Graduados

Graduados (English: The Graduates) is a 2012 Argentine telenovela that was broadcast by Telefe from March 12 to December 19. The plot concerns a group of people who graduated from high school in 1989 and reunite twenty years later. The main character, Andrés Goddzer (Daniel Hendler), discovers that María Laura Falsini (Nancy Dupláa) was pregnant in 1989 and married Pablo Catáneo (Luciano Cáceres), who thought that he was the child's father. The resulting parental dispute, the love triangle of the main characters and 1980s nostalgia are frequent plot elements, and story arcs related to school bullying and LGBT rights are also featured. The frequent flashbacks of the characters to their high-school days use the same actors, playing teenagers.

The series, written by Sebastián Ortega, was produced by Endemol and Underground producciones. Although Andy Kusnetzoff was offered the lead-character role, Hendler was cast when Kusnetzoff turned it down (the latter joined the cast several months later as another character). The telenovela featured cameos and guest appearances by Argentine rock musicians and other celebrities. Graduados was widely successful, prevailing in the ratings over the blockbuster competitive dance program Showmatch and the telenovela Sos mi hombre. Although it received the 2012 Golden Martín Fierro award, seven other Martín Fierro Awards and ten Tato Awards (including Program of the Year), plans for theatrical and film adaptions were abandoned. The telenovela's proposed second season was renamed Viudas e hijos del Rock and Roll, with most of the cast and similar storylines. Local versions of the series have been made in Chile, Colombia, Greece and Serbia.

## Plot

A group of high-school students graduate in 1989. María Laura Falsini (Nancy Dupláa) is the girlfriend of Pablo Catáneo (Luciano Cáceres), the school bully. When María Laura sees Pablo having sex in the bathroom with another girl during the graduation party, she leaves the party. Andrés Goddzer (Daniel Hendler) accompanies her, and they have sex in his car. María Laura becomes pregnant and her father, Clemente Falsini (Juan Leyrado), owner of Mac Can, a successful dog-food company, orders her to marry Pablo—unaware of her encounter with Andrés.

The first episode then makes an ellipsis from 1989 to 2012. Pablo works for Clemente's company, and Andrés is a slacker without a stable job who works as dog walker. María Laura hires Andrés by chance, and remembers their 1989 encounter; a DNA test confirms that Andrés (not Pablo) is the father of her son, Martín. These events give the series its basic plot: Andrés tries to adjust to his newly discovered paternity, Pablo resents his intrusion, Martín tries to stay on good terms with both of them and María Laura begins a romance with Andrés. Pablo cheats on her with Patricia Longo (Isabel Macedo), Clemente's wife and secretary. She becomes pregnant by Pablo, but claims that Clemente is her son's father.

Andrés' family is Jewish. His parents are Elías (Roberto Carnaghi) and Dana (Mirta Busnelli), and his sister Gabriela (Violeta Urtizberea) works at MAC CAN, and has been unlucky in love. Andrés maintains his friendship with two high-school classmates: Benjamín "Tuca" Pardo (Mex Urtizberea) and Verónica Diorio (Julieta Ortega), who runs a radio station which plays 1980s Argentine rock music. María Laura keeps in touch with her best friend in high school: psychiatrist Victoria Lauría (Paola Barrientos), a single woman looking for a partner with whom to have a surrogate child. Guillermo Almada (Juan Gil Navarro), another classmate, takes a job at Mac Can and comes out during a meeting of the graduates. Clemente's wife Patricia is, unknown to everybody else, another classmate. Obese at school, she lost weight and changed her face and name.

Patricia's secret is slowly revealed to the other characters. Pablo learns her true identity in the series finale, and they stay together. Andrés and Maria Laura leave the city; Victoria has a son with Tuca; Elías and Dana open a knish shop and Gabriela marries her neighbor, Marito (Alan Sabbagh). The series ends with a party hosted by the school for the 1989 graduates, similar to the graduation party in the first episode.

## Cast

## Production

Graduados refers frequently to the 1980s (the decade in which the main characters attended high school), using 1980s Argentine slang and flashbacks to evoke nostalgia. The series uses 1980s music—in particular, Argentine rock—and several Argentine musicians made cameo appearances. Graduados was part of a trend in 2012 Argentine television toward nostalgia. According to Argentine consumer-trends consultant Ximena Díaz Alarcón, "The 80s are nowadays far enough to be idealized and close enough to laugh about the earlier versions of oneself". Psychologist and consumer-trends consultant Mariela Mociulsky also suggested that the show's structure invited viewers to compare their lives with the plans they made when they were younger.

Graduados had scripts written by Ernesto Korovsky, Silvina Frejdkes and Alejandro Quesada. Although it was primarily a comedy, it also had a dramatic approach to LGBT rights and school bullying. In Clarín, Adriana Schettini praised its transitions from dramatic to comic scenes, its acting and scripts and its faithfulness to the characters' profiles.

### Creation and cast

Graduados was created by Sebastián Ortega with the working title of El paseaperros (Spanish: The Dog Walker), a planned miniseries about a character and his group of friends. The writers gradually expanded the storyline, incorporating more characters and story arcs. Although Andy Kusnetzoff turned down a starring role in the show because of his work at Radio Metro, he made cameo appearances in six episodes and later became a regular character. Mike Amigorena was offered the lead-protagonist and lead-antagonist roles, but declined both. Relative unknown Daniel Hendler was finally selected to play Andrés; he had already been cast as the secondary character Tuca, who was played by Mex Urtizberea after Hendler was recast as Andrés. The character of Verónica Diorio was initially written for actress Verónica Lozano, who turned down the role. Julieta Ortega, initially cast as Victoria Lauría, replaced Lozano and Victoria was played by stage actress Paola Barrientos. Érica Rivas and Ludovico Di Santo also turned down roles in the series and their characters were played by Nancy Dupláa and Marco Antonio Caponi, respectively.

Juan Leyrado played a grandfather for the first time in his career. Unlike the usual telenovela grandfather (a secondary character), his character has a prominent role and his own story arcs. Leyrado, who was 60 years old when the series was made, said that he was still active in his personal life and played the character according to his own experiences. Korean-Argentine Chang Kim Sung, who played Walter Mao, said he was proud that his character did not conform to stereotypes of Asian people.

Although Mex and Violeta Urtizberea are father and daughter, Violeta accepted a role in the series without knowing that her father was also part of the cast and asked him to respect her space. Although they played characters of similar ages, they rarely have joint scenes. Julieta Ortega said that she has nothing in common with her character in the series. Juan Gil Navarro, who appeared in the television drama La Dueña at the same time, said that although he does not normally appear in comedies he followed his wife's suggestion.

Isabel Macedo had played several villains, including in Floricienta, and took the Patricia Longo-Jimena Benitez role because it was something she had not done before. Although Patricia's past identity as Jimena was intended to be a secret for only ten episodes, Macedo insisted that the mystery should be maintained for a longer time. She read about victims of school bullying to inform her character and declined other work during the year to stay focused on the series, becoming emotionally attached to her character.

### Recurring elements

#### Drama

The series includes a homosexual character, Guillermo Almada (Juan Gil Navarro), who came out in the early episodes and later married his partner in a ceremony featuring guest appearances by Evangelina Salazar and Luis Brandoni. This was the first fictional same-sex marriage on Argentine television since it was legalized in 2010, reflected the growing acceptance of sexual freedom in Argentina. Another character, Patricia Longo, was an obese girl who was a victim of school bullying. Isabel Macedo had to be heavily made up to appear obese for the flashbacks. Patricia was initially the telenovela's villain, with the bullying her motivation for inflicting revenge on her former classmates. The episode in which she reveals her true identity was well received.

#### Flashbacks

The high-school years of the main characters are depicted in flashbacks, a recurring element. For comic effect, the flashbacks were filmed with the actors who played the adult characters instead of younger actors. One episode includes a reenactment of the 1980s game show Feliz domingo para la juventud, with an appearance by host Silvio Soldán. This episode also features a guest appearance by Andy Kusnetzoff, who later joined the regular cast. Another episode has a flashback set in Italpark, an Argentine theme park which closed in 1990. Since the Italpark rides are now in Luján, the production moved there to shoot those scenes.

One episode includes a flashback to San Carlos de Bariloche, the location of the graduation trip (an Argentine prom tradition). Pablo Echarri made a guest appearance as the trip's coordinator, and fans of the show were selected in an internet competition to join the trip to Bariloche as extras. Another flashback features the Pumper Nic fast-food restaurant and a guest appearance by sportswriter Juan Pablo Varsky. Not all flashbacks are focused on the 1980s or high school; some are events from a character's adolescence, such as the shotgun wedding of María Laura and Pablo or her 15th birthday.

#### Music

The program uses 1980s music (usually Argentine rock) extensively, and several Argentine musicians from the decade were invited to make cameo appearances. Charly García appears in one episode, discussing the lyrics of his song "Inconsciente colectivo" ("Collective Unconscious") with the characters. Fito Páez appears in a flashback, meeting María Laura during a sound check and asking her opinion of his new song "11 y 6". Páez resurrected his 1980s look, which differs slightly from his current appearance.

Musician Emanuel Ortega, brother of producer Sebastián Ortega, appeared (as himself) as Victoria Lauría's patient. Similar plots were used in other episodes, with guest stars appearing as themselves; Victoria Lauría's character became a psychologist with famous clients, such as soccer player Martín Palermo, tennis player Gastón Gaudio, model Luciana Salazar and soccer agent Guillermo Coppola. All performing members of the Ortega family made cameos on the series.

Bahiano, the former singer of Los Pericos, made a cameo appearance in the Spring Day episode and played "El ritual de la banana" ("Ritual of the Banana", Los Pericos' first hit). Bahiano left the band in 2005, and did not maintain a good relationship with them. Los Pericos sent a cease and desist letter to the production team and complained on Twitter about the episode. Bahiano dismissed their reaction as jealousy. The Spring Day episode also included a cameo by Los Twist, who played their hit "El estudiante" ("The Student"). The scene, filmed in Tigre, also included a cameo by Lalo Mir.

#### Holidays and observances

Holidays (such as Spring Day) were part of the plot of an episode aired that day, unless the holiday fell over a weekend. Since the Goddzers are a Jewish family, Jewish holidays are included. On July 18 the 1994 AMIA bombing, when the Argentine Israelite Mutual Association was destroyed in a terrorist attack, was mentioned when Elías said he would attend the annual protest of the unsolved case's handling. Minor Jewish characters (such as relatives and friends) returned for Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year celebration. Its Jewish characters and the number of Argentine and Latin American expatriates in Israel helped Graduados obtain good ratings in Israel.

## Reception

The first episode of Graduados was a ratings success, scoring nearly 28 points. Subsequent episodes continued to receive high ratings and El Trece, Telefe's main rival for prime-time ratings, competed with Graduados by moving its blockbuster program Showmatch an hour earlier (opposite Graduados). The move was unsuccessful, with Graduados more highly rated than Showmatch before and after the change. Showmatch returned to its original time slot and El Trece aired a new series, Sos mi hombre, opposite Graduados. Sos mi hombre's premiere episode was outscored by Graduados, 26 to 18.4; according to El Trece this was not a disappointment, since its target rating was 17-19 points. Graduados maintained its lead in the ratings for the rest of the season.

It was a multi-target success, with an audience not limited to viewers in their forties as the focus on 1980s nostalgia might have indicated. This countered a contemporary trend in series television to target a specific audience demographic. The plots include characters and situations for all ages, and the series' general tone is family-friendly. Although it includes a number of flashbacks, the scripts did not limit the actors to a 1980s viewpoint; according to consultant Mariela Mociulsky, the show reflects more modern realities (such as men showing their emotions and women having greater autonomy in their lives) than TV shows of the 1980s did.

The series finale was broadcast from the Gran Rex Theater in a ceremony attended by fans who obtained tickets in a raffle on the Telefe website. The cast (except for Ortega and Urtizberea, who were out of the country) attended the performance, watching the episode from a VIP room in the theater, appearing on stage after the episode ended to thank the audience. Also in attendance were actors and musicians who had made guest appearances on the show during the year, including Pablo Ruiz (the singer of Vilma Palma e Vampiros), Sandra Mihanovich, Luciana Salazar, Luisa Albinoni and Max Berliner.

In February 2013 Sebastian Ortega and the cast agreed to produce another season of Graduados after a year off, and Telefe had begun negotiations to bring the series back. The project became a new telenovela, Viudas e hijos del Rock and Roll, which would employ similar themes and most of the cast. Nancy Dupláa left the project, with Paola Barrientos replacing her as the female lead.

### Awards

Graduados received 12 Tato Awards from 20 nominations on November 17, 2012, including the special award for Television program of the year. Graduados was nominated for daily serial, fiction production, actress in a daily serial (Nancy Dupláa), arts and images in a fiction program and soundtrack, winning in all those categories. Nominations for new actor, actor in a daily serial, supporting actor in a daily serial and supporting actress in a daily serial were shared. The new-actor award nominees from Graduados were Mercedes Scápola, Gastón Soffritti and the winner, Chang Kim Sung. Luciano Cáceres and Daniel Hendler were nominated for the actor in daily drama award, won by Hendler. Roberto Carnaghi, nominated with Juan Leyrado and Mex Urtizberea, received the Best Supporting Actor in a Daily Serial Award. Paola Barrientos was the best supporting actress in a daily serial; her fellow nominees were Isabel Macedo, Mirta Busnelli and Violeta Urtizberea. The series was nominated for the best fiction director and script awards, both won by the telenovela El hombre de tu vida. Producer Sebastian Ortega refused to attend the ceremony to avoid Marcelo Tinelli, with whom he had an ongoing dispute. With a total of 11 awards Graduados was the most successful production at the ceremony, followed by El hombre de tu vida and La voz argentina with four awards each.

The series received 14 nominations for Martín Fierro Awards and won eight, including the Golden Award. It won awards for best daily serial, production, writing and opening theme, and was nominated for best direction (won by Juan José Campanella for El hombre de tu vida). Daniel Hendler and Luciano Cáceres were nominated for best lead actor in a daily serial, which Hendler won. Paola Barrientos was the best supporting actress in a daily serial, with Mirta Busnelli also nominated. Isabel Macedo and Nancy Dupláa were nominated as best lead actress in a daily serial, and Macedo (not Dupláa, as expected by the cast) won. Chang Sung Kim, Jenny Williams (new actor), Andy Kusnetzoff, Betiana Blum (guest appearance), Mex Urtizberea and Roberto Carnaghi (supporting actor in daily drama) also received nominations.

### Internet

In 2012 the use of hashtags in television was new in Argentina, and programs had limited interaction with social networks. Although in August 2012 Showmatch had a higher number of tweets than Graduados (despite trailing it in the ratings), by October Graduados was the 2012 Argentine TV program with the highest number of tweets (averaging 244,540 per episode). Showmatch was second, with an average of 203,922 tweets per episode. As of October 14, September 3 was the day with the greatest number of tweets for a single episode (47,357).

A September 2012 analysis of tweets found that Graduados was the Argentine television program most frequently mentioned. The most popular characters were Vero Diorio, Dany Goddzer, Pablo Catáneo, Guillermo Almada, Tuca and Vicky Lauría. Several unofficial Twitter accounts were created by fans and modeled after the characters; the best known was @Jimena_Benitez\_ (Patricia Longo's character account), with 12,765 followers.

## Other media

The producers of Graduados released a compilation album of music used in the series. It features the theme song, composed by Tan Biónica, and 1980s Argentine rock hits as background music. Musicians appearing on the album are Soda Stereo, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Charly García, Sumo, Virus, Raúl Porchetto, Andrés Calamaro, Los Violadores, Suéter and Los Ratones Paranoicos. The first CD went gold in Argentina, encouraging Telefe and Sony Music Entertainment to release a second CD of soft songs by international artists. Artists on the second CD are Bonnie Tyler, Europe, Paul Young, Jimmy Harnen, Spandau Ballet, Dover, Martika, The Alan Parsons Project, Toto, The Bangles, Cyndi Lauper, Bad English, Air Supply and Billy Joel.

As the series wound down, Telefe considered a theatrical version for the 2013 summer season. It would have been similar to a 2010 version by the producers of Valientes, but the cast had other commitments. Telefe then asked series creator Sebastian Ortega to make a film. Negotiations were confirmed by producer Pablo Culell, who said that although Underground produces television series it can also produce stage plays and films.

Chilevisión produced a Chilean version of the series, Graduados, historias que no se olvidan (Graduates: Unforgettable Stories). The first remake produced by the station, it starred Fernanda Urrejola, Marcial Tagle and Ricardo Fernández and its soundtrack features Chilean bands (such as Upa and Los Prisioneros) and Argentine bands successful in Chile (such as Soda Stereo, Charly García and Virus). The production tries to reflect 1980s Chilean life in a broad appeal to audiences. A Colombian version debuted on RCN Televisión on September 18, 2014 to low ratings. Symmathites, a Greek version, airs on Antenna TV. In Mexico, TV Azteca bought the rights for a local version in production as of November 2013. The original telenovela has aired in Panama, El Salvador and Nicaragua. A Serbian version debuted on Prva Srpska Televizija on September 25, 2017 titled Istine i laži (Truths and lies).

Argentine television series

2010s LGBT-related comedy television series

2012 Argentine television series endings


The Long, Hot Summer

The Long, Hot Summer is a 1958 American drama film starring Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, Anthony Franciosa, and Orson Welles. It was directed by Martin Ritt, with a screenplay by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank Jr., based in part on three works by William Faulkner: the 1931 novella "Spotted Horses", the 1939 short story "Barn Burning" and the 1940 novel The Hamlet. The title is taken from The Hamlet, as Book Three is called "The Long Summer". Some characters, as well as tone, were inspired by Tennessee Williams' 1955 play, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, a film adaptation of which – also starring Newman – was released five months later.

The plot follows the conflicts of the Varner family after ambitious drifter Ben Quick (Newman) arrives in their small Mississippi town. Will Varner (Welles), the patriarch, has doubts about his son, Jody (Franciosa) and sees Ben as a better choice to inherit his position. Will tries to push Ben and his daughter Clara (Woodward) into marriage.

Filmed in Clinton, Louisiana, the cast was composed mostly of former Actors Studio students, whom Ritt met while he was an assistant teacher to Elia Kazan. For the leading role, Warner Bros. loaned Newman to 20th Century Fox. The production was marked by conflicts between Welles and Ritt, which drew media attention. The music score was composed by Alex North and the title song, "The Long Hot Summer", written by North and Sammy Cahn, was performed by Jimmie Rodgers.

The film was well received by critics but did not score significant results at the box office. Its critical success revitalized Ritt's career, after his having been blacklisted during most of the 1950s. Newman won the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival.

## Plot

Ben Quick is on trial for barn-burning, but since there is no evidence the judge just orders him to leave town. Ben hitches a ride to Frenchman's Bend, Mississippi, with two young women in a convertible, Clara Varner and her sister-in-law Eula. Clara's father, Will Varner, is the domineering owner of most of the town.

Will is away, but his only son, Eula's husband Jody, agrees to let Ben become a sharecropper on a vacant farm. When Will returns from a stay in the hospital, he is furious at Jody for hiring a notorious "barn burner", but soon begins to see in Ben a younger version of himself and comes to admire his ruthlessness and ambition, qualities that Jody lacks. Will is also disappointed that his 23-year-old daughter, Clara, has not married the man she has been seeing for five or six years: Alan Stewart, a genteel Southern "blue blood" and a mama's boy.

Will therefore schemes to push his daughter and Ben together. However, she is openly hostile to the crude upstart. Will is determined to have his bloodline go on, so he offers to make Ben wealthy if he marries Clara. Meanwhile, Minnie Littlejohn, Will's longtime mistress, is dissatisfied with their arrangement and wants to get married.

Jody becomes increasingly frustrated, seeing his position being undermined, and his marriage falters. After Ben sells some worthless wild horses for Will, he is rewarded with the job of clerk in Will's general store, alongside Jody. Will even invites him to live in the family mansion.

Jody pulls a gun on Ben and threatens to kill him. Ben talks his way out by telling Jody about buried Civil War-era treasure he has supposedly found on a property that Will gave him, a down payment to seal their bargain over Clara. Jody starts digging and finds a bag of coins. He is elated, thinking he might finally be able to escape his father's domination; he buys the land from Ben. Late that night, Will finds his son, still digging. After examining a coin, Will notices that it was minted in 1910. Jody is shattered.

Ben aggressively pursues Clara. She finally asks Alan what his intentions are, and he replies that he only wants to "help" her. Misinterpreting what Clara tells him, Will goes to congratulate Alan and his mother on the impending marriage, and is infuriated when he learns the truth. He returns home. A defeated Jody finds his father alone in their barn. Jody bolts the entrance and sets the barn on fire, but he cannot go through with it and releases Will. Will is touched by Jody's change of heat and calls him his "strong right arm." A Men from town assume Ben is the culprit and intend to lynch him, but Clara rescues him from the mob and drives him back to the plantation. Will defuses the situation by telling the lynch mob he accidentally started the fire.

Ben confesses to Clara that his father was a barn-burner, committing arson when offended, and that he has been falsely dogged by such accusations because of his father. Ben tells her he is leaving town, but Clara makes it clear she has fallen in love with him.

## Cast

- Paul Newman as Ben Quick. Newman met director Martin Ritt as a student at the Actors Studio, where Ritt was a teacher-assistant for Elia Kazan. Newman, who was under a contract with Warner Brothers, was loaned to 20th Century Fox for a fee of US\$75,000. Meanwhile, his contract earned him US\$17,500 for each ten-week shot. He traveled to Clinton, Louisiana, before the start of filming to study the mannerisms, accent and speech of the Southern men in order to create a proper characterization.
- Orson Welles as Will Varner. The character was inspired by Big Daddy Pollitt from Tennessee Williams' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. Welles' presence on the film was marked by multiple conflicts with director Martin Ritt. He agreed to take the role due to a tax debt of US\$150,000; he stated years later, "I hated making Long Hot Summer. I've seldom been as unhappy in a picture."

Director Martin Ritt met the three cast members listed below while they were students at the Actors Studio.

- Joanne Woodward as Clara Varner. Woodward married Newman in 1958.
- Anthony Franciosa as Jody Varner
- Lee Remick as Eula Varner. Remick later admitted that during the shooting she was intimidated by Orson Welles on the set because of his "icon" status.

The supporting roles were played by:

- Angela Lansbury as Minnie Littlejohn
- Richard Anderson as Alan Stewart
- Sarah Marshall as Agnes Stewart
- Mabel Albertson as Elizabeth Stewart
- J. Pat O'Malley as Ratliff
- William "Bill" Walker as Lucius
- Francis Sibley as the bass player in the band

## Production

### Development

Producer Jerry Wald hired former co-worker and Warner Brothers director Martin Ritt to shoot the adaptation of two William Faulkner novels based on a recommendation by script writer Irving Ravetch. Wald convinced the studio executives to pay US\$50,000 for the rights for the novels The Sound and the Fury and The Hamlet. The first to be produced, The Hamlet, was renamed The Long Hot Summer to avoid confusion with William Shakespeare's play Hamlet. Ravetch and Harriet Frank, Jr. wrote the script, also adding fragments from Faulkner's short stories "Barn Burning" and "Spotted Horses". In the new script, the book's main character, Flem Snopes, and the rest of the Snopes family were removed. The plot was recentered on a minor character, Ben Quick, and the reconciliation of the Varner family. On their first important screenplay, Ravetch and Frank implemented their signature style, using the names of characters and a few details of the plot but significantly modifying the details of the story. The final product was heavily influenced by Tennessee Williams' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, resulting in an "erotically charged" story.

### Locations

The film was shot in Clinton and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, in CinemaScope color, with a budget of US\$1,645,000. A Southern Gothic story, Ritt decided to shoot it on location to capture the characteristics of the area, emphasizing the regional details. Ritt met leading actor Paul Newman while teaching at the Actors Studio. The rest of the main cast also consisted of former Actors Studio alumni, including Joanne Woodward, Anthony Franciosa and Lee Remick.

### Casting

The film attracted attention for the appearance of Orson Welles as Will Varner, the patriarch of the family. 20th Century Fox wanted to avoid casting Welles because of his temperament, but the studio was persuaded by Ritt, who considered him the right actor for the role. The director and the actor had several marked differences during the shooting of the movie, which included problems with the interpretation of the lines, costume design and the position of Welles while shooting the scenes. At one point during the production, Welles informed Ritt that he did not want to memorize his lines, requesting instead that they be dubbed afterwards. Part of the cast was intimidated by Welles' temperamental attitude.

The conflicts between Welles and Ritt attracted media attention. Immediately after filming was completed, during an interview with Life, Welles explained that the cause of his behavior was that he did not know what kind of "monkeyshines" his co-stars would be or the "caprices" they would receive from him. He also stated that they overcame the differences and completed the film. Welles later wrote a letter to Ritt praising his work and apologizing for his interference during the making of the movie. Ritt replied, expounding his admiration for Welles. Despite the mutual apologies, during an interview in 1965, Ritt recalled an incident on the set. While the film was being shot, it was often stopped by bad weather. During a day suitable for shooting, he found Welles not ready for the scene, instead reading a newspaper in Spanish. Ritt decided to skip Welles's scene and shoot the next one. He attributed Welles' later cooperation to the incident, which Welles had found humiliating. Ritt thus earned the nickname "the Orson Tamer" throughout the Hollywood community.

### Soundtrack

Alex North composed the film's score, which leaned toward a jazz style. "The Long Hot Summer" was the only song written by North to be used as the title track of a film. Composed in an AABA form, it was characterized by its lyricisms and its "tense dissonant" jazz-figures. The lyrics of the song were written by Sammy Cahn, while instrumental variations of the melody were used throughout the film, underlining the progression of the relationship between Ben and Clara. Recorded by Jimmie Rodgers, it was released by Roulette Records, reaching number 77 on Billboard'''s Top 100 Sides in June 1958. The orchestra was conducted by Lionel Newman.

Billboard described the soundtrack as "a model of music use in a dramatic film". On another review, Billboard favored the album, stating that it "makes for good listening out of the cinematic context" and that the financial success of the soundtrack may have been propelled by Jimmie Rodgers' "smooth vocal treatment". The publication praised North's musical understanding of the deep South, and particularly praised the song "Eula", describing it as a "pure gem of sex-on-wax".

## Release and reception

The movie opened on March 13, 1958, in several cities around the United States, including Los Angeles and San Francisco. It grossed \$48,000 from four theaters in Los Angeles and \$15,000 in San Francisco in its first week. It opened to good reviews but did not score a significant profit at the box office, grossing US\$3,500,000.

Billboard commended the acting as "first-rate" and "robust", with particular praise for Woodward, and also praised Ritt's direction. Meanwhile, The Reporter highlighted the film's similarities to the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and described the cast as "an impressive one", but remarked that the actors and characters "never seem to get together". The review called Welles "great" and "gusty", but described Woodward's participation as a "poker bluff".

Time described Newman's performance as "mean and keen as a cackle-edge scythe". The publication also praised Woodward, stating her acting was delivered with "fire and grace not often seen in a movie queen", but decried Welles's acting as "scarcely an improvement" on his performance in his previous role, in Moby Dick. Variety praised the scriptwriters for the successful merging of the three Faulkner stories that inspired the film. The review also praised Martin Ritt, the camerawork by Joseph LaShelle, and the film's musical score. Cosmopolitan called the movie a "gutsy melodrama".

For The New York Times, critic Bosley Crowther noted Ravetch and Frank's "tight, word-cracking" script that featured fast-paced scenes with "slashing dialogue". The reviewer felt that the cast was "clicking nicely" until the story of the writers "plunged" from the dramatic scenes to "sheer story-telling make-believe", while Crowther concluded that it went from "superb" to a "senseless, flabby heap". The Los Angeles Times opened its review qualifying the movie as "provocative, evocative". While critic Phillip K. Scheuer failed to see the plot's relation to The Hamlet, he praised the work of writers Ravetch and Frank, as well as the "exacting direction" of Ritt. Scheuer perceived the southern accents of the cast and the use of redness on their make-up to be unauthentic, but he felt that the use of the Louisiana landscapes and the development of the characters gave the film a "comulative bite" and a "powerful persuader" that "you are there". The review described Welles' acting as "terrific" and as dominating of the plot, while it favored Newman, Woodward and the supporting cast. Closing the piece, Scheuer wrote that he could not "get the sense" of the ending, while it mentioned as "top credits" the contributions of North on the soundtrack and Lashelle's camerawork.

The Miami Herald pointed that the story did not resemble Faulkner's work excepting his use of "lusty accessories". The reviewer implied that most moviegoers would be not familiar with the work of Faulkner, while he remarked that the film would be "perfectly satisfactory". The piece closed by again criticizing the producers that felt that "Louisiana looked more than Mississippi than Mississippi does", and the newspaper took it as an example of the "liberties" taken with Faulkner's work.The Memphis Press-Scimitar welcomed Welles' performance as "superb", while it also remarked the large difference between the original stories and the movie. Also in Memphis, The Commercial Appeal defined The Long, Hot Summer as a "sizzler", that showed a "superior" performance by Woodward, as well as a "stellar" cast. The piece determined that the "tempestuous, earthy" plotline would not be suitable for the "immature", rather for the "adult" that would find it to be a "dynamic drama" for the "swirling turbulence" of the Varner family and the "frank omnipresence of sex". The Austin American-Statesman considered that Welles represented "one of the picture's more entertaining features" that made the film "gripping", along with the "able performances" and "crisp dialogue".

For the New York Daily News, Kate Cameron gave The Long, Hot Summer four stars. She described the work of the writers in integrating Faulkner's three works as a "fascinating saga". Cameron called the cast "first rate", with a "smoothly and convincingly" direction by Ritt. The Chicago Tribune wrote that the movie had a "first rate" cast, praised the photography and defined the result as "engrossing entertainment". The Boston Globe defined the location as "authentic", while the reviewer felt that the plot "has bite" and its pace advanced as "a race horse". The newspaper hailed Woodward's interpretation of the character as "a polished perfection of understanding". The Cincinnati Enquirer'' opened stating that doubts regarding Woodward's acting "are put at rest" with the release that it called "adult theater".

## Legacy

The film revived the career of Martin Ritt, who had been on the blacklist for most of the decade for alleged associations with communists.

Paul Newman's performance as Ben Quick brought him national fame, as well as the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival. During the production, Newman married co-star Woodward.

In 2002, the film was nominated for the American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions list.

A television series of the same name aired between 1965 and 1966, featuring Dan O'Herlihy, Roy Thinnes, Nancy Malone, Lana Wood, Ruth Roman, and Edmond O'Brien. It was remade for television in 1985, featuring Jason Robards, Don Johnson, and Cybill Shepherd. This rendition received two Emmy nominations, for Outstanding Miniseries and Outstanding Art Direction for a Miniseries or a Special.

## See also

- List of American films of 1958

1958 film by Martin Ritt

Films based on works by William Faulkner


Godzilla Raids Again

Godzilla Raids Again (Japanese: ゴジラの逆襲, Hepburn: Gojira no Gyakushū, lit. 'Godzilla's Counterattack') is a 1955 Japanese kaiju film directed by Motoyoshi Oda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya. Produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd., it is the second film in the Godzilla franchise. The film stars Hiroshi Koizumi, Setsuko Wakayama, Minoru Chiaki, and Takashi Shimura, with Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla and Katsumi Tezuka as Anguirus. In the film, Japan struggles to survive Godzilla's return, as well as its destructive battle against its ancient foe Anguirus.

Executive producer Iwao Mori instructed producer Tomoyuki Tanaka to immediately commence production on a second Godzilla film, fearing to lose the momentum of the first film's success. Oda was chosen to direct the film as Ishirō Honda was busy directing Lovetide.

Godzilla Raids Again was released theatrically in Japan on April 24, 1955. A re-edited, English dubbed version was released theatrically in the United States on June 2, 1959, by Warner Bros. Pictures, under the title Gigantis, the Fire Monster.

The film was followed by King Kong vs. Godzilla, released on August 11, 1962.

## Plot

Working for the Kaiyo Fishing, Inc., a pilot named Shoichi Tsukioka guides a fishing trawler towards a school of Bonito. Koji Kobayashi, another pilot, faces engine troubles and makes an emergency landing on Iwato Island. Tsukioka is sent to rescue Kobayashi, but they both encounter two giant dinosaur-like creatures locked in battle: Godzilla and a new quadruped monster. The pilots escape as the monsters tumble into the sea.

Tsukioka and Kobayashi go to Osaka to help Dr. Yamane and the authorities investigate the encounter. The new monster is identified as an Ankylosaurus and is named Anguirus. Dr. Yamane shows the authorities footage of the first Godzilla attack and notes that it was killed by the Oxygen Destroyer, but its inventor died, and that there are no proven countermeasures left against Godzilla. Dr. Yamane suggests issuing a blackout and using drop flares to lure Godzilla away due to the first Godzilla being sensitive to light.

Tsukioka’s girlfriend, Hidemi, expresses her concern for Osaka to him, and he reveals that he thought about her when he thought he might die on Iwato Island. They watch as the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) takeoff to find Godzilla, but scientists note that it may prove difficult due to the possibility of Godzilla hiding in caves within the seabed. Later, Godzilla is spotted heading for the Kii Channel between Shikoku and Wakayama Prefecture. Yamaji, Tsukioka’s boss and Hidemi’s father, notes that if Godzilla wreaks havoc in those waters, their fishing company will lose valuable fishing ground and strike a blow at production.

Later, an alert is issued for the Osaka region as Godzilla changes course for Osaka Bay. The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) cut off the lights in the city and lure Godzilla with flares. Tsukioka leaves Hidemi at her home for safety and leaves with Kobayashi to meet Yamaji at his cannery. Convicts escape from their transport and lead police on a chase that ends with a few convicts crashing into an oil refinery, triggering an explosion, while other convicts escape into Osaka. The explosion lures Godzilla back to Osaka, forcing the JSDF to attack it. Attracted by the flares, Anguirus emerges and engages Godzilla. The monsters battle throughout the city, destroying Yamaji’s cannery and killing the convicts in the process. Godzilla kills Anguirus and returns to the sea after burning the body with its atomic breath.

In the aftermath, Yamaji moves operations to Hokkaido to make full use of the fisheries and cannery, and also sends Kobayashi to guide trawlers. During a company dinner, Tsukioka reunites with Tajima, a friend from college, and the war. Kobayashi hints to Hidemi that he’s fallen in love with a certain woman. The dinner is interrupted by news that a ship was sunk by Godzilla. The following morning, Tsukioka helps the JASDF search for Godzilla and tracks its location on Kamiko Island. Kobayashi departs to aide Tsukioka but leaves his notebook behind. Hidemi peaks at the notebook and discovers a picture of her inside.

Kobayashi attempts to stop Godzilla from escaping but is struck by Godzilla’s atomic breath and crashes into the mountaintop, killing him. The crash creates a small avalanche that engulfs Godzilla, inspiring the JASDF to bury it with a bigger avalanche but lack firepower. The JASDF return to base to reload missiles and Tajima reluctantly accepts Tsukioka’s request to take him. The JSDF creates a wall of fire to block Godzilla’s escape, while the JASDF triggers avalanches by blasting the mountaintops. Godzilla exhales one last atomic breath before being completely buried by the last avalanche triggered by Tsukioka. Relieved, Tsukioka lets Kobayashi’s spirit know that they have finally defeated Godzilla.

## Cast

Cast taken from Japan's Favorite Mon-star, except where cited otherwise.

## Production

### Crew

- Motoyoshi Oda – director
- Eiji Tsuburaya – special effects director
- Eiji Iwashiro – assistant director
- Kazuo Baba – production coordinator
- Takeo Kita – art director
- Sadamasa Arikawa – special effects photography
- Akira Watanabe – special effects art director
- Kiroshi Mukoyama – optical effects
- Masayoshi Onuma – lighting
- Masanobu Miyazawa – sound recording
- Ichiro Mitsunawa – sound effects

Personnel taken from Japan's Favorite Mon-star.

### Development

A few weeks after Godzilla was released in November 1954, a welcome home party was held for executive producer Iwao Mori. During the party, Mori instructed producer Tomoyuki Tanaka to produce a sequel, due to Mori being pleased with the box office results for the first film.

Ishirō Honda, director of the first Godzilla film, was unavailable to return to direct the sequel due to directing Lovetide at the time. Japanese publications indicated that Tanaka attached Motoyoshi Oda to direct the film, rather than waiting for Honda, due to Mori fearing to lose the momentum of the first Godzilla film's success. Film historians Steve Ryfle and David Kalat deduced that Oda was chosen to direct due to his experience with effects-driven films such as Eagle of the Pacific, and his then-latest film The Invisible Avenger. Kalat added that Oda was a director content with accepting B–picture level assignments, stating, "putting such a man in charge of the Godzilla sequel then was a clear signal of intent: This was to be a quickie profit center, not an artistic indulgence."

Screenwriter Takeo Murata originally wanted to show a scene of chaos and looting in the middle of the monster battle, but time and budget limitations forced him to drop this idea. The Dinosaur Book by Edwin H. Colbert was used during the film's conference scene.

### Special effects

The film's special effects were directed by Eiji Tsuburaya. Some of the effects footage was shot at a slower speed, 18 frames per second. Three cameras were set to capture the effects footage. Two cameras were set at high speed, while the third was indirectly left at slow speed. Despite the error, Tsuburaya felt the slow speed footage was usable and since then, used different camera speeds for different scenes. Some Japanese publications identified Yoichi Manoda as the cameraman who accidentally left the third camera on slow speed, while others identified Koichi Takano as the culprit.

Haruo Nakajima portrayed Godzilla and Katsumi Tezuka portrayed Anguirus, respectively. Nakajima and Tezuka were able to move in the suits more fluidly due to the suits being made from lighter materials, as well as casting them from plaster molds to fit the suit performers' physiques. For Godzilla, the new design was sculpted by Teizo Toshimitsu. The Godzilla suit was constructed with a cloth-base where latex was applied over it. A motor was built into the head to move the eyes and mouth, with the batteries built at the base of the tail. Due to this, Nakajima felt discomfort each time he jumped in the suit. For Anguirus, Tezuka had to crawl on his knees with the bottom of his feet exposed. The effects crew hid this by placing trees, buildings, and other obstacles in the foreground and filming from certain angles that hid the hind legs.

Hand puppets were built for close-up shots. The Godzilla puppet had a spray built in to depict the atomic breath. Some of the monster battles were photographed from low angles to emphasize size and scale. The Osaka miniature set was constructed at Toho's then-new soundstage No. 8, which allowed the effects crew more space to work in. The Osaka castle miniature failed to crumble as planned. Wires were attached to the castle that ran beneath the platform. Due to heavy construction, the model failed to collapse even when the suit performers rammed into it as the crew members pulled the wires. Tsuburaya ordered to "cut" but the crew members did not hear him and the castle model collapsed when camera were not rolling. Due to this, the model had to be partially rebuilt. The ice island battle was partially filmed on an outdoor set. To bury Godzilla in ice, an ice machine was borrowed from the Tokyo skating rink.

For the opening scene, Nakajima and Tezuka were required to be in the suits as they plummeted into the water in order to avoid having the suits float upon impact. Several handlers were on-set to prevent Nakajima and Tezuka from drowning. A Godzilla prop equipped with a wind up motor was built to walk during the ice island scenes, however, the prop malfunctioned and was filmed in a stationary position instead. Real snow was added for the ice island set. Several shots of Godzilla reacting to the ice canyon explosions were filmed outdoors in order to avoid filming the roof of the studio set.

## Release

### Theatrical

Godzilla Raids Again was distributed theatrically in Japan by Toho on April 24, 1955. The film generated 8.3 million tickets, less than what the first Godzilla film drew but still considered moderate business. The film drew little enthusiasm from audiences, the press, and Toho staff. Tanaka later admitted that the crew had little time to prepare and hardly considers the film a success. The Japanese version was released to Japanese speaking theaters in the United States prior to the altered American version. The film was Toho's fourth highest-grossing film of the year domestically, and the 10th highest grossing Japanese release domestically.

A re-edited English dubbed version titled Gigantis, the Fire Monster was released theatrically in the United States by Warner Bros. Pictures on May 21, 1959, where it played as a double feature with Teenagers from Outer Space. Some drive-ins paired the film with Rodan.

### American version

The North American rights to the film were purchased by Harry Rybnick, Richard Kay, Edward Barison, Paul Schreibman, and Edmund Goldman, the same producers who acquired the rights to Godzilla and released it as Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. Instead of dubbing the film, the producers first planned to produce a new film titled The Volcano Monsters, while utilizing the effects footage from the original Japanese film. The producers announced in Variety that filming was expected to commence on June 17, 1957. Rybnick hired Ib Melchior and Edwin Watson to write the screenplay.

Melchior and Watson spent hours watching the Japanese version on a Moviola to build an American story around the footage and to note down footage of the monsters, military mobilization, crowds fleeing, and jets flying and attacking. The duo completed a 129 paged script, dated May 7, 1957, with instructions for the editor of where the Japanese footage was to be used. In their script, Godzilla and Anguirus were changed to dinosaurs, with Godzilla identified as a female Tyrannosaurus. All shots of Godzilla using his atomic breath were eliminated, to be replaced with new footage of Godzilla swiping his claws at jets. Panic, disaster, and military mobilization scenes from news reels were to be included between the Japanese monster footage. The blackout was re-written to signify that the monsters destroyed a power plant. The new effects footage was to be shot at Howard A. Anderson's special effects studio.

Toho approved of the idea and in early 1957, shipped the Godzilla and Anguirus suits to Los Angeles for additional photography. While filming Invasion of the Saucer Men, Bob Burns III and Paul Blaisdell recalled stumbling upon two crates holding the Godzilla and Anguirus suits. Burns recalls that the suits were made out of rubber over canvas and had already been used due to significant burns and damages. Howard A. Anderson Jr. told Burns that they recently received them at the time and were intended for "shooting some inserts."

Rybnick and Barison initially struck a deal with AB-PT Pictures Corp. to co-finance the film but the company closed shop in 1957. Schreibman, Goldman, and then-new financier Newton P. Jacobs decided to dub the film instead. Hugo Grimaldi was hired to oversee the dubbing and editing of the film. Masaru Sato's original music was replaced (except for a couple of tracks) with stock music from various libraries, including the MUTEL library, as well as music from films such as Kronos (1957), Project Moonbase (1958) and The Deerslayer (1957). Godzilla's roar was largely replaced with Anguirus' roar. This version had the working title of Godzilla Raids Again, but was changed to Gigantis, the Fire Monster upon its release. Schreibman took full credit for changing Godzilla's name to Gigantis, which was an attempt to convince audiences that "Gigantis" was a brand new monster, stating, "We called it 'Gigantis' because we did not want it to be confused with 'Godzilla' [who had clearly been killed irreparably by the oxygenator]." At one point, Schreibman inaccurately told reporters that the original Japanese film was called Angirus.

The film was dubbed at Ryder Sound Services in New York and featured the voice talents of Keye Luke, Paul Frees, and George Takei. The English dialogue was based on a loose interpretation, rather than an accurate translation, of the original Japanese dialogue. Credit for the English dialogue script had not been revealed since the release of the film. According to Takei, the word "banana oil" was created by the dub's director due to having difficulty finding a word to match the lip movement of the original Japanese word "bakayaro". Takei stated that people laughed during the recording due to the word being an outdated expression. The English version utilizes stock footage from various films, such as Unknown Island and the first Godzilla film, as well as news reels, military footage, the space program, and educational films.

Prior to the film's release, Schreibman approached Bill Foreman (then-President of Pacific Theaters) and convinced him to purchase the theatrical and television rights to both Gigantis and Teenagers from Outer Space and helped Foreman sell the theatrical rights to Warner Bros. According to the deal, Foreman agreed to show both films in all of his theaters while Warner Bros. would distribute the films to other theaters and were given the American and Latin American theatrical rights to both films for four years.

After the film reverted to Foreman and his attorney Harry B. Swerdlow (who became designated owner of both films because Foreman did not want his name to appear on the copyright notices), they did not pursue any interest in continuing to sell the television rights, which resulted in Gigantis the Fire Monster disappearing from American theatres and television for two decades until the rights reverted to Toho in the mid-1980s.

### Critical response

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 5.00/10.

From contemporary reviews in the United States, Joe R. Patrick of Des Moines Tribune described the film as "amateurish", finding the acting to be "confined primarily to facial expressions, in tight close-ups" and that the film "suffers most of all from dubbed-in English." The review did praise the animation of the monsters as "at times very good, at other times poor," and concluded that the film was not as well made as its double feature, Rodan. Donald Willis of Variety declared the film as being "inept and tedious" but declared the miniature work as "remarkably good" specifically that scenes of "the dinosaur-like animal crunching his way through houses, traffic and high-tension wires are interesting and exciting."

Ishirō Honda (director of the previous Godzilla film) noted that reviews for Godzilla Raids Again were more positive compared to the previous film, stating that it was considered "stupid" by the media for a director to add "ideas or themes" into a science fiction film, he commented, "That's why I think that the first Godzilla was only considered a 'weird' movie. That's probably why they liked the second movie much better." Film historian Steve Ryfle noted that some writers felt that while Godzilla (1954) was a metaphor for the Hiroshima bombing, Godzilla Raids Again serves as metaphor for the Nagasaki bombing. Ryfle noted the scene of Hidemi gazing at the flames of Osaka strikes parallels with the imagery of a mushroom cloud.

## Home media

### Japan

In 1982, the Japanese version was released on VHS in Japan by Toho. In 1986, Toho released the film on LaserDisc. In 1991, Toho reissued the film on VHS. In 1993, Toho released a new master of the film on LaserDisc. In 2001, Toho released the film on DVD. In 2005, Toho included the film on the Godzilla Final Box DVD Set. In 2014, Toho released the film on Blu-ray.

In 2008, Toho remastered the film in High-definition and premiered it on the Japanese Movie Speciality Channel, along with the rest of the Godzilla films also remastered in HD.

### United States

In 1989, Video Treasures released the American version on EP and LP VHS in the United States and Canada. In 2007, Classic Media and Sony BMG Home Entertainment released both the Japanese and American versions on DVD in the United States and Canada. The special features include an audio commentary by Steve Ryfle, a featurette titled The Art of Suit Acting by Ed Godziszewski and Bill Gudmundson, and a slideshow of the film's theatrical posters. Per Toho's request, the original title card for Gigantis, the Fire Monster was replaced with a new title card sporting the film's official English title.

In 2017, Janus Films and The Criterion Collection acquired the film, as well as other Godzilla titles, to stream on Starz and FilmStruck. In 2019, the Japanese version was included as part of a Blu-ray box set released by The Criterion Collection, which includes all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era. In May 2020, the Japanese version became available on HBO Max upon its launch.

## Legacy

The film was followed by King Kong vs. Godzilla, released on August 11, 1962. Godzilla Raids Again introduced the monster vs. monster formula that would be become prominent and synonymous with the franchise. After the release of the film, Toho featured Anguirus in various multimedia (see Appearances).

1955 Japanese film directed by Motoyoshi Oda


Nothomyrmecia

Nothomyrmecia, also known as the dinosaur ant or dawn ant, is an extremely rare genus of ants consisting of a single species, Nothomyrmecia macrops. These ants live in South Australia, nesting in old-growth mallee woodland and Eucalyptus woodland. The full distribution of Nothomyrmecia has never been assessed, and it is unknown how widespread the species truly is; its potential range may be wider if it does favour old-growth mallee woodland. Possible threats to its survival include habitat destruction and climate change. Nothomyrmecia is most active when it is cold because workers encounter fewer competitors and predators such as Camponotus and Iridomyrmex, and it also increases hunting success. Thus, the increase of temperature may prevent them from foraging and very few areas would be suitable for the ant to live in. As a result, the IUCN lists the ant as Critically Endangered.

As a medium-sized ant, Nothomyrmecia measures 9.7–11 mm (0.38–0.43 in). Workers are monomorphic, showing little morphological differentiation among one another. Mature colonies are very small, with only 50 to 100 individuals in each nest. Workers are strictly nocturnal and are solitary foragers, collecting arthropod prey and sweet substances such as honeydew from scale insects and other Hemiptera. They rely on their vision to navigate and there is no evidence to suggest that the species use chemicals to communicate when foraging, but they do use chemical alarm signals. A queen ant will mate with one or more males and, during colony foundation, she will hunt for food until the brood have fully developed. Queens are univoltine (they produce just one generation of ants each year). Two queens may establish a colony together, but only one will remain once the first generation of workers has been reared.

Nothomyrmecia was first described by Australian entomologist John S. Clark in 1934 from two specimens of worker ants. These were reportedly collected in 1931 near the Russell Range, inland from Israelite Bay in Western Australia. After its initial discovery, the ant was not seen again for four decades until a group of entomologists rediscovered it in 1977, 1,300 km (810 mi) away from the original reported site. Dubbed as the 'Holy Grail' of myrmecology, the ant was subject to great scientific interest after its rediscovery, attracting scientists from around the world. In Poochera (the rediscovery site), pictures of the ant are stencilled on the streets, and it is perhaps the only town in the world that thrives off ant-based tourism. Some entomologists have suggested a relationship to the Baltic Eocene fossil ant genus Prionomyrmex based on morphological similarities, but this interpretation is not widely accepted by the entomological community. Owing to its body structure, Nothomyrmecia is regarded to be the most plesiomorphic ant alive and a 'living fossil', stimulating studies on its morphology, behaviour, ecology, and chromosomes.

## Description

Nothomyrmecia is a medium-sized ant measuring 9.7–11 mm (0.38–0.43 in) in length. Workers are monomorphic, meaning that there is little morphological differentiation among one another. The mandibles, clypeus (one of the sclerites that make up the "face" of an arthropod or insect), antennae and legs are pale yellow. The hairs on the body are yellow, erect and long and abundant, but on the antennae and legs they are shorter and suberect (standing almost in an erect position). It shows similar characteristics to Myrmecia, and somewhat resembles Oecophylla, commonly known as weaver ants. Workers are strictly nocturnal (active mainly at night) but navigate by vision, relying on large compound eyes. The mandibles are shorter than the head. They have 10 to 15 intermeshing teeth and are less specialised than those of Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex, being elongate and triangular. The head is longer than it is wide and broader towards the back. The sides of the head are convex around the eyes. The long antennal scapes (the base of the antenna) extend beyond the occipital border, and the second segment of the funiculus (a series of segments between the base and club) is slightly longer than the first, third and fourth segment. The node, pronotum, epinotum and thorax are longer than broad, and the mesonotum is just as long as it is wide. The first segment of the gaster (the bulbous posterior portion of the metasoma) is broader than long by a third and broader at the back than the front with strongly convex sides.

A long and retractable stinger is present at the rear of the abdomen. It has been described as "prominent and effective" and is capable of inflicting a painful sting to humans. A 'sting bulb gland' is also present in Nothomyrmecia; this is a small exocrine gland of unknown function, first discovered and named in 1990. It is situated in the basal part of the insect's sting, and is located between the two ducts of the venom gland and the Dufour's gland. Despite its many plesiomorphic features, the sting apparatus of Nothomyrmecia is considered less primitive than those found in other ants such as Stigmatomma pallipes. It is the only known species of ant that contains both a sting and a 'waist' (i.e. it has no postpetiole between the first and second gastral segments).

Queens look similar to workers, but several morphological features distinguish the two castes from each other. The queen's body is usually larger. Ocelli are highly developed, but the eyes on the queen are not enlarged. The structure of the pterothorax (the wing-bearing area of the thorax) is consistent with other reproductive ants, but it does not occupy as much of its mesosomal bulk. The wings of the queens are rudimentary and stubby, barely overlapping the first gastral segment, and are brachypterous (non-functional). Males resemble those of Myrmecia, but Nothomyrmecia males bear a single waist node. The wings on the male ant are not stubby like a queen's; rather they are long and fully developed, exhibiting a primitive venational complement. They have a jugal anal lobe (a portion of the hindwing), a feature found in many primitive ants, and basal hamuli (hook-like projections that link the forewings and hindwings). Most male specimens collected have two tibial spurs (spines located on the distal end of the tibia); the first spur is a long calcar and the second spur is short and thick. Adults have a stridulatory organ on the ventral side of the abdomen – unlike all other hymenopterans in which such organs are located dorsally.

In all castes, these ants have six maxillary palps (palps that serve as organs of touch and taste in feeding) and four labial palps (sensory structures on the labium), a highly primitive feature. The females have a 12-segmented antenna, whereas males have 13 segments. Other features include paired calcariae found on both the hind and middle tibiae, and the claws have a median tooth. The unspecialised nature of the cuticle (outer exoskeleton of the body) is similar to Pseudomyrmex, a member of the subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae. Many of the features known in Nothomyrmecia are found in Ponerinae and Pseudomyrmecinae.

The eggs of Nothomyrmecia are similar to those of Myrmecia, being subspherical and non-adhesive. The larvae bear a primitive body structure with no specialised tubercles, sharing similar characteristics with the subfamily Ponerinae, but the sensilla are more abundant on the mouthparts. The larvae are characterised into three stages: very young, young, and mature, measuring 2.8 mm (0.1 in), 6.3 mm (0.2 in) and 11 mm (0.4 in), respectively. The cocoons have thin walls and produce meconium (a metabolic waste product expelled through the anal opening after an insect emerges from its pupal stage). The cuticular hydrocarbons have internally branched alkenes, a feature rarely found in ants and most insects.

In general, the body structure of all Nothomyrmecia castes demonstrates the primitive nature of the species. Notable derived features include vestigial ocelli on workers, brachypterous queens, and the mesoscutal structure on males. The morphology of the abdomen, mandibles, gonoforceps (a sclerite, serving as the base of the ovipositors sheath) and basal hamuli show it is more primitive than Myrmecia. The structure of the abdominal region can separate it from other Myrmeciinae relatives (the fourth abdominal segment of Myrmecia is tubulate, whereas Nothomyrmecia has a non-tubulated abdominal segment). The appearance of the fourth abdominal segment is consistent with almost all aculeate insects, and possibly Sphecomyrma.

The feature of non-functional, vestigial wings may have evolved in this species relatively recently, as wings might otherwise have long-since disappeared completely had they no function for dispersal. Wing-reduction could somehow relate to population structure or some other specialised ecological pressure. Equally, wing-reduction might be a feature that only forms in drought-stressed colonies, as has been observed in several Monomorium ant species found throughout semi-arid regions of Australia. As yet, scientists do not fully understand how the feature of non-functional, vestigial wings arose in Nothomyrmecia macrops.

## Taxonomy

### Discovery

The first collection of Nothomyrmecia was made in December 1931 by amateur entomologist, Amy Crocker, whose colleagues had collected a range of insect samples for her during a field excursion, including specimens of two worker ants, reportedly near the Russell Range, inland from Israelite Bay in Western Australia. Crocker then passed the ants to Australian entomologist John S. Clark. Recognised shortly afterwards as a new species, these specimens became the syntypes. Entomologist Robert W. Taylor subsequently expressed doubt about the accuracy of recording of the original discovery site, stating the specimens were probably collected from the western end of the Great Australian Bight, south from Balladonia. The discovery of Nothomyrmecia and the appearance of its unique body structure led scientists in 1951 to initiate a series of searches to find the ant in Western Australia. Over three decades, teams of Australian and American collectors failed to re-find it; entomologists such as E. O. Wilson and William Brown, Jr., made attempts to search for it, but neither was successful. Then, on 22 October 1977, Taylor and his party of entomologists from Canberra serendipitously discovered a solitary worker ant at Poochera, South Australia, southeast of Ceduna, some 1,300 km (810 mi) from the reported site of the 1931 discovery. In 2012, a report discussing the possible presence of Nothomyrmecia in Western Australia did not confirm any sighting of the ant between Balladonia and the Western Australian coastal regions. After 46 years of searching for it, entomologists have dubbed the ant the 'Holy Grail' of myrmecology.

### Naming

In 1934 entomologist John S. Clark published a formal description of Nothomyrmecia macrops as a new species and within a completely new genus and tribe (Nothomyrmecii) of the Ponerinae. He did so because the two specimens (which then became the syntypes) bore no resemblance to any ant species he knew of, but they did share similar morphological characteristics with the extinct genus Prionomyrmex. Clark notes that the head and mandibles of Nothomyrmecia and Prionomyrmex are somewhat similar, but the two can be distinguished by the appearance of the node (a segment between the mesosoma and gaster). In 1951, Clark proposed the new ant subfamily Nothomyrmeciinae for his Nothomyrmecia, based on morphological differences with other ponerine ants. This proposal was rejected by American entomologist William Brown Jr., who placed it in the subfamily Myrmeciinae with Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex, under the tribe Nothomyrmeciini. Its distant relationship with extant ants was confirmed after its rediscovery, and its placement within the Formicidae was accepted by most scientists until the late 1980s. The single waist node led scientists to believe that Nothomyrmecia should be separate from Myrmecia and retained Clark's original proposal. This proposal would place the ant into its own subfamily, despite many familiar morphological characteristics between the two genera. This separation from Myrmecia was retained until 2000.

In 2000, entomologist Cesare Baroni Urbani described a new Baltic fossil Prionomyrmex species (P. janzeni). After examining specimens of Nothomyrmecia, Baroni Urbani stated that his new species and N. macrops were so morphologically similar that they belonged to the same genus. He proposed that the name Prionomyrmex should replace the name Nothomyrmecia (which would then be just a synonym), and also that the subfamily Nothomyrmeciinae should be called Prionomyrmeciinae.

In 2003, Russian palaeoentomologists G. M. Dlussky and E. B. Perfilieva separated Nothomyrmecia from Prionomyrmex on the basis of the fusion of an abdominal segment. In the same year, American entomologists P. S. Ward and S. G. Brady reached the same conclusion as Dlussky and Perfilieva and provided strong support for the monophyly of Prionomyrmex. Ward and Brady also transferred both taxa as distinct genera in the older subfamily Myrmeciinae under the tribe Prionomyrmecini. In 2005 and 2008, Baroni Urbani suggested further evidence in favour of his former interpretation as opposed to Ward and Brady's. This view is not supported in subsequent relevant papers, which continue to use the classification of Ward and Brady, rejecting that of Baroni Urbani.

The ant is commonly known as the dinosaur ant, dawn ant, or living fossil ant because of its plesiomorphic body structure. The generic name Nothomyrmecia means "false bulldog ant". Its specific epithet, macrops ("big eyes"), is derived from the Greek words makros, meaning "long", or "large", and ops, meaning "eyes".

### Genetics and phylogeny

Studies show that all hymenopteran insects that have a diploid (2n) chromosome count above 52 are themselves all ants; Nothomyrmecia and another Ponerinae ant, Platythyrea tricuspidata, share the highest number of chromosomes within all the Hymenoptera, having a diploid chromosome number of 92–94.

Genetic evidence suggests that the age of the most recent common ancestor for Nothomyrmecia and Myrmecia is approximately 74 million years old, giving a likely origin in the Cretaceous. There are two hypotheses of the internal phylogeny of Nothomyrmecia: subfamily Formicinae is more closely related to Nothomyrmecia than it is to Myrmecia, evolving from Nothomyrmecia-like ancestors. Alternatively, Nothomyrmecia and Aneuretinae may have shared a common ancestor; the two most likely separated from each other, and the first formicines evolved from the Aneuretinae instead. Currently, scientists agree that Nothomyrmecia most likely evolved from ancestors to the Ponerinae. Nothomyrmecia and other primitive ant genera such as Amblyopone and Myrmecia exhibit behaviour similar to a clade of soil-dwelling families of vespoid wasps. The following cladogram generated by Canadian entomologist S. B. Archibald and his colleagues shows the possible phylogenetic position of Nothomyrmecia among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae. They suggest that Nothomyrmecia may be closely related to extinct Myrmeciinae ants such as Avitomyrmex, Macabeemyrma, Prionomyrmex, and Ypresiomyrma.

## Distribution and habitat

Nothomyrmecia is present in the cool regions of South Australia within mallee woodland and especially old-growth areas populated with various Eucalyptus species, including Eucalyptus brachycalyx, E. gracilis and E. oleosa. It is possible that it also occurs in Western Australia, from where it was first collected. The full distribution of Nothomyrmecia has never been assessed, and it is unknown how widespread it really is. If it does favour old-growth mallee woodland, it could have the potential for a wider range than is currently known from surveys and museum specimens. In 1998, Nothomyrmecia colonies were located in 18 areas along the Eyre Peninsula by a team of entomologists, a stretch of 400 km (250 mi).

Nests are found in degraded limestone soil with Callitris trees present. Colony construction only occurs when the soil is moist. Nest entrance holes are difficult to detect as they are only 4–6 mm (0.16–0.24 in) in width, and are located under shallow leaf litter with no mounds or soil deposits present; guards are regularly seen. A single gallery, 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) in diameter, forms inside a Nothomyrmecia colony. This gallery descends steeply into the ground towards a somewhat elliptical and horizontal chamber that is 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) in diameter and 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) in height. This chamber is typically 18 to 43 cm (7.1 to 16.9 in) below the soil's surface.

## Behaviour and ecology

### Foraging, diet and predators

Workers are nectarivores and can be found foraging on top of Eucalyptus trees, where they search for food and prey for the larvae. Workers are known to consume hemolymph from the insects they capture, and a queen in a captive colony was observed consuming a fly. Captured prey items are given to larvae, which are carnivorous. The workers search for prey in piles of leaves, killing small arthropods including Drosophila flies, microlepidopterans and spiderlings. Prey items are usually less than 4 mm (0.2 in) in size, and workers grab them using their mandibles and forelegs, then kill them with their sting. Workers also feed on sweet substances such as honeydew secreted by scale insects and other Hemiptera; one worker alone may feed on these sources for 30 minutes. Pupae may be given to the larvae if a colony has a shortage of food. Workers are able to lay unfertilised eggs specifically to feed the larvae; these are known as trophic eggs. Sometimes the adults, including the queen and other sexually active ants, consume these eggs. Workers transfer food via Trophallaxis to other nestmates, including winged adults and larvae; the anal droplets are exuded by the larvae, which are taken up by the workers.

Age caste polyethism does not occur in Nothomyrmecia, where the younger workers act as nurses and tend to the brood and the older workers go out and forage. The only ant known other than Nothomyrmecia which does not exhibit age caste polyethism is Stigmatomma pallipes. Workers are strictly nocturnal, and only emerge from their nests on cold nights. They are most active at temperatures of 5–10 °C (41–50 °F), and are much more difficult to locate on warmer nights. Workers are possibly most active when it is cold because at these times they encounter fewer and less aggressive competitors, including other more dominant diurnal ant species that are sometimes found foraging during warm nights. Cold temperatures may also hamper the escape of prey items, so increasing the ants' hunting success. Unless a forager has captured prey, workers stay on trees for the remainder of the night until dawn, possibly relying on sunlight to navigate back to their nest. There is no evidence that they use chemical trails when foraging; instead, workers rely on visual cues to navigate around. Chemical markers may play an important role in recognising nest entrances. The ants are solitary foragers. Waste material, such as dead nestmates, cocoon shells, and food remnants, are disposed of far away from the nest.

Workers from different Nothomyrmecia colonies are not antagonistic towards one another, so they can forage together on a single tree, and they attack if an outsider tries to enter an underground colony. Ants such as Camponotus and Iridomyrmex may pose a threat to foragers or to a colony if they try to enter; foraging workers that encounter Iridomyrmex ants are vigorously attacked and killed. Nothomyrmecia workers counter this by secreting alarm pheromones from the mandibular gland and Dufour's gland. Foraging workers also engage in alternative methods to protect themselves from predators. Adopting a posture by opening the jaws in a threatening stance or deliberately falling onto the ground and remaining motionless until the threat subsides are two known methods. With that said, Nothomyrmecia is a timid and shy species that retreats if exposed.

### Life cycle and reproduction

Nuptial flight (meaning that virgin queens and males emerge to mate) does not occur in Nothomyrmecia. Instead, they engage in long-range dispersal (they walk away from the colony for some distance and mate) which presumably begins by late summer or autumn, with the winged adults emerging around March and April, but sometimes a colony may overwinter (a process by which an organism waits out the winter season). These winged adults, born around January, are usually quite young when they begin to mate. Queens are seen around vegetation trying to flutter their vestigial wings – a behaviour seen in some brachypterous Myrmecia queens. Due to the queen's brachypterous wings, it is likely that the winged adults mate near their parent nest and release sex pheromones, or instead climb on vegetation far away from their nests and attract fully winged males. Nothomyrmecia is a polyandrous ant, in which queens mate with one or more males. In one study of 32 colonies, it was found that queens mated with an average of 1.37 males. After mating, new colonies can be founded by one or more queens; a colony with two queens reduces to a single queen when the nest is mature, forming colonies that are termed monogynous. The queens will compete for dominance, and the subordinate queen is later expelled by workers who drag her outside the nest. An existing nest with no queen may adopt a foraging queen looking for an area to begin her colony, as well as workers. Queens are semi-claustral, meaning that during the initial establishment of the new colony the queen will forage among the worker ants so that she can ensure sufficient food to raise her brood. Sometimes a queen will leave her nest at night with the sole purpose of finding food or water for herself.

Eggs are not seen in nests from April to September. They are laid by late December and develop into adults by mid-February; pupation does not occur until March. Nothomyrmecia is univoltine, meaning that the queen produces a single generation of eggs per season, and it sometimes may take as many as 12 months for an egg to develop into an adult. Adults are defined as either juveniles or post-juveniles: juveniles are too young (perhaps several months old) to have experienced overwintering whereas post-juveniles have. The pupae generally overwinter and begin to hatch by the time a new generation of eggs is laid. Workers are capable of laying reproductive eggs; it is not known if these develop into males, females or both. This uncertainty results from the suggestion that, because some colonies have been shown to have high levels of genetic diversity, worker ants could be inseminated by males and act as supplementary reproductives. Eggs are scattered among the nest, whereas the larvae and pupae are set apart from each other in groups. The larvae are capable of crawling around the nest. When the larvae are ready to spin their cocoons, they swell up and are later buried by workers in the ground to allow cocoon formation. Small non-aggressive workers that act as nurses provide assistance for newborns to hatch from their cocoons. At maturity, a nest may only contain 50 to 100 adults. In some nests, colony founding can occur within a colony itself: when a queen dies, the colony may be taken over by one of her daughters, or it may adopt a newly mated queen, restricting reproduction among workers; this method of founding extends the lifespan of the colony almost indefinitely.

## Relationship with humans

### Conservation

Before its rediscovery in 1977, entomologists feared that Nothomyrmecia had already become extinct. The ant was listed as a protected species under the Western Australian Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. In 1996, the International Union for Conservation of Nature listed Nothomyrmecia as Critically Endangered, stating that only a few small colonies were known. The Threatened Species Scientific Committee states that the species is ineligible for listing under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. This is because there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that populations are declining. Colonies are also naturally depauperate (lacking in numbers of ants), and their distribution is potentially quite extensive across southern Australia, due to the ants' preference for old-growth mallee woodland. With 18 sites known for this species, and the potential for many more being discovered, there seems little immediate possibility of extinction. With this said, it is unknown how widespread the species actually is, and scientists are not yet clear what, if any, threats affect it.

Suspected anthropogenic threats that can significantly affect Nothomyrmecia include habitat destruction and fragmentation by railway lines, roads and wheat fields. In the town of Ceduna, west of Poochera, local populations of the ant were almost eliminated after the area was bulldozed and burned during the installation of an underground telephone line, although nearby sites had larger populations than those found in the destroyed site. Colonies may not survive tree-clearing, as they depend on overhead canopies to navigate. Bushfires are another major threat to the survival of Nothomyrmecia, potentially destroying valuable food sources, including the trees they forage on, and reducing the population of a colony. These ants may have recovered from previous bushfires, but larger, more frequent fires may devastate the population. Nothomyrmecia ants can be safe from fires if they remain inside their nests. Climate change could be a threat to their survival, as they depend on cold temperatures to forage and collect food. An increase in the temperature will prevent workers from foraging, and very few areas would be suitable for the species to live in. The cold winds blowing off the Southern Ocean allow Nothomyrmecia to benefit from the cool temperatures they need for night-time foraging, so an increase in sea temperature could also potentially threaten it.

Conservationists suggest that conducting surveys, maintaining known populations through habitat protection and fighting climate change may ensure the survival of Nothomyrmecia. They also advocate protection of remaining mallee habitat from degradation, and for management actions to improve tree and understorey structure. Because most known populations are found outside protected areas in vegetation alongside roads, a species management plan is required to identify other key actions, including making local councils aware of the presence, conservation status and habitat requirement of Nothomyrmecia. This could result in future land use and management being decided more appropriately at the local level. Not all colonies are found in unprotected areas; some have been discovered in the Lake Gilles Conservation Park and the Chadinga Conservation Reserve. More research is needed to know the true extent of the ant's geographical distribution.

### Significance

Nothomyrmecia macrops is widely regarded as the most plesiomorphic living ant and, as such, has aroused considerable interest among the entomological community. Following its rediscovery it was the subject of a prolonged and rigorous series of studies involving Australian, American and European ant specialists and it soon became one of the most studied ant species on the planet. Nothomyrmecia can be cultured with ease, and could potentially prove a useful subject for research into learning in insects as well as the physiology of nocturnal vision. Since its chance discovery at Poochera, the town has become of international interest to myrmecologists, and it is possibly the only town in the world with ant-based tourism. Promoting it as a tourist attraction, Nothomyrmecia has been adopted as the emblem of the Poochera community. Pictures of the ant have been stencilled onto the pavements, and a large sculpture of Nothomyrmecia has been erected in the town.

Genus of ants