring Harold Land which Pacific Jazz did not release until 1962, along with the contents of a 1957 Jazz Messengers album. In March of the following year, Hope became part of Counce's band, and went on to record two albums with the bassist. Hope also did some arranging for others around this time, including for Land's 1958 Harold in the Land of Jazz. Hope also had his own band, with personnel that varied, and in 1959 he played with Lionel Hampton in Hollywood. Later that year, after performances in San Francisco with two quartets – the first containing Rollins, bassist Scott LaFaro, and drummer Lenny McBrowne; the other with Rollins replaced by Land – Hope travelled north with the Land group to play at a venue in Vancouver.

Back in Los Angeles in August 1959, Hope was pianist for Land's quintet album The Fox; he also wrote four of the album's compositions. This recording, along with Elmo Hope Trio from the same year, were, in the opinion of jazz historian David Rosenthal, illustrative of Hope's musical development on the West Coast. The trio album received a rare five-star review from Down Beat magazine, with the comment that Hope's aesthetic was "a sort of bitter-sweet melancholy that seems to lie at the core of other jazzmen [...] who sometimes find the world 'a bit much', as the English say, to cope with."

In 1960, Hope married the pianist Bertha Rosemond (better known as Bertha Hope), whom he met in California. As a jazz musician on the West Coast, Hope found his life frustrating. In his only major published interview (written up for Down Beat in January 1961 and entitled "Bitter Hope"), he criticized the lack of creativity in the then-popular church-influenced soul jazz, complained about the shortage of good musicians in Los Angeles, and lamented the lack of work opportunities in the few jazz clubs in the area. Hope left Los Angeles later in 1961. His wife recounted that he was no longer working with Land, had recording offers from companies based on the East Coast, and still preferred it to Los Angeles, so the couple and their baby daughter moved to New York.

### Back in New York – 1961–67

In June 1961, Hope was part of Philly Joe Jones' quintet, which included trumpeter Freddie Hubbard. Their first gigs were arranged by Hope's old friend, Monk, as was a recording session for Riverside Records that month, with Hope as leader. The pianist recorded four albums in New York around 1961, including Hope-Full, which contained his only solo tracks and some piano duets with his wife.

Some of the companies that he recorded for at this stage in his career reduced Hope's dignity, in the view of musician and critic Robert Palmer. One album was entitled High Hope! (1961), and another, released as Sounds from Rikers Island (1963) in reference to a New York City jail complex, featured performances exclusively by musicians who had at some point been imprisoned for drug-related crimes. Between these two sessions as leader, Hope was briefly in prison again for drug offenses. These and other album releases in the early 1960s did little to develop a wider awareness of Hope.

Hope played with McLean again late in 1962. He also led a piano trio: early in 1963 it contained Ray Kenney on bass and Lex Humphries on drums; in late 1964, it had John Ore on bass and Billy Higgins on drums. In 1965, Hope was continuing to lead a trio and quartet in the New York area. Drug and health problems, however, meant that he played less often late in his career. His last recordings were made in 1966, but not released for 11 years. Hope's final concert was at Judson Hall in New York City in 1966. Fellow pianist Horace Tapscott reported that, later, Hope's "hands were all shot up and he couldn't play".

Visits to one hospital that was experienced in addressing the health problems of drug addicts left Hope feeling that he was being experimented on, so he went to another, St. Clare's. Here, according to his wife, the treatment was not adjusted for the methadone program he was on, putting added strain on his heart. Hope was hospitalized with pneumonia in 1967 and died a few weeks later, on May 19, of heart failure. His wife was aged 31 at the time of his death. They had three children; their daughter, Monica Hope, became a singer.

## Artistry

Hope's playing was strongly based in the blues-influenced jazz tradition. He employed dissonant harmonies and spiky, contrasting lines and phrases. Rosenthal observed that Hope's playing on one of his compositions for the 1953 Donaldson–Brown recording illustrated "many elements of the pianist's emerging style: somber, internally shifting chords in the introduction; punchy, twisting phrases in the solo; and the smoldering intensity that always characterized his best work." Hope's sense of time meant that his note placement was unpredictable, falling at various points either side of the beat but not exactly on it. His use of keyboard dynamics was similarly flexible, as the listener could not predict when in a performance the level would change. The Billboard reviewer of Hope's final recordings, as reissued in 1996, wrote that "he's dynamically smoother than Monk, with a spidery, spacy touch. His harmonic and compositional approach is intricate in design and almost eerie in execution." Coda critic Stuart Broomer also commented on Hope's touch, suggesting that it was unusual and light, and created a combination of delicacy and boldness that was all his own. Leonard Feather and Ira Gitler summarized Hope's abilities: he had "a style that parallels Powell, [...and] was a pianist and composer of rare harmonic acuity and very personal interpretation."

## Compositions

The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz states that Hope composed around 75 pieces of music, which "range in character from a tortuous nervousness to an introspective, semi-lyrical romanticism." One example, "Minor Bertha", has an unusual 35-bar AABA form, with a nine-bar A-section that "utilizes unconventional rhythms and weakly functional harmonies which obscure its phrases. Such other pieces as 'One Down', 'Barfly', and 'Tranquility' [...] also offer fine examples of his idiosyncratic creativity."

The Penguin Jazz Guide commented that Hope's compositions were strongly melodic, with some containing concepts of fugue and canon taken from classical music, but retaining foundations in the blues. Atkins stated that Hope wrote highly structured, complex compositions that he played with improvisational flexibility. Mathieson pointed out that, despite the originality of Hope's compositions, they have been taken up by other musicians only rarely, as they are tied to Hope's idiosyncratic form of expression and remain difficult to play.

## Legacy and influence

Hope, Powell, and Monk were considered by their contemporaries to be influences on each other early in their careers, and all, therefore, helped affect the development of jazz piano. Powell was known for horn-like right-hand playing supported by simple left-hand chords, which was something he had worked on with Hope. Later pianists who have cited Hope as a major influence include Lafayette Gilchrist, Alexander Hawkins, Frank Hewitt, and Hasaan Ibn Ali. Hawkins said in 2013 that Hope was important because he had a highly individual style but does not have the iconic status of pianists such as Monk. Modern jazz guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel has mentioned Hope's rhythms, phrasing, and compositions as influences.

Bertha Hope has released albums dedicated to her former husband's compositions. She and her later husband, bassist Walter Booker, created a band named "Elmollenium" in 1999, which played Elmo's compositions. She transcribed recordings to recreate his arrangements, following an apartment fire that destroyed most of the original manuscripts. In September 2016, Lyman Place in the Bronx was co-named "Elmo Hope Way – Jazz Pioneer" in honor of the pianist.

Several critics have advocated for a reassessment of Hope's career. One is Chuck Berg, writing for Down Beat in 1980, who attributed the ignoring of Hope by most jazz fans and critics largely to the uniqueness of his style, which differed from that prevalent in jazz generally and in bebop in particular. Berg contrasted the "aggressive assertiveness, massive outpourings of raw energy and displays of technical athleticism" that, he argued, are valued in jazz, with Hope's more nuanced and intellectual approach, and suggested that the expansion of what is accepted in jazz since his death meant that his career should be re-evaluated. Seven years later, Palmer wrote on Hope and fellow pianist Herbie Nichols: "they were practically categorized out of existence. Dismissed as second-stringers and copyists when they were both prolifically creative and highly original, they suffered a neglect that is only now beginning to be dispelled in the case of Nichols, and that still continues in the case of Hope." In 2010, The Penguin Jazz Guide observed that, "Like many of his piano generation, [... Hope's] work is only now being properly studied and appreciated."

Pianist Hasaan Ibn Ali said of Hope, "He was one of the foremost great ones to offer such a large dose for the sickness of music. And upon his ideals, and knowing help was needed, he gave to companions Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell and many others.... [D]uring this time, so much being produced, so much being brought forth by the musicians, still he being the actual cause." Tenor saxophonist Johnny Griffin called Hope "the real genius of the piano."

## Discography

### As leader

### As sideman

Sources:

American jazz musician

African-American United States Army personnel

United States Army personnel of World War II


Wellington, Somerset

Wellington is a market town in rural Somerset, a county in the west of England, situated 7 miles (11 km) south west of Taunton in the Somerset West and Taunton district, near the border with Devon, which runs along the Blackdown Hills to the south of the town. The town has a population of 14,549, which includes the residents of the parish of Wellington Without, and the villages of Tone and Tonedale.

Known as Weolingtun in the Anglo-Saxon period, its name had changed to Walintone by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086. Wellington became a town under a royal charter of 1215 and during the Middle Ages it grew as a centre for trade on the road from Bristol to Exeter. Major rebuilding took place following a fire in the town in 1731, after which it became a centre for cloth-making. It is possible that the fire referred to here was actually in Tiverton, Devon which has details of a major fire in the same year. Further information on a major fire in Wellington at this time cannot be found.

In 1809, the Crown referenced Wellington when creating a viscountcy for the eventual Duke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, after his victory at the Battle of Talavera in the Peninsular War. When the title's name was being considered, Arthur's brother, Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington, found an available manor in the parish of Wellington, a name close to the family name. Richard oversaw the manor's purchase while Arthur commanded the army in Spain against the French. The Wellington Monument south of Wellington commemorates Arthur.

The Grand Western Canal reached the town in 1835 and then the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1843. The town's own railway station survived until 1964. Wellington was home of Fox, Fowler and Company, which was the last commercial bank permitted to print their own sterling banknotes in England and Wales. In the 20th century closer links with Taunton meant that many of the residents of Wellington commuted there for work, and the M5 motorway enabled car journeys to be made more easily.

Local industries, which now include an aerosol factory and bed manufacturers, are celebrated at the Wellington Museum in Fore street. Wellington is home to the independent Wellington School, and state-funded Court Fields School. It is also home to a range of cultural, sporting and religious sites including the 15th century Church of St John the Baptist.

The capital city of New Zealand is named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, being recognised as having some influence in the company that founded the New Zealand town. The New Zealand capital therefore takes its name ultimately from the English town of Wellington in Somerset.

## History

In a grant of between 899 and 909 Edward the Elder gave the land then known as Weolingtun, which means "wealthy estate", along with West Buckland and Bishops Lydeard to Bishop Asser. This was in exchange for the monastery of Plympton in Devon. An alternative explanation for the origin of the name is "the settlement in the temple clearing". By the time of the Domesday Book of 1086, the name had changed to Walintone and the estate was owned by Gisa (Bishop of Wells). The parish of Wellington was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred,

A site at Longforth Farm near Tonedale has been identified as having Bronze Age occupation and, during excavations prior to the building of new homes, found to have been occupied by a 12th-14th century building with decorated floor tiles covering 0.4 hectares (0.99 acres).

A royal charter of 1215 gave Wellington its status as a town, and during the medieval period it grew as a centre for trade on the road from Bristol to Exeter, being laid out with the church at the east end of town, in a similar manner to other towns of this era. In 1548, the manor was sold to Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, but reverted to the control of the bishops after his execution. By the end of the 16th century it had come under the protection of John Popham (judge) and his descendants who built a manor house which was destroyed during the English Civil War.

Major rebuilding took place in the town following a fire in 1731. After this the town's importance grew as it became a centre for clothmaking across Somerset and Devon, its importance as trade centre enhanced by fires in Taunton and Tiverton. By the 1831 census, 258 people were recorded as cloth workers in Wellington.

Arthur Wellesley took the title of his Marquessate in 1809 from this town of Wellington. Nearby Wellington Hill boasts a large, spotlit obelisk to his honour. The Wellington Monument is a floodlit 175 feet (53 m) high triangular tower designated by English Heritage as a grade II\* listed building. It was erected to celebrate the Duke of Wellington's victory at the Battle of Waterloo. The foundation stone was laid in 1817 on land belonging to the Duke but, owing to funding problems, the monument was not completed until 1854. It is now owned by the National Trust who announced plans to reclad the monument at a cost of £4 million in 2009. Wellington Town Hall, originally built as a market hall, was completed in 1833.

In the 18th century turnpikes arrived in the area and then in the 19th communications improved with the Grand Western Canal reaching the town in 1835. Wellington station was opened when the Bristol and Exeter Railway reached the town on 1 May 1843. It was a typical Brunel design but was rebuilt in 1932 when two loop lines were put in. This entailed the platforms being moved back to accommodate the widened lines. These platforms are clearly visible and a goods shed still stands on the east side of the line at the Taunton end of the station, although the station closed on 5 October 1964. Wellington was an important station as it stood at the foot of a steep incline. Banking locomotives were kept here, ready to assist heavy westbound trains up to Whiteball Tunnel.

In the 20th century closer links with Taunton meant that many of the residents of Wellington commuted there for work, and the M5 motorway, which opened in sections in the 1960s and 1970s, enabled car journeys to be made more easily.

### Fox Fowler & Co. Bank

Thomas Fox started the Fox, Fowler and Company bank in Wellington which rapidly expanded and ran successfully, until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927. It was the last private bank in England to issue its own notes and they were legal tender until 1964. There are nine notes left in circulation. The British Museum have another example on display. The bank established its Head Office at the old family house in Fore Street, Wellington (today the Lloyds Bank branch) – they opened branches at Taunton, Bridgwater, Weston-super-Mare, Torrington, Bideford, Barnstaple, Ilfracombe and South Molton.

The original £5 note is on display at Tone Dale House – one of the last nine and possible the only one left uncancelled.

## Governance

Wellington has three tiers of local government at parish, district and county level. The present system dates from 1 April 1974 when the Local Government Act 1972 came into effect.

The lowest tier is Wellington Town Council, formed as a successor parish to Wellington Urban District Council in 1974. The town council has 15 councillors, and is headed by a town mayor. For elections of town councillors, the town is divided into four wards: Wellington East (returning 4 councillors), Wellington North (4), Rockwell Green (3) and Wellington West (4). The political composition of the council in November 2009 was Liberal Democrats 7, Conservative Party 5 and Labour Party 3. The town council provides purely local services. An area to the south of the town falls within the civil parish of Wellington Without.

The middle, or district, tier of administration is the non-metropolitan district of Somerset West and Taunton, which was established on 1 April 2019. The council is based in Taunton, and consists of 59 councillors. There are three electoral wards in Wellington (North, South and West). Five councillors are elected from wards in Wellington: two are Liberal Democrats, one Conservative, one Labour and one independent.

The upper tier is Somerset County Council. Also based in Taunton, the council has 58 councillors, each elected for a single-member electoral division. Most of the town comprises the Wellington electoral division, with part falling in the mainly rural division of Blackdown & Wellington East. They are represented by one Labour and one Liberal Democrat councillor. Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, the library, roads, public transport, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning, although fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service.

For elections to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Wellington forms part of the Taunton Deane constituency. The constituency elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. Following the review of parliamentary representation in Somerset in 2010, the Boundary Commission for England created a modified Taunton constituency with the name change Taunton Deane, to reflect the district name.

## Geography

The town has many dependent villages including West Buckland, Langford Budville, Nynehead, Sampford Arundel and Sampford Moor. The formerly independent village of Rockwell Green, to the west of the town, has been incorporated into the town however there is still a green wedge of land in between them. Wellington Park was a gift from the Quaker Fox family to the town in 1903 as a memorial to the coronation of King Edward VII. The 4.9 acres (2.0 ha) gardens were laid out by F.W. Meyer, who included a rock garden which used 80 tons of limestone from Westleigh quarry near Burlescombe. It is Grade II listed on the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England. It was restored at a cost of £412,827 which included a grant of £296,500 from the Heritage Lottery Fund Public Parks Initiative.

There are Local Nature Reserves at Wellington Basins on the western fringe of the town. It includes a small pond and boardwalk with a variety of wildlife habitats. The grassland, hedges and woodland are home to a varied flora and fauna including birds such as the grey wagtail, white-throated dipper and reed bunting. Five separate bat species have been recorded at the site. Swains Pond in the south of Wellington is another Local Nature Reserve, which used to be the site of orchards. It now includes a pond which provides a home for amphibians including the great crested newt, palmate newt and toads.

### Climate

Wellington has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb).

Along with the rest of South West England, Wellington has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50.0 °F). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (69.8 °F). In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 °C (33.8 °F) or 2 °C (35.6 °F) are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection. Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around 700 mm (28 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west.

## Demography

The town has a population of 14,696. Large growth occurred during the 1970s when housing developments were built on the south side of the town. These were largely prompted by Wellington's proximity to Junction 26 of the M5 motorway.

## Economy

Wellington's main industry was wool-making and in November 2009, Deborah Meaden, best known from Dragons' Den a BBC television programme, invested in the Fox Brothers' Mill which produces wool cloth for Savile Row, designers and clients around the world. The Fox family established the mill in 1772. The Tonedale mill complex includes two listed buildings, some of which were still being used until 2000. The Prince's Regeneration Trust have been supporting the Tone Mill Regeneration Partnership in attempting to preserve and regenerate the area with a mixed development for commercial and residential use. It is included in the Heritage at Risk Register produced by English Heritage.

The last Fox family house in Wellington Tone Dale House is still owned by Ben and Victoria Fox, Ben is the great-great-great-great-grandson of Thomas Fox. Tone Dale House (since 1996) is also now run as an events and hire venue, for house parties, anniversaries, weddings and corporate events.

Local industries are celebrated at the Wellington Museum in Fore Street. Wellington was home of Fox, Fowler and Company, which was the last commercial bank permitted to print their own sterling banknotes in England and Wales.

The town is still largely dependent on industry, along with the neighbouring towns Taunton and Bridgwater with manufacturing industries identified within the county economic strategy as key centres for further economic development, due to good transport links. Swallowfield plc benefited from the growth of own-brand products during the 1970s and now produces aerosol, cosmetic and toiletry products. It was founded in 1876 as Walter Gregory & Co Ltd who manufactured animal husbandry products. The company diversified and in 1950 produced the first commercial aerosols in the UK which were basically farm products, air fresheners and insecticides. Bed manufacturers Relyon employ some 400 people. The company started in 1858 as a wool merchant, Price Brothers and Co., but the business soon moved into manufacturing beds and in 1935 changed its name to Relyon Ltd. In 2001 it was acquired by Steinhoff International Holdings Ltd., a quoted South African group.

## Transport

The town was served by Wellington railway station on the Bristol and Exeter Railway from 1 May 1843 until 5 October 1964. It was here that extra locomotives were attached to heavy trains to help them up the incline to Whiteball Tunnel on their way south. The railway from Penzance to London, and also to Bristol and the North, continue to pass through the town, but no trains stop. The nearest railway stations are Taunton and Tiverton Parkway. A campaign was started to reopen the railway station in 2009.

The town is close to junction 26 of the M5 motorway, which spent a year in the 1970s as a temporary terminal junction, whilst the motorway between junctions 26 and 27 was finished. The A38 is still a very important link to Taunton. Wellington is served twice daily by Berrys Coaches 'Superfast' service to and from London.

## Education

Wellington is home to a public school, Wellington School. It was founded in 1837 as an all-boys school. A solitary day girl was allowed to join the Sixth Form in 1972 and the following year Wellington became co-educational. The school opened a new junior school in 2000, having previously only catered for pupils aged 10 and over. In December 2007, the school commissioned its new multi-purpose examination hall and English Department adjacent to its Sports Centre. Notable alumni of Wellington School include actor David Suchet, chef Keith Floyd and peer Lord Archer.

The main secondary school in the town is Court Fields School. The 11–16 school includes a sports complex, completed in early 2008.

## Religious sites

Despite its small size, Wellington has historically been notable for its profusion of churches of many different denominations, including a Quaker meeting house, the Grade I listed, 15th century Church of St John the Baptist, which includes a monument to John Popham, and the Roman Catholic Church of St John Fisher which was built in 1606 as Popham's Almshouses and converted into a Roman Catholic church 1936. There was a Presbyterian Independent Church.

## Culture

Wellington has its own amateur dramatic group, formed in the 1960s, called Wellington Arts Association, which holds productions both at Wellington Arts Centre and at the Wellesley Theatre. It includes the Genesis Youth Theatre Group, Operatic Society, Pantomime Group, Civic Players, Arcadians and the Spectrum Arts And Crafts. The Wellesley Cinema was built in 1937, in the Art Deco style. The auditorium seats 400 people on two levels and is run as an independent cinema.

Wellington and District Camera Club meets in the New Science Block, Wellington School. The club is affiliated to the Western Counties Photographic Federation (W.C.P.F.) and also to Wellington Arts Association (W.A.A.).

The town has its own weekly newspaper, the Wellington Weekly News, which was first published in 1860. There is also a community website providing news and views about the town, Around Wellington.

The town is home to Wellington Silver Band, a four section brass band. The band can trace its origins to 1887, when it was formed from the volunteer band of the 2nd Battalion, Prince Albert's Somersetshire Light Infantry.

Wellington is twinned to the town of Immenstadt in Germany, the town of Lillebonne in France and Torres Vedras in Portugal.

## Sport

Wellington Cricket Club have a ground off Courtland Road, and have two teams in the Somerset Cricket League. Wellington A.F.C. football Club was formed in 1892 and now play in the Western Football League.

Wellington Bowmen is an archery club formed in 2001. It uses facilities at the rugby club and at Court Fields School. The Rugby club itself was founded in 1874. The first team plays in the Western Counties West League.

The Grand National winning horse, Miinnehoma was prepared for his victory in the 1994 race by Martin Pipe at his Pond House Stables in the town.

## Freedom of the Town

The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Wellington.

### Individuals

- Richard Fox: 2011.

### Military units

- The Rifles: 17 June 2023.


Poker Face (song)

"Poker Face" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her debut studio album, The Fame (2008). It was released on September 23, 2008, as the album's second single. It is a synth-pop song in the key of G minor, following in the footsteps of her previous single "Just Dance", but with a darker musical tone. The main idea behind the song is bisexuality and was a tribute by Gaga to her rock and roll boyfriends. The song's lyrics feature various sexual innuendos.

"Poker Face" was acclaimed by most critics, who praised the song's robotic hook and chorus. The song attained worldwide success, topping the charts in 20 countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many European countries. With over 14 million copies, "Poker Face" is one of the world's best-selling singles of all time and became the best-selling single of 2009 worldwide with over 9.8 million in sales that year alone. The accompanying music video for the song portrays Gaga singing it in various costumes and playing strip poker in a getaway villa. It was certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2015.

Gaga performed the song on the eighth season of the television show American Idol, besides multiple other television appearances, as well as the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, all of her concert tours, and the Super Bowl LI halftime show. "Poker Face" was nominated for both Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 52nd Grammy Awards, and won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording.

## Background

"Poker Face" was written by Gaga and RedOne, while production was handled also by RedOne. Gaga stated in an interview that "Poker Face" was written by her as a pop song and was a tribute to her "rock 'n' roll boyfriends". She also stated that the main idea behind the song was sex and gambling. When Rolling Stone magazine asked about the meaning of the line "bluffin' with my muffin", Gaga explained that it really was a metaphor for her vulva, noting "it's my pussy's poker face!". She added that it came from a lyric "Blueberry kisses, the muffin man misses them kisses" from an unreleased track called "Blueberry Kisses" where a girl wanted her boyfriend to perform cunnilingus on her.

During her Fame Ball Tour performance at Palm Springs, California, on April 11, 2010, Gaga explained to the crowd the true meaning behind the term "Poker Face" used in the song. She suggested that the song dealt with her personal experience with bisexuality. The idea behind the song was to be with a man but fantasizing about a woman, hence the man in the song needs to read her "Poker Face" to understand what is going through her mind.

## Composition

"Poker Face" is a synth-pop and dance-pop song, and follows the footsteps of Gaga's previous single "Just Dance". Whereas "Just Dance" was predominately electropop, "Poker Face" carries a dark sound with clear vocals on the chorus and a pop hook while combining the synths from "Just Dance" and the more dance-oriented beat of the next single "LoveGame". According to Kerri Mason of Billboard, the composition "carr[ies] the pleather-and-sequins vibe of the downtown New York scene out of the underground and onto the FM dial without losing its smut and sass."

Poker Face is set in a common time time signature, with a fast tempo of 120 beats per minute. It is written in the key of G minor with Gaga's vocal range spanning from the note F3 to the note B4. It begins with a medium tempo followed by electronic chord arrangement and the "Mum-mum-mum-mah" hook. The chords follow in this order: Gm–E/G–F, and then for the chorus Gm–E–B–F. This is followed by the sound of dance music, produced by a powerful beat from the instruments, and a stuttering hook following the chorus.

Lyrically, "Poker Face" is all about sexual innuendo and teasing. According to Daily Star, the chorus repeats two alternating lyrics. After the hook "Can't read my Poker Face" the backup singer says "He's got me like nobody" and then in the next line says "She's got me like nobody". Gaga explained in an interview with them that the line carries a bit of an undertone of confusion about love and sex. However, the liner notes from the album booklet indicate both these lines only repeat "she's got me like nobody". According to BBC, the "Mum-mum-mum-mah" hook used in the song references Boney M.'s 1977 hit "Ma Baker".

## Critical reception

Upon release, "Poker Face" received critical acclaim. Priya Elan from The Times, in a review for The Fame, said that "Poker Face" was one of the finest moments of the album with its "love-as-card-game cheek". BBC Music reviewed the "strut-tastic" single as "expressing her overwhelming desire for celebrity and fortune." Bill Lamb of About.com said, "'Poker Face' works well on pop radio, but with slight mixing alterations it would be equally at home in a dark, sweaty, late night party atmosphere. She has refreshed the pop world in the US and UK at one of the slowest times of the year. 'Poker Face' keeps the motors humming as everyone waits for the next step forward from Lady Gaga." Chris Williams of Billboard also gave a positive review of the song saying, "Once again, hooks are aplenty, with '80s-inspired synthesizers, robotic verses and a warm, sunny hook in the chorus, which is even more addictive than the previous single ('Just Dance')...With a focused artistic vision, a swagger in her interview style and above all, a fantastic collection of diverse pop nuggets, Gaga is playing her cards right—and "Poker" is another obvious ace."

Slant Magazine music reviewer Sal Cinquemani included "Poker Face" among the songs that work in The Fame, namely tracks like "Starstruck," "Paper Gangsta" and "Summerboy". Matthew Chisling from Allmusic called the song "infectious" and along with the title track "The Fame", complimented them for "rejuvenating the vibe on the album for its second half." Andy Downing from The Chicago Tribune called the song "jaunty" while reviewing Gaga's Fame Ball tour. Evan Sawdey from PopMatters.com felt that "Poker Face" along with the track "Paparazzi", duplicate much of the same "glitzy territory that previous single 'Just Dance' had covered, but never once does it feel like Gaga is deliberately repeating herself." Rolling Stone in a review for The Fame Ball Tour compared the live acoustic "bluesy" version of "Poker Face" with the music of singer Amy Winehouse. Erika Hobert from the New Times Broward-Palm Beach newspaper called the song "trashtastic Europop." The song was nominated for Grammy Awards in the categories for Song of the Year, Record of the Year, and Best Dance Recording, ultimately winning the last of these.

Rolling Stone ranked it number ninety-six on their list of 100 Best Songs of the 2000s decade. In October 2011, NME placed it at number 103 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years". In 2019, Billboard ranked the song number two on their list of the 15 greatest Lady Gaga songs, and in 2020, The Guardian ranked the song number seven on their list of the 30 greatest Lady Gaga songs.

## Commercial performance

In the United States, the song debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of January 3, 2009 and reached number six on March 7 of that year. The next week, the song climbed another three places to reach a peak of number three and stayed there for two additional weeks. On the Billboard issue dated April 11, 2009, the song topped the chart. "Poker Face" became Gaga's second consecutive number one song on the Billboard Hot 100, marking the first time a new artist has had their first two charting singles hit number one on that chart since Christina Aguilera did so with "Genie in a Bottle" and "What a Girl Wants" in 1999 and 2000. The song spent one week at the top of the chart, nine weeks at number two, 18 weeks in the Top 10 and stayed on the Hot 100 for a total of 40 weeks. "Poker Face" also peaked on both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Play charts. It became the first single since Madonna's 2006 single "Sorry", to top all the three dance charts in a single week including the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart. The song has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and sold 7.5 million paid digital downloads in the United States as of February 2018, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Gaga is the first artist in digital history to top the six and seven million mark in paid downloads with two songs, the first being "Just Dance". "Poker Face" is Gaga's most digitally-sold track in the United States.

In Canada, the song debuted at number 41 on the Canadian Hot 100. On the chart dated December 13, 2008, "Poker Face" ascended to the number one spot and then spent nine non-consecutive weeks at the top. The song was certified eight-times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for paid digital downloads of 320,000. "Poker Face" entered the Australian charts at number 26, and in its seventh week peaked at number one. "Poker Face" has shipped over 420,000 copies in Australia, earning six-times platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). It held the record for the longest-charting song in ARIA Chart history of 106 weeks until this was broken in May 2015 by Vance Joy's "Riptide". In New Zealand, the song debuted on the official chart at number 21. In its sixth week, it peaked on the chart spending 10 consecutive weeks at number one. "Poker Face" was certified double platinum after 27 weeks on the chart, selling over 30,000 copies, according to the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ).

In the United Kingdom, "Poker Face" debuted at number 30 on the UK Singles Chart. After three weeks, it climbed to number one and provided Gaga with her second consecutive British number one single. It was the biggest selling digital single in the United Kingdom, before being overtaken by "I Gotta Feeling" by The Black Eyed Peas in June 2010. However, the song became the country's biggest-selling single of 2009, and was awarded The Record of the Year. By September 2017 the song had 1.18 million pure sales and had been streamed 8.27 million times. In March 2022, the song was awarded a triple platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) having sold 1.8 million copies in the UK with 83 million streams as of July 2022.

In Italy the song debuted at number 19 and peaked at number two. The song has also reached the peak in a number of European countries including Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland. In Germany "Poker Face" became the most successful download single of all time and the first one to sell more than 500,000 downloads. The song also spent 16 non-consecutive weeks atop the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart. Worldwide, the song had sold 9.8 million copies by November 2009 according to IFPI. It has since gone on to sell over 13.4 million copies as of September 2013, making it one of the best-selling singles of all time.

## Music video

The music video for "Poker Face", directed by Ray Kay and aided by Anthony Mandler, was filmed at the luxury villa on bwin PokerIsland and featured bwin branded poker equipment as product placement. The video premiered on October 22, 2008. It is set by a pool, as well as in a mansion. It begins with Gaga emerging from the pool wearing a mirror masquerade mask and a black sleeveless latex bodysuit with a jagged shoulder pad, with two Great Danes beside her. She throws the mask aside and the song begins with a facial shot of Gaga singing it. Gaga wears a metallic sticker on her left cheek in this shot. Featured in the video are scenes of Gaga in a mansion and dancing poolside with her dancers in a turquoise leotard. Gaga attends a wild party where every man and woman tries their luck on a strip poker game. The party gets wilder when all the party's guests strip down to their underwear, dance around, and share kisses with each other. The video also features several white mannequins on her swimming pool deck. During the musical interlude before the "I won't tell you that I love you" hook, Gaga is shown in her trademark "Pop Music Will Never Be Low Brow" sunglasses while sitting beside the pool. The video ends with the head shot of Gaga singing the Mum-mum-mum-ma hook.

Gaga explained in the nineteenth episode of her "Transmission Gagavision" series the main idea behind the music video for "Poker Face": "I knew I wanted it to be sexy, so I thought no pants, because that's sexy, [...]And I knew I wanted it to be futuristic, so I thought shoulder pads, because that's my thing." The music video premiered on British MTV on February 17, 2009. In some versions of the video, the words "muffin" (being a slang term for a woman's vagina), "Russian Roulette" and "gun" are censored out (bleeped). On June 21, 2009, the video won the Best International Artist Video at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards. The video received four nominations at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, in the categories of Video of the Year, Best New Artist, Best Female Video and Best Pop Video. Along with five other nominations for "Paparazzi", Gaga was tied with Beyoncé for most nominations each for that year.

In June 2010, Gaga held a reverse auction for one of the necklaces worn in the music video, designed by Brian Lichtenberg. All the proceeds from the auction went to the Lupus Foundation of America.

## Live performances

"Poker Face" has been performed by Gaga at a number of shows including the AOL Sessions, the Cherrytree House of Interscope Records, and also the MTV sessions. The song was performed by Gaga both in the original version and the acoustic piano version in her headlining The Fame Ball Tour. She performed the piano version wearing a dress made of plastic transparent bubbles and playing the glass piano with her stilletoes with a glowing mannequin, like the music video, standing in front of the stage. Gaga claimed that the transparent bubble filled piano was specifically made to match her dress. The actual version was performed by Gaga as the final song of the encore, after "Boys, Boys, Boys". She started the performance saying "Some say Lady Gaga is a lie, and they're right: I am a lie, and every day I kill to make it true." Gaga wore a nude corseted leotard embellished with crystals and an admiral's hat during the performance. The hat as well as the fingerless gloves worn were decorated with the word Gaga on it.

On April 1, 2009, both the acoustic and normal version of "Poker Face" was performed live on Fox's American Idol. The performance started with Gaga sitting at a Plexiglass piano filled with bubbles and bathed in pink light. She started singing the second verse of "Poker Face" in a Bette Midler style accompanied by a violin player while wearing a shiny aluminum shoulder pad and platinum bleached blond wig. After the first chorus, the pace increased whence the original intro for the song started. Gaga got up from her seat and proceeded to perform the song in the middle of the stage. She wore a silvery leotard with a giant star on her shoulder and tassels. As the song progressed to the intermediate verse, the violinist played a hoe-down version of the music and Gaga danced around frantically over the stage. The performance ended with Gaga staring towards the audience while revealing an open zipper, patched over her left eye. The performance was described an "alien-disco performance art." Cortney Harding of Billboard wrote, "[it was] Gaga's crowning TV moment ... show[ing] middle America that she was a bona fide pop star."

The acoustic version was performed by Gaga at BBC Live & In-Session on April 19, 2009. On the same day, she had her first appearance on Italian TV, on the TV program Quelli che... il Calcio. She also performed "Poker Face" in the United Kingdom on The Paul O'Grady Show. First she played an acoustic version first before going on to the normal version, and a rock version on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross. On May 12, 2009, Gaga performed "Poker Face" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show while wearing a gyroscope on her head, designed by theatrical hat designer Nasir Mazhar and playing the piano while standing on the stool. Gaga referred to the gyroscope as her "Gaga barrier". It prevented Ellen DeGeneres from greeting her because of the size of the gear. A remixed version of "Poker Face" and "LoveGame" was performed at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards, during the indoor-outdoor streetside show. This performance, which included Gaga being trapped in a fake subway car surrounded by fake police officers, was billed as a tribute to New York City. Snippets of the song was performed by Gaga at the thirty-fifth season of American comedy show Saturday Night Live, while wearing a giant contraption ("The Orbit") of several metallic concentric rings that rotated around her. In September 2009, Gaga appeared in French television show Taratata, where she added an improvised verse in French while performing "Poker Face".

The track was part of the setlist of Gaga's The Monster Ball Tour. The piano version was played by Gaga while balancing on the piano stool and holding one leg up in the air. Rapper Kid Cudi joined her then to perform his song "Make Her Say" which contains a sample of "Poker Face". The actual version was performed at the last segment of the show. Gaga wore a dress made of guns and during the performance she pumped her hands in the air. For the revamped Monster Ball shows in 2010–11, Gaga was dancing around the stage while whipping a chain. "Poker Face" was also performed at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, where Gaga opened the show with the song while standing on a pedestal. Midway through the performance, she was flung into the garbage chute of her 'Fame Factory' stage set, before emerging seated at a piano, facing Elton John. In May 2011, Gaga performed the song during Radio 1's Big Weekend in Carlisle, Cumbria. The song was included on the set list of her Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013), where she sported a modified version of her infamous meat dress. Gaga and her dancers put themselves headfirst into enormous meat grinders during the performance. For her 2014 residency show, Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom she chose to perform the song in a piano-only rendition. In the same year, at the Artrave: The Artpop Ball tour, Gaga performed the song in a medley with "Just Dance" and "Telephone" while wearing knee-length white dress and heels, and a bob wig.

In October 2016, Gaga appeared in the Carpool Karaoke segment of The Late Late Show with James Corden, where "Poker Face" was one of the songs Gaga sang in the vehicle. On February 5, 2017, Gaga performed the song during the Super Bowl LI halftime show. After descending from the top of the building, she started singing "Poker Face" on a tall pillar, before continuing air acrobatics and performing the song while hanging on a rope in the air. "Poker Face" was later performed at the Coachella Festival, where Gaga performed it in the encore alongside "Bad Romance". The track was also part of the setlist of Gaga's Joanne World Tour (2017–2018), where she was wearing a black bejewelled fringe leotard for the performance. The singer performs the song during Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano (2018–2021), her Las Vegas residency, which involves two different shows. During the Enigma shows, Gaga performs "Poker Face" as the second track of the setlist, while on the Jazz and Piano show, a stripped-down piano version of the song is performed. It was also performed on piano during Gaga's live-streamed concert on September 30, 2021, which was in celebration of her second collaborative album with Tony Bennett, called Love for Sale. In 2022, Gaga performed "Poker Face" at The Chromatica Ball stadium tour.

## Cover versions and adaptations

In 2009, a single by rapper Kid Cudi featuring Kanye West and Common titled "Make Her Say" was released; it contains a vocal sample of the acoustic version of "Poker Face" from The Cherrytree Sessions EP. It features Kanye West, who also produced the track, and Common, as well as scratches from DJ A-Trak. Actor Christopher Walken performed a special a capella rendition of "Poker Face" on BBC1's Friday Night with Jonathan Ross for Halloween 2009.

The song was also featured in the South Park episode titled "Whale Whores", sung on Rock Band by series character Eric Cartman, with guitar by Kyle Broflovski and drums by Kenny McCormick. During Cartman's performance, Stan interrupts to rant about Japanese whaling. After Stan gives a heartfelt speech and leaves on the verge of tears, the other boys resume the song and Cartman replaces the next verse's second line with "I don't give a crap 'bout whales so go and hug a tree." On March 16, 2010, South Park's version of "Poker Face" became available as a downloadable song for the video game Rock Band, on the same day a Lady Gaga track pack featuring the original song was released.

Lea Michele and Idina Menzel, in character as Rachel Berry and Shelby Corcoran respectively, covered an acoustic version of "Poker Face" in the "Theatricality" episode of Glee. Their version debuted at position 100 on the Billboard Hot 100, and moved up to a peak of 20 on the next week. It went on to become one of the show's most popular recordings; having sold 410,000 U.S. downloads, it remains the tenth best-selling song in the show's history.

"Weird Al" Yankovic included the chorus in his polka medley "Polka Face" from his 2011 album Alpocalypse. During the end credits of the 2012 The Simpsons season-finale episode "Lisa Goes Gaga", Homer Simpson performed a parody version entitled "Homer Face". On February 19, 2021, Kelly Clarkson sang a rock cover of the song during her talk show, The Kelly Clarkson Show, on the Kellyoke segment.

## Track listings and formats

Australian CD single

1. "Poker Face" (Album Version) – 3:58
2. "Just Dance" (Robots to Mars Mix) – 4:37

German CD single

1. "Poker Face" (Album Version) – 3:58
2. "Just Dance" (RedOne Remix featuring Kardinal Offishall) – 4:19

German CD maxi single

1. "Poker Face" (Album Version) – 3:57
2. "Poker Face" (Space Cowboy Remix) – 4:53
3. "Just Dance" (Robots to Mars Mix) – 4:37
4. "Poker Face" (video) – 3:39

French CD single

1. "Poker Face" (Main Version) – 3:58
2. "Poker Face" (Glam As You Club Mix by Guéna LG) – 7:51
3. "Poker Face" (Dave Audé Remix) – 8:12

US CD single – Remixes

1. "Poker Face" (Space Cowboy Remix) – 4:25
2. "Poker Face" (Jody den Broeder Remix) – 8:07
3. "Poker Face" (Dave Audé Remix) – 8:12
4. "Poker Face" (Album Version) – 3:57
5. "Poker Face" (Instrumental) – 3:59

UK CD single

1. "Poker Face" – 3:58
2. "Poker Face" (Tommy Sparks & The Fury Remix) – 3:58

UK 7" picture single

A. "Poker Face" – 3:57

B. "Poker Face" (Space Cowboy Remix) – 4:53

iTunes EP

1. "Poker Face" (Space Cowboy Remix) – 4:54
2. "Poker Face" (Dave Audé Club Remix) – 8:13
3. "Poker Face" (Jody den Broeder Club Remix) – 8:05

Spotify single – Remixes Part 1

1. "Poker Face" (Glam As You Radio Mix) – 3:49
2. "Poker Face" (Jody den Broeder Edit) – 4:21
3. "Poker Face" (LLG vs GLG Radio Mix by Guéna LG) – 4:02
4. "Poker Face" (Dave Audé Edit) – 3:50
5. "Poker Face" (Space Cowboy Remix) – 4:54

Spotify single – Remixes Part 2

1. "Poker Face" (Glam As You Club Mix) – 7:50
2. "Poker Face" (Jody den Broeder Remix) – 8:05
3. "Poker Face" (LLG vs GLG Club Mix) – 6:30
4. "Poker Face" (Dave Audé Remix) – 8:13

## Credits and personnel

Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame.

- Lady Gaga – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriter, producer
- RedOne – backing vocals, engineering, instrumentation, songwriter, producer, programming
- Gene Grimaldi – mastering
- Robert Orton – mixing
- Dave Russell – engineering

## Charts

### Weekly charts

### Monthly charts

### Year-end charts

### Decade-end charts

### All-time charts

## Certifications and sales

## Release history

## See also

- List of best-selling singles
- List of best-selling singles in the United States
- List of best-selling singles in Australia
- List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom
- List of Dutch Top 40 number-one singles of 2009
- List of European number-one hits of 2009
- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2008 (Canada)
- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2009 (U.S.)
- List of number-one dance airplay hits of 2009 (U.S.)
- List of number-one dance singles of 2009 (U.S.)
- List of number-one singles in Australia in 2008
- List of number-one singles in Australia in 2009
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (Austria)
- List of number-one hits in Denmark
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (France)
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (Germany)
- List of number-one singles from the 2000s (New Zealand)
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (Sweden)
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (Switzerland)
- List of number-one singles from the 2000s (UK)
- List of Romanian Top 100 number ones of the 2000s
- List of Ultratop 40 number-one singles of 2009
- List of Ultratop 50 number-one singles of 2009

2008 single by Lady Gaga

European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles

Monitor Latino Top Inglés number-one singles

Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles

Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles