Battle of San Domingo

The Battle of San Domingo was a naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars fought on 6 February 1806 between squadrons of French and British ships of the line off the southern coast of the French-occupied Spanish colonial Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (San Domingo in contemporary British English) in the Caribbean.

All five of the French ships of the line commanded by Vice-Admiral Corentin-Urbain Leissègues were captured or destroyed. The Royal Navy led by Vice-Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth lost no ships and suffered fewer than a hundred killed while the French lost approximately 1,500 men. Only a small number of the French squadron were able to escape.

The battle of San Domingo was the last fleet engagement of the war between French and British capital ships in open water.

## Background

In late 1805, First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the Royal Navy blockade of the French Atlantic ports following the Trafalgar Campaign, in which the French Navy had lost 14 ships of the line. Barham believed that the French, having suffered such heavy losses, would be unable and unwilling to launch a major offensive in the Atlantic until after the winter. However, he had miscalculated the strength of the fleet at Brest, the principal French Atlantic seaport. The Brest fleet had not been engaged in the 1805 campaign and was therefore intact.

Taking advantage of the withdrawal of the British blockade, Emperor Napoleon ordered two squadrons to put to sea with orders to raid the British trade routes that crossed the Atlantic. These forces were to inflict as much economic damage to Britain as possible without engaging an equivalent British naval squadron and risking defeat and capture. The cruise was expected to last as long as 14 months, sustained by captured food supplies from British merchant ships. Sailing unopposed on 13 December 1805, the squadrons separated two days later in pursuit of British merchant convoys, one squadron steering for the South Atlantic under Contre-Admiral Jean-Baptiste Willaumez and the other, under Vice-Admiral Corentin-Urbain Leissègues, sailing for the Caribbean. The Admiralty in London did not discover that the French had sailed until 24 December, and the two squadrons they prepared in pursuit, under Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and Rear-Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, did not sail until January 1806, by which time the French had disappeared into the Atlantic.

There was however one British squadron that had maintained contact with the French: since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805, the Admiralty had stationed a squadron under Vice-Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth off Cadiz to watch the remnants of the combined fleet. In November 1805, reports reached Duckworth of a French squadron operating against British convoys off the Savage Islands between Madeira and the Canary Islands. This squadron, which belonged to Contre-Admiral Zacharie Allemand, had left France in July 1805. Immediately sailing to investigate, Duckworth abandoned Cadiz, leaving just two frigates to watch the Allied fleet at anchor. Passing the Savage and Canary Islands, Duckworth continued to the Cape Verde Islands before conceding that the French had escaped him and turning northwards again. Allemand was already far to the north. He eventually returned to France without incident on 23 December.

### Duckworth's cruise

During his return journey to Cadiz, on 23 December Duckworth encountered HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane escorting a small group of merchant ships. Leissègues had intercepted, chased and dispersed Brisbane's convoy in the Bay of Biscay on 15 December, Brisbane retaining only the largest merchant ships to help cover the flight of the smaller vessels. Once he had escaped Leissègues' pursuit, Brisbane sailed in search of support at Cadiz, continuing southwards after realizing that Duckworth was not at his appointed station. Immediately setting a course that he believed would intercept Leissègues, Duckworth turned to the northwest and on 25 December discovered an enemy squadron approximately 200 nautical miles (370 km) northwest of the Canary Islands. Duckworth ordered his squadron to pursue, the chase lasting throughout the day and continuing into 26 December, by which time it had become clear that his quarry was not Allemand. In fact, Duckworth had discovered Willaumez's squadron. However, the French admiral ordered his ships to run before Duckworth rather than give battle. By 13:00 on 26 December, it seemed certain that the British flagship, HMS Superb, Captain Richard Goodwin Keats, would outstrip the rearmost French ship, when Duckworth suddenly called off the pursuit. He later claimed that he was concerned that the leading ships of his squadron would be overwhelmed by the concentrated French squadron before the stragglers, some of which were more than 45 nautical miles (83 km) behind Superb, could join the battle.

As Willaumez escaped into the South Atlantic, Duckworth ordered his squadron to sail for Barbados to resupply before making the long journey back to Cadiz. When he arrived on 12 January 1806, he ordered the frigate HMS Acasta to St. Kitts to arrange the required water supplies, and moved the squadron to an anchorage off Basseterre on 19 January. There two ships of the Leeward Islands squadron, HMS Northumberland and HMS Atlas, joined him. Northumberland was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Alexander Cochrane, commander of the station. Cochrane's arrival raised the number of admirals in the squadron to three, as Duckworth's second in command was Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis in HMS Canopus. Leissègues was also en route to the Caribbean, winter storms off the Azores having delayed him, separated Alexandre and Brave and inflicted damage on Jupiter and Diomède. Arriving at the French-held city of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola on 20 January, Leissègues disembarked over 1,000 soldiers as reinforcements for the garrison, and made hasty repairs as he awaited the arrival of his missing ships, which appeared on 29 January. During his time in the harbour, Leissègues moved ashore and gave orders for the ships to be recaulked following their Atlantic voyage, a difficult and time-consuming process.

On 1 February the small sloop HMS Kingfisher arrived at Basseterre with information that three French ships of the line had been sighted off Santo Domingo. Duckworth gave orders for the fleet to sail immediately. On 3 February the brig HMS Epervier joined him at St. Thomas and on 5 February the frigate HMS Magicienne under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined near the Mona Passage. Mackenzie was accompanied by a Danish schooner that had sailed from Santo Domingo a few days before, and whose crew were able to provide a detailed account of the French squadron's composition. Before the schooner had sailed, a number of French officers had commented on the risk involved in allowing the vessel to leave port, but the admiral had refused their demands that he burn the Danish ship. Duckworth was now confident that he outnumbered and outgunned Leissègues. During the night of 5 February the British squadron slowly approached Santo Domingo, Acasta and Magicienne scouting ahead of the main fleet.

## Battle

### Duckworth's attack

At 06:00 on 6 February Duckworth's scouts sighted the French, observing two frigates, five ships of the line and one large merchant ship anchored in line at the entrance to Santo Domingo. Leissègues had reportedly issued orders for the squadron to sail for Jamaica, even though several of the French ships were not yet ready for sea, and two frigates were already under sail when the British arrived. Leissègues was not aboard Impérial; he and a number of his officers were still conducting their business in the town and were therefore forced to join the squadron in small boats, which delayed the squadron. Several officers, possibly including Leissègues, did not reach their ships until after the engagement had begun. Recognising that his enemy was in a vulnerable position, Duckworth raised all sail in an effort to close with the French. Leissègues too recognised the danger his ships were in and ordered them to raise anchor and then to sail westwards along the coast in the direction of Nizao. Maintaining close formation, the French formed a line of battle, Captain Pierre-Elie Garreau in Alexandre leading, with Impérial, Diomède, Jupiter and Brave following. The frigates and corvette took a position between the battle line and the shore. Duckworth was concerned that there might be other French forces to the west. He therefore angled his line of attack to pass across the front of the French line and signaled to his squadron to direct their fire at the front three ships: Alexandre, Impérial and Diomède.

At 08:00 Duckworth's ships divided into two divisions, a westerly line to windward under Duckworth with Superb, Northumberland, HMS Spencer and HMS Agamemnon, and an eastern line under Louis with Canopus, HMS Donegal and Atlas. The British frigates were gathered in formation to the west of the British lines, awaiting orders to assist if required. Over the next two hours the British slowly closed with the French squadron, the British divisions breaking up as the faster ships outpaced the slower. Louis' squadron fell behind Duckworth's, while Agamemnon dropped behind the other three vessels in her division, which otherwise remained in a tight formation. A slight shift in the wind allowed Leissègues to adjust his direction to the southwest, but the close presence of the land restricted French movements. Keats and his crew having accompanied Nelson in the pursuit of Villeneuve to the West Indies were still lamenting having missed Trafalgar. Keats silently suspended a portrait of Nelson from the mizzen stay before addressing the men in a manner intended to encourage enthusiasm for the cause in the coming battle. With the band playing ‘God save the King’ and ‘Nelson of the Nile’ the Superb having made up all ground on the fleeing enemy fired her starboard broadside as she was laid up against the Imperiale, the largest ship in the French navy before the conflict became general. In a few minutes Northumberland was engaged with the Alexandre and Imperiale, quickly followed by the Spencer who made the Diomede her more immediate opponent.

Leissègues' flagship Impérial carried 120 guns to Northumberland's 74, but Cochrane engaged closely, rapidly supported by Spencer, which opened fire on Impérial and Diomède simultaneously. For 15 minutes the British continued to close, both squadrons sailing westwards along the coast with the wind. At 10:25, the damaged Alexandre suddenly swung out of the line in an attempt to drive between Spencer and Northumberland and rake them both. Captain Robert Stopford on Spencer responded rapidly, turning across Alexandre's bow and raking her, before pulling along the opposite side of Garreau's Alexandre and opening fire from close range. In the smoke and confusion neither Superb nor Northumberland noticed Spencer's move; both fired several shots into Spencer before they realized their mistake. With Spencer and Alexandre out of the way, Impérial was able to engage both of the leading British ships, threatening to overwhelm them. Cochrane moved to defend the flagship by pulling Northumberland between Impérial and Superb, suffering terrible damage but preserving Duckworth's ship intact. Impérial's fire was so heavy that several shot passed straight through Northumberland into Superb.

### Destruction of the French rear

As the combat raged at the head of the line, the remainder of both squadrons strained to join the battle. The British eastern division under Louis reached the battling Alexandre and Spencer at 10:35, the two ships locked together to the south of the main engagement. As they passed, Canopus, Donegal, and Atlas all raked the French ship, bringing down her masts and leaving her crippled. Canopus then steered directly towards the battle around Impérial, as Donegal and Atlas turned northwest to intercept Brave and Jupiter respectively. At 11:00, Spencer followed Canopus while Alexandre's crew were preoccupied with extinguishing a fire that had broken out on board. Alexandre was so badly damaged that she was unable to either escape or continue the action; she formally surrendered ten minutes later.

Captain Pulteney Malcolm on Donegal attacked Brave directly, firing his starboard guns and then crossing Brave's stern, inflicting severe damage with a raking broadside, before pulling alongside again and engaging from close range. Badly damaged, Brave surrendered. Malcolm then ordered Captain Richard Dunn in Acasta to take possession as Donegal moved forward to engage Jupiter. With Donegal alongside Jupiter, Captain Samuel Pym in Atlas abandoned his brief engagement with the French ship and steered for the melee surrounding the increasingly isolated Impérial. Taking advantage of his ship's superior speed, Malcolm pulled ahead of Jupiter and then rammed her bow, securing the ships together to prevent the French vessel from escaping. Recognising that further resistance was hopeless, Captain Gaspard Laignel surrendered immediately. Malcolm then sent 100 men on board as a prize crew and attached a towline to the French ship, just as the trailing Agamemnon finally reached the battle.

### Leissègues drives ashore

Under the shroud of heavy smoke that confused the positions and identities of the ships at the head of the line, manoeuvering became hazardous: Atlas fired two broadsides into Impérial as she arrived and then raked the French flagship before her tiller jammed just as Diomède loomed out the smoke. Receiving a heavy broadside from the French ship, Atlas subsequently collided with Canopus as she too appeared immediately ahead, tearing off her bowsprit in the collision. Turning back into the battle, Atlas engaged Diomède at close range as the rest of the British squadron concentrated their fire on the beleaguered Impérial, with the exception of the damaged Northumberland, which was drifting out of the line.

With his main and mizzen masts collapsed and escape impossible, Leissègues turned his ship towards the shore at 11:30, outdistancing the fire from the drifting Northumberland and leaving Superb behind, Duckworth reluctant to risk his ship in the shallow coastal shoals. Canopus maintained the pressure, pursuing the French flagship until it was clear at 11:40 that Impérial was hard aground on a coral reef, less than a mile from the beach. Diomède, under attack by Atlas and the recently returned Spencer, followed Impérial ashore. As they struck the reef, both French ships lost their remaining masts and suffered severe damage to their hulls. Their crews then gathered on deck and made preparations to abandon ship as the British squadron pulled back out of range of fire from the shore. During the engagement the French frigates and corvette had all slipped between the battling squadrons and the shoreline and escaped to the westwards. The British frigates were too preoccupied with boarding and towing prizes to initiate a chase.

### Destruction of Impérial and Diomède

As Duckworth gathered his squadron, Northumberland's mainmast collapsed across the deck, causing severe damage to the ship's fittings. Although Cochrane's flagship was the most severely damaged of the squadron, all had suffered to a degree: Superb's men counted 60 shot holes while Atlas was out of control and Donegal had lost one of her topmasts. Casualties were also distributed throughout the fleet, with Northumberland and Spencer suffering the worst and Atlas the least except for the barely engaged Agamemnon. Total losses were 74 killed and 264 wounded and several ships were damaged, but Duckworth was rapidly able to effect repairs as his ships remained on station to observe the situation ashore.

Impérial and Diomède had both run aground between Nizao and Point Catalan, their hulls broadside to the beach and their bottoms stove in by the reefs that lay offshore. Using the remaining ship's boats and with assistance from the shore, the wounded and survivors were ferried to the beach. These operations continued uninterrupted until 8 February, when Duckworth sent boats from Acasta and Magicienne to the wrecks. Boarding unopposed, the boat parties removed the remaining French crewmen as prisoners and set both ships on fire to deny their potential use to the French, although Leissègues had in fact already issued orders for them to be burnt once the last men had been evacuated. Her captain, Jean-Baptiste Henry, was among the 150 prisoners the British took from Diomède. By contrast, the British found only six men still aboard Impérial, none of them officers. French casualties in the engagement were very heavy, with over 500 men estimated to have been killed or wounded on Impérial alone and over 1,000 additional casualties shared among the rest of the fleet. Jupiter had not been severely damaged in the engagement and Brave, although damaged in the hull, was in a sailing condition. Both ships had surrendered early in the engagement after losing their captains killed or wounded, in the initial exchanges. Alexandre, by contrast, was a shattered wreck. Her British prize crew only just prevented the gaping holes smashed in her hull from sinking her.

Duckworth was fortunate to have with him captains on the Superb, Canopus, Spencer, and Donegal who had all been part of Nelson's Mediterranean fleet and who worked instinctively together, feeling no need to wait for any direction from the Admiral - for little was forthcoming.

Duckworth remained at anchor off Santo Domingo for several more days until his entire squadron and their prizes were ready for the voyage to Jamaica, sending Commander Nathaniel Day Cochrane to Britain in Kingfisher with the official despatches. Admiral Cochrane separated from the fleet on the day of departure and Northumberland and Agamemnon sailed for Barbados in case other French forces should appear in the Leeward Islands while the main fleet was repairing at Jamaica. Duckworth was received at Jamaica with "rapturous acknowledgments" and his prizes were refitted for the journey back to Britain. In the event, Brave foundered off the Azores with the loss of three men, and Alexandre was too badly damaged for further service, being broken up on arrival. Only Jupiter, renamed HMS Maida after the recent French defeat at the battle of Maida in Italy, had any continued career in the Royal Navy. The only surviving French ships, the frigates Comète and Félicité, and the corvette Diligente all returned to France without incident over the following months.

## Aftermath

The victory, just four months after the success at Trafalgar, was celebrated in Britain and across the Empire, particularly in the Caribbean. Mere rumours of Leissègues' presence had stifled trade and caused panic among the merchant houses of the West Indies and Duckworth's victory helped to restore confidence in commercial ocean travel once more. In Britain both the House of Commons and the House of Lords voted their thanks to the entire squadron when Duckworth's account of the action was read out, the motions led by Lord Grenville and Charles Grey, who both made expansive speeches in praise of Duckworth. Head money, a bounty on enemy servicemen killed, wounded or captured, was paid for 4,268 men, even though records showed that the French fleet carried significantly fewer men than that. Additional prize money was paid for the captured Jupiter and awards of money, ceremonial plate and ornate swords were made by patriotic societies and Lloyd's of London insurers. Admiral Louis was made a baronet and Cochrane a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath, while a number of promotions were distributed among the first lieutenants. Duckworth, however, received nothing beyond his share of the general rewards. Vice-Admiral Lord Collingwood, commander in chief of the Mediterranean, was furious that Duckworth had deserted his post off Cadiz, failed to bring Willaumez to battle in December and then sailed for the West Indies to resupply rather than returning to the Spanish coast. Historians William James and William Laird Clowes both considered that if Duckworth had not defeated Leissègues he would probably have faced a court martial. Duckworth's absence forced Collingwood to divert some of his own ships to the Cadiz blockade. The force provided still proved inadequate – on 26 February a French frigate squadron broke out of the port and escaped to Rochefort. Collingwood's influence was enough to block additional rewards to Duckworth, who subsequently returned to the Mediterranean and in 1807 commanded the fleet at the ineffectual Dardanelles Operation. Over four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal, awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847.

In France, the government press misrepresented the battle. Le Moniteur Universel published a report purportedly written by Captain Raymond Cocault of the corvette Diligente. The report began by inaccurately claiming that the British squadron consisted of nine ships of the line. The report concluded with the information that two British ships had been destroyed on the San Domingo coast alongside three French and that two others had been dismasted and were badly damaged. The official French report, written by Leissègues but not published in France, contradicted this version of events. Leissègues stated that Cocault, with the other smaller warships, had made all sail to the westwards at the start of the engagement and that by the time the flagship drove ashore, Diligente was already out of sight. Leissègues remained on Santo Domingo for some time, but had returned to Europe by the time the colony fell to a joint British and Spanish force in July 1809. He later received a regional command in the Ionian Sea and took part in the Adriatic campaign.

The Atlantic campaign continued throughout the spring and summer. Willaumez was able to avoid the British squadrons searching for him by remaining deep in the South Atlantic. However, on 13 March 1806 the British under Warren intercepted and defeated an unrelated French squadron under Contre-Admiral Charles-Alexandre Durand Linois while he was returning from the Indian Ocean. Eventually forced north in search of additional food supplies, Willaumez entered the Caribbean, where he hoped to intercept the Jamaica convoy to Britain. The disobedience of one of his own captains foiled Willaumez's plan and he ordered his squadron to its final cruising ground, off Newfoundland. On 18 August 1806, while it was deep in the Central Atlantic, a ferocious hurricane caught the squadron and scattered it. Willaumez eventually found shelter in Havana; a number of his ships reached ports in the United States, some too badly damaged to ever sail again. Only four of the 11 ships of the line that left Brest in December 1805 ever returned to France. San Domingo was the last fleet battle of the Wars to be fought in open water; the only subsequent engagement between fleets was the Battle of Basque Roads, fought in the narrow, shallow waters at the mouth of the river Charente.

1806 naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars

Naval battles involving the United Kingdom


Ambassador Theatre (New York City)

The Ambassador Theatre is a Broadway theater at 219 West 49th Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Opened in 1921, the Ambassador Theatre was designed by Herbert J. Krapp and was constructed for the Shubert brothers. It has 1,125 seats across two levels and is operated by The Shubert Organization. The auditorium interior is a New York City designated landmark.

The theater is oriented on a diagonal axis, maximizing seating capacity on its small site of 100 by 100 feet (30 by 30 m). The facade is largely made of golden brick and is simple in design. The most prominent part of the facade is a curved entrance at the southeast corner, facing Broadway, where a lobby leads to the rear of the theater's orchestra level. The auditorium contains Adam-style detailing, a large balcony, and box seats with decorated arches above them. The auditorium contains a segmental proscenium arch topped by a curved sounding board.

The Shuberts developed the Ambassador, along with the neighboring O'Neill and Walter Kerr theaters, after World War I as part of a theatrical complex around 48th and 49th Streets. The Ambassador opened on February 11, 1921, with the musical The Rose Girl. The Shuberts sold the property in 1935, and it was intermittently used as a CBS broadcast studio, a movie theater, and for live theater until 1945. The Ambassador then hosted foreign films in the late 1940s and was a studio for the DuMont Television Network in the early 1950s. In 1956, the Shuberts assumed ownership again, returning it to use as a live theater. Though many of the Ambassador's productions in the 20th century were short runs, it has hosted since 2003 the musical Chicago, the second-longest-running Broadway show as of 2021.

## Site

The Ambassador Theatre is on 219 West 49th Street, on the north sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Broadway, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The square land lot covers 10,050 square feet (934 m2), with a frontage of 100 feet (30 m) on 49th Street and a depth of 100 feet. The Ambassador shares the block with the St. Malachy Roman Catholic Church to the west, The Theater Center to the northeast, and the Brill Building to the east. Other nearby buildings include Paramount Plaza (including Circle in the Square Theatre and the Gershwin Theatre) to the north; the Winter Garden Theatre to the northeast; the Crowne Plaza Times Square Manhattan hotel to the southeast; the Eugene O'Neill Theatre and Walter Kerr Theatre to the south; and One Worldwide Plaza to the west.

## Design

The Ambassador Theatre was designed by Herbert J. Krapp and was constructed in 1921 for the Shubert brothers. It is part of a group of six theaters planned by the Shuberts after World War I, of which four were built. Theatrical historian Ken Bloom wrote of the Ambassador in 2007: "Broadway historians blame the Ambassador's relatively lackluster career to the extreme width of the theater due to its odd placement on the lot and its relatively bland facade." Nevertheless, as of 2021, the theater has hosted the musical Chicago since 2003. The Ambassador is operated by the Shubert Organization.

### Facade

The theater is shorter than its width. At ground level, the facade contains a water table made of stone. The rest of the facade has gold-beige brick, which is laid in a diaper pattern. The facade is simple in design, especially when compared with Krapp's other works for the Shubert family. The Ambassador and Ritz (now Walter Kerr) theaters, in particular, were designed in patterned brick, with the only ornamentation being in the arrangement of the brick. This sparse ornamentation may be attributed to the lack of money in the years after World War I.

Similar to Krapp's earlier Broadhurst and Plymouth theaters, the Ambassador Theatre has a curved corner at the eastern portion of the facade, facing Broadway. This corner contains the main entrance, which is through a set of metal-and-glass doors. The center section of the facade has display boxes, and the western section has three pairs of wood-and-glass doors with segmental arches above them. A marquee hangs above the first floor. The main section of the facade is decorated in a diaper pattern and lacks window openings (some windows are infilled at the second floor near the corner). There are also blind arches on the second and third stories.

A molding with corbels forms a fake cornice above the third floor. The fourth floor contains windows within brick openings. There is a parapet above the fourth floor, which wraps around the eastern corner. The western facade is plain brick with a fire escape.

### Auditorium

The auditorium has an orchestra level, one balcony, boxes, and a stage behind the proscenium arch. According to the Shubert Organization, the auditorium has 1,114 seats; meanwhile, Playbill cites 1,080 seats and The Broadway League cites 1,125 seats. The physical seats are divided into 573 seats in the orchestra (including 41 in the orchestra pit), 264 at the front of the balcony, 250 at the rear of the balcony, and 8 in the boxes. There are also 19 standing-room only spots.

The auditorium was originally decorated with solid gold leaf. The color scheme was initially in gold and red, similar to that of the Shubert Theatre. Due to the small site dimensions, the auditorium is oriented on a diagonal axis to increase seating capacity, with the stage to the northwest and the lobby to the southeast. The diagonal plan could fit 1,300 seats, but a typical layout, where the proscenium and the stage were parallel to the street, could only net 900 seats. The side walls of the auditorium are significantly curved, and the auditorium has a roughly hexagonal layout. The diagonal arrangement allowed the northeast and southwest corners to be used for other rooms such as lounges.

#### Seating areas

The auditorium's outer walls are non-bearing walls, with the weight of the balcony resting on columns. A vestibule was placed between the ticket lobby and auditorium to reduce drafty air from outdoors. The rear of the orchestra contains doors from the ticket lobby. Additional doors to the orchestra are placed along the side walls at the front, near the boxes. Coatrooms were placed next to the side entrances. The orchestra floor is raked, sloping down toward the stage. A promenade wraps around the orchestra's rear and sides. The rear of the orchestra has a standing rail made of marble, separating the promenade from the rear rows of seats. There are also paneled-marble walls, which curve around to the sides. A cornice with swags runs above the orchestra wall. There are stairways up to the balcony with marble walls.

The balcony level is divided into front and rear sections by an aisle halfway across its depth. The walls of the balcony level are angled sideways to accommodate the theater's shape. The side walls (near the boxes) are decorated in the Adam style, with fan shapes inside arches, which in turn are augmented by motifs such as swags. The rear walls and the balcony's underside contain plasterwork paneling. The balcony's front rail contains Adam-style paneling and lights. A smoking room and a mezzanine room adjoined the balcony level.

On either side of the proscenium is a wall section with two boxes at balcony level; the box nearer the stage is curved outward. The boxes' wall sections are flanked by paneling and two pilasters on either side. Paneled walls exist at the orchestra level, where the former boxes there have been removed. The fronts of each box contain paneling with Adam-style medallions. A segmental arch rises above the boxes, with Adam-style panels on either side of the arch, above the pilasters. A frieze and a cornice with modillions runs above the boxes.

#### Other design features

The auditorium contains a segmental proscenium arch. The proscenium measures 44 feet 11 inches (13.69 m) wide and 25 feet 3 inches (7.70 m) high. Two pilasters are placed on either side, while the top of the proscenium has a frieze and cornice, which are continuations of those above the boxes. The sounding board curves onto the ceiling above the proscenium arch and is decorated with grilles and Adam-style panels. The ceiling contains a shallow oval dome at the center, with a chandelier hanging from the dome and Adam-style grotesques inside. The rear of the ceiling contains a partial dome with motifs of fans. The ceiling is otherwise divided into coffered sections with Adam-style reliefs. A frieze and a cornice run just below the ceiling. The depth of the auditorium to the proscenium is 28 feet 4 inches (8.64 m), while the depth to the front of the stage is 31 feet 2 inches (9.50 m).

## History

Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. During the 1900s and 1910s, many theaters in Midtown Manhattan were developed by the Shubert brothers, one of the major theatrical syndicates of the time. The Shuberts originated from Syracuse, New York, and expanded downstate into New York City in the first decade of the 20th century. The brothers controlled a quarter of all plays and three-quarters of theatrical ticket sales in the U.S. by 1925. After World War I, the Shuberts contemplated the construction of six theaters along 48th and 49th Streets, just north of Times Square. Of these, only four were built, and only three (the Ambassador, O'Neill, and Kerr) survive.

### Original Broadway run

The Shuberts announced plans for their six new theaters in September 1920. The Ambassador, announced that November, was the first new theater that the Shuberts planned to build along 48th and 49th Streets. The Shuberts held a 21-year lease on the theater that extended from August 1919 to August 1940. The brothers believed that the 49th Street site could be as profitable as theaters on 42nd Street, which historically was Times Square's legitimate theatrical hub. The Shuberts built the Ambassador Theatre in 82 days, then a record for theatrical construction. The musical comedy The Rose Girl was announced in January 1921 as the Ambassador's first production, and the theater opened on February 11 with The Rose Girl. Biff, Bang, Bang! was staged that May, followed later the same year by the theater's first true hit: the operetta Blossom Time, which ran for 516 performances.

Generally, the Ambassador largely hosted operettas during the early 1920s, and many of its early productions were not successful. Its initial operettas included Al Goodman and Sigmund Romberg's The Lady in Ermine in 1922, as well as an American version of Eduard Künneke's Caroline the next year featuring Tessa Kosta. The operetta The Dream Girl opened in 1924 with music by Victor Herbert, who had died several months previously. This was followed by a revival of the drama Candida in 1925, as well as William A. Brady and Owen Davis's adaptation of the novel The Great Gatsby in 1926. Laurence Schwab and Frank Mandel signed a two-year lease for the Ambassador in June 1926, with plans to renovate the theater and stage their own plays inside. Subsequently, Queen High ran for 367 performances after its opening in September 1926, and Bartlett Cormack staged The Racket late the next year.

Most of the Ambassador's productions in the late 1920s were flops, revivals, or transfers from other theaters. Among the shows that transferred were the play Little Accident in 1929, as well as Street Scene later the same year. The following decade started with another transfer, the long-running prison drama The Last Mile, in 1930; Blossom Time was revived for a brief run the next year. The theater then showed vaudeville with the premiere of Chamberlain Brown's Scrap Book in 1932. The Ambassador's next hit was Ayn Rand's Night of January 16th, which opened in September 1935. The same year, the Shuberts placed the theater for sale; at the time, they still held a lease on the theater. The new owners insisted on staging only drama, which resulted in many flops in the late 1930s. One exception to this trend was the Abbey Theatre, which staged several plays in repertory during the 1937 season,

### Intermittent theatrical use, playhouse

In December 1938, the Theatrical Realty Corporation, headed by Lee Shubert, leased the Ambassador Theatre to the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) for use as a broadcasting studio. CBS enlarged the Ambassador's stage and used it to broadcast orchestra performances in early 1939. Later that year, the 1939 version of The Straw Hat Revue was presented at the Ambassador, while the theater was still being used as a radio broadcast studio. The Shuberts gave up their lease on the theater in September 1940, and the James P. Knight estate took over. That December, the Knights leased the Ambassador to Cummins Pictures Inc. for films. The New York Grand Opera Company performed at the theater in September 1941, and the Ambassador was leased to real-estate operator Irving Maidman two months later. The Ambassador returned to showing legitimate productions that November with Cuckoos on the Hearth, which transferred from the Mansfield Theatre.

Central Hanover Bank & Trust acquired the Ambassador in January 1942 and resold it to J. Arthur Fischer that June in an all-cash transaction. The burlesque revue Wine, Women and Song opened at the theater that September. However, the revue was closed three months later because it was "indecent", namely violating ordinances against obscenities; under the orders of the mayoral administration of Fiorello La Guardia, the Ambassador lost its license to operate as a legitimate theater. The Ambassador's theatrical license was restored in August 1943, just before the opening of a third and final revival of Blossom Time, which ran only 47 performances. This was followed by a set of Gilbert and Sullivan plays in early 1944, as well as transfers of Decision and School For Brides the same year.

The Ambassador was leased to Joseph and Sam Siritzky in August 1945 for film screenings. The Siritzkys' lease was to run for at least five years, with options for extensions. The Ambassador was used as a movie house and as a radio and television studio for the next 11 years. The operators instituted a policy of screening foreign films in November 1946, starting with the French film Carmen. For the next three years, the theater was used exclusively for screening foreign films. The Siritzkys suspended their operations at the Ambassador in mid-1950 and departed to France. That August, DuMont Television Network signed a five-year lease for the Ambassador and immediately began remodeling it for use as a broadcast studio. The wooden stage was resurfaced with a smooth finish of magnesium chloride, and a partitioned control room was added. DuMont opened its studio in September 1950 and used the Ambassador for telecasting.

### Broadway revival

#### 1950s to 1970s

In July 1956, the Shuberts announced that they would restore the Ambassador to legitimate-theater use. The comedy The Loud Red Patrick, which opened that October, was the first production at the reopened theater. Generally, the productions of the revived Ambassador were no more successful than those that were staged in the theater's original Broadway run. In 1957, the Ambassador hosted Eugenia with Tallulah Bankhead; a transfer of the long-running The Diary of Anne Frank; and the murder drama Compulsion with Dean Stockwell, Roddy McDowall, and Ina Balin. This was followed in 1958 by a limited run of Back to Methuselah with Faye Emerson and Tyrone Power, as well as Comes a Day with Judith Anderson and George C. Scott (the latter in his Broadway debut). The next year, Jean Dixon, Melvyn Douglas, and E. G. Marshall performed in The Gang's All Here.

The long-running Paddy Chayefsky play The Tenth Man transferred from the Booth Theatre in 1961, ending its two-year run at the Ambassador. Subsequently, the theater hosted A Passage to India and the Joseph Hayes drama Calculated Risk in 1962. Another transfer, Stop the World – I Want to Get Off, was staged at the Ambassador in 1963, followed by Ira Wallach's Absence of a Cello the next year. The Ambassador also hosted limited concert engagements from the Paul Taylor Dance Company and Charles Aznavour in 1965. The theater then hosted The Lion in Winter with Robert Preston and Rosemary Harris in 1966, as well as Robert Anderson's collection of one-act plays, You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running, starting in 1967. The Ambassador ended the decade with runs of Joseph Heller's We Bombed in New Haven in 1968 and Tom Jones and Harvey Schmidt's Celebration in 1969.

The Ambassador hosted various types of productions in the 1970s, ranging from adaptations of children's stories to musical parodies. First was a revival of Sandy Wilson's The Boy Friend, featuring Judy Carne and Sandy Duncan, in 1970. This was followed by Paul Sills' Story Theatre the same year. which played in repertory with Sills's Metamorphoses near the end of its run. The Ambassador also hosted Melvin Van Peebles's musical Ain't Supposed to Die a Natural Death in 1971, as well as a revival of Scapino with Jim Dale in 1974. The Ambassador hosted three solo productions in the mid-1970s: Me and Bessie with Linda Hopkins (1975); I Have a Dream with Billy Dee Williams (1976); and Miss Margarida's Way with Estelle Parsons (1977). The theater's other productions of that decade included Godspell in 1976 and Eubie! in 1978.

#### 1980s to present

The theater was briefly known as the New Ambassador Theatre in April 1980, when the production Goodbye Fidel was being performed. The same year, the Ambassador hosted Your Arms Too Short to Box with God, as well as a transfer of the musical Dancin''', the latter of which ran through 1982. Afterward, Herman van Veen performed the one-man show All of Him in 1982, and a revival of Arthur Miller's A View from the Bridge was staged in 1983. Ellie Greenwich performed some songs in 1985 as part of her musical Leader of the Pack. Barbara Cook had a limited concert engagement in April 1987, followed the same year by a revival of the musical Dreamgirls. A limited run of Brazilian revue Oba Oba was staged in 1988, followed the same year by a six-month run of Ain't Misbehavin. The last production of the decade was The Circle in 1989, which featured Stewart Granger, Rex Harrison, and Glynis Johns for 208 performances; The Circle marked Granger's only Broadway appearance and Harrison's last. Also during the 1980s, the Shuberts renovated the Ambassador as part of a restoration program for their Broadway theaters.

The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started to consider protecting the Ambassador as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the facades of the Ambassador, Neil Simon, and Virginia (now August Wilson) theaters as landmarks in August 1985, along with the Ambassador's and Neil Simon's interiors, over the objections of the three theaters' owners. The New York City Board of Estimate considered the designations for ratification in December 1985 and approved the designation of the Ambassador's interior, as well as the two other theaters' designations. Though the Ambassador's interior had cultural and architectural significance, the exterior had been designated only for its cultural significance. In a concession to theatrical owners, the Board of Estimate refused to ratify designations of theaters if these were made solely on cultural grounds. The board's vote to refuse landmark status for the Ambassador's facade was a very rare decision; it did not make another revocation until 1989.

After The Circle closed, the Ambassador did not host another legitimate production for five years. After the death of Colleen Dewhurst in 1991, there were calls to rename the Ambassador after her, given Dewhurst's longtime association with playwright Eugene O'Neill's work and the Ambassador's proximity to the O'Neill Theatre. The next production at the Ambassador was comedian Red Buttons's solo Buttons on Broadway, which opened in 1995. This was followed in 1996 by Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk, which opened in 1996 and ran 1,130 performances over the next three years. The Ambassador's last productions of the 1990s were You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown in February 1999 with Kristin Chenoweth and Roger Bart, as well as It Ain't Nothin' But the Blues that September.

Relatively few productions have played the Ambassador since 2000. The first was The Ride Down Mt. Morgan, which was staged in 2000. The next year, the Ambassador hosted A Class Act and Hedda Gabler, the latter of which opened during a downturn in the Broadway industry caused by the September 11 attacks. The play Topdog/Underdog opened at the Ambassador in 2002. This was followed by the musical Chicago, which had already run for several years on Broadway when it transferred to the Ambassador in January 2003. Chicago has played at the Ambassador ever since, becoming the second-longest-running Broadway production in 2014. As part of a settlement with the United States Department of Justice in 2003, the Shuberts agreed to improve disabled access at their 16 landmarked Broadway theaters, including the Ambassador. The theater closed on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It reopened with performances of Chicago on September 14, 2021. Chicago broke the theater's box-office record several times during its run, most recently during the week ending January 1, 2023, when the musical grossed \$1,299,400.

## Notable productions

Productions are listed by the year of their first performance. This list only includes Broadway shows; it does not include films screened at the theater, nor does it include shows that were taped there.

- 1921: Blossom Time
- 1924: The Dream Girl
- 1925: Candida
- 1925: The Student Prince
- 1926: The Great Gatsby
- 1927: The Racket
- 1928: The Outsider
- 1928: Redemption
- 1929: Little Accident
- 1929: Street Scene
- 1930: The Last Mile
- 1930–1931: Six Shakespeare plays
- 1931: Death Takes a Holiday
- 1931: Blossom Time
- 1933: Young Sinners
- 1933: June Moon
- 1934: Biography
- 1935: Night of January 16th
- 1936: Mulatto
- 1937: Eight Abbey Theatre plays
- 1938: You Can't Take It with You
- 1939: The Straw Hat Revue
- 1944: Ten Gilbert and Sullivan plays
- 1957: The Diary of Anne Frank
- 1957: Compulsion
- 1958: Back to Methuselah
- 1960: The 49th Cousin
- 1961: The Tenth Man
- 1961: Blood, Sweat and Stanley Poole
- 1962: Something About a Soldier
- 1962: A Passage to India
- 1963: Stop the World – I Want to Get Off
- 1965: The World of Charles Aznavour
- 1966: The Lion in Winter
- 1966: The Investigation
- 1967: You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running
- 1968: We Bombed in New Haven
- 1969: Celebration
- 1970: The Boy Friend
- 1970: Paul Sills' Story Theatre
- 1971: Ain't Supposed to Die a Natural Death
- 1973: Warp!
- 1974: Scapino
- 1975: We Interrupt This Program...
- 1975: Me and Bessie
- 1976: Des Journées Entières Dans les Arbres
- 1977: Godspell
- 1977: Miss Margarida's Way
- 1978: Same Time, Next Year
- 1978: Eubie!
- 1980: Your Arms Too Short to Box with God
- 1980: Dancin'''
- 1982: Herman Van Veen: All of Him
- 1983: A View from the Bridge
- 1985: Leader of the Pack
- 1987: Barbara Cook: A Concert for the Theatre
- 1987: Dreamgirls
- 1988: Ain't Misbehavin
- 1989: The Circle
- 1995: Fool Moon
- 1996: Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk
- 1999: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown
- 1999: It Ain't Nothin' But the Blues
- 2000: The Ride Down Mt. Morgan
- 2001: A Class Act
- 2001: Hedda Gabler
- 2002: Topdog/Underdog
- 2003: Chicago

## See also

- List of Broadway theatres
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets

Broadway theater in Manhattan, New York


History of Lithuania (1219–1295)

The history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 concerns the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the history of Lithuania is recorded in chronicles, treaties, and other written documents. In 1219, 21 Lithuanian dukes signed a peace treaty with Galicia–Volhynia. This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating. Despite continuous warfare with two Christian orders, the Livonian Order and the Teutonic Knights, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established and gained some control over the lands of Black Ruthenia, Polatsk, Minsk, and other territories east of modern-day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of Kievan Rus'.

The first ruler to hold the title of Grand Duke was Mindaugas. Traditionally he is considered the founder of the state, the one who united the Baltic tribes and established the Duchy. Some scholars, however, challenge this perception, arguing that an organized state existed before Mindaugas, possibly as early as 1183. After quelling an internal war with his nephews, Mindaugas was baptized in 1251, and was crowned as King of Lithuania in 1253. In 1261, he broke the peace with the Livonian Order, perhaps even renouncing Christianity. His assassination in 1263 by Treniota ended the early Christian kingdom in Lithuania. For another 120 years Lithuania would remain a pagan empire, fighting against the Teutonic and Livonian Orders during the Northern Crusades during their attempts to Christianize the land.

After Mindaugas' death, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered times of relative instability, as reflected by the fact that seven Grand Dukes held the title over the course of the next 32 years. Little is known about this period, but the Gediminid dynasty was founded in about 1280. Despite the instability, the Grand Duchy did not disintegrate. Vytenis assumed power in 1295, and during the next 20 years laid solid foundations for the Duchy to expand and grow under the leadership of Gediminas and his son Algirdas. While the Grand Duchy was established between 1219 and 1295, the years after 1295 marked its expansion.

## Establishment of the state

### Baltic unification

The Balts were largely driven to unite by external threats from aggressive German religious orders. In 1202, the Order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was established by Albert, the Bishop of Riga, to promote the Christianization and conquest of the Livonians, Curonians, Semigallians, and Estonians near the Gulf of Riga. The Order waged a number of successful campaigns and posed a great danger to the Lithuanian territories. The Order's progress was halted by its defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236, after which it almost collapsed. The following year, it merged into the Teutonic Knights.

In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the Prussians, offering the Knights the use of Chełmno (Kulm) as a base for their campaign. In 1230, they settled in Chełmno, built a castle, and began attacking Prussian lands. After 44 years, and despite two Prussian uprisings against them, they had conquered most of the Prussian tribes. Afterwards, the Knights spent nine years conquering the Nadruvians, Skalvians, and Yotvingians, and from 1283, they were better positioned to threaten the young Lithuanian state from the west.

Further unification of the Lithuanian tribes was facilitated by the social changes that took place in Lithuania during this period. Private land ownership was established (allodiums, Lithuanian: atolai), which would later evolve into a feudal system. As attested by many chronicles, it was the principal form of organization governing land ownership in the 13th century. Under this system, known in England as primogeniture, only the eldest son could inherit lands, which allowed dukes to consolidate their holdings. Social classes and divisions of labor also began taking shape. There were classes of experienced soldiers (bajoras), of free peasants (laukininkas), and of "unfree" people (kaimynas and šeimynykštis). In order to enforce this social structure, a united state was needed. Another force behind unification was the desire to take advantage of Ruthenian lands, which were suffering from the Mongol invasion. Temporary alliances among Lithuanian dukes often sufficed for military ventures into, and plundering of, these lands (including Pskov, plundered in 1213). Altogether, between 1201 and 1236, Lithuanians launched at least 22 incursions into Livonia, 14 into Rus, and 4 into Poland. The ongoing administration of conquered territories, however, required a strong and unified central power.

### Galicia–Volhynia Treaty

Some evidence suggests that Lithuanians began combining their forces at the dawn of the 13th century. For example, in 1207, soldiers were recruited across Lithuania to fight the German religious orders, and in 1212, Daugirutis' treaty with Novgorod shows that he exerted some degree of influence over a vast area. During the first twenty years of the 13th century, Lithuanians organized some thirty military expeditions to Livonia, Russia, and Poland. Historian Tomas Baranauskas argues that a Lithuanian state could be said to exist as early as 1183.

However, the first conclusive evidence that the Balts were uniting is considered to be the treaty with Galicia–Volhynia signed in 1219. The treaty's signatories include 21 Lithuanian dukes; it specifies that five of those were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen. Presumably, the eldest Duke was Živinbudas, since his name was mentioned first. Mindaugas, despite his youth, and his brother Dausprungas, are listed among the elder dukes. That would imply that they inherited their titles.

The treaty is important for several reasons. It shows that the Lithuanian Dukes were co-operating; the signatories include Dukes who ruled lands such as Samogitia, which probably had no contact with Galicia–Volhynia. Their participation implies a perception of common interest, an indication of a nascent state. However, the designation of five Dukes as "elder" shows that the process of unification was still in transition. The inclusion of 21 Dukes indicates that the various lands in Lithuania were powerful and semi-independent. Historians consider the treaty an interesting documentation of the long and complex process of a state's formation. The progress of unification was uneven; for example, after the deaths of Dukes Daugirutis in 1213 and Stekšys in 1214, fewer raids were organized by Lithuanians.

### Rise of Mindaugas

Mindaugas, the duke who governed southern Lithuania between the Neman and Neris Rivers, eventually became the founder of the state. Mindaugas is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle in 1236. The means by which he managed to acquire this title are not well known. Russian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled various other dukes, including his relatives.

In 1236, Duke Vykintas led the Samogitian forces to victory in the Battle of Saule, where the Livonian Order suffered a catastrophic defeat. It seems that Vykintas did not receive support from Mindaugas. Vykintas' personal power grew. The Livonian Order was on the brink of collapse and was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Knights. The combined Orders focused on the conquest of Samogitia, since only this land prevented them from consolidating their territories. The union of these aggressive powers could not have passed without notice in Lithuanian lands, and might have furthered the unification process. In about 1239 Mindaugas took over the weakened Black Ruthenia and appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern it. During the early 1240s, Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic lands. In 1245, Mindaugas sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas, the sons of Dausprungas and Vykintas, to conquer Smolensk, but they were unsuccessful. In 1249, an internal war erupted as Mindaugas sought to seize his nephews' and Vykintas' lands.

Tautvilas, Edivydas, and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition with the Samogitians, the Livonian Order, Daniel of Galicia (Tautvilas and Edivydas' brother-in-law), and Vasilko of Volhynia in opposition to Mindaugas. Only Poles, invited by Daniel, declined to take part in the coalition against the Lithuanians. The dukes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia, an area ruled by Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas. Tautvilas traveled to Riga, where he was baptized by the Archbishop. In 1250, the Order organized two major raids, one against Nalša land and the other against the domains of Mindaugas and those parts of Samogitia that still supported him.

Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere, Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position, but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga in his own interests. He succeeded in bribing Andreas von Stierland, the master of the Order, who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat in 1236. In 1251, Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania, for which he was to receive a crown in return. In 1252, Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas in Voruta, sometimes considered to be the first capital of Lithuania. The attack failed and Tautvilas' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tverai Castle, in the present-day Rietavas municipality. Vykintas died in or about 1253, and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia. Daniel reconciled with Mindaugas in 1254; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman, the son of Daniel. Vaišvilkas, the son of Mindaugas, decided to join a monastery. Tautvilas recognized Mindaugas' superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom.

## Kingdom of Lithuania

As promised, Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned at some time during the summer of 1253, and the Kingdom of Lithuania, proclaimed by the pope in 1251, was soundly established. 6 July is now celebrated as "Statehood Day" (Lithuanian: Valstybės diena); it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania. However, the exact date of the coronation is not known; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius, who promulgated this date, is sometimes challenged.

Pope Innocent IV supported Mindaugas, hoping that a new Christian state could stem the inroads being made by the Golden Horde, a state of the Mongol Empire. On 17 July 1251, the pope signed two crucial papal bulls. One of them ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and to build a cathedral. The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the pope. This was a welcome development to the Lithuanians, since they were concerned that their long-standing antagonists, the Livonian Order, would exert too much control over the new state.

It took some time before a Bishop of Lithuania was appointed because of various conflicts of interest. The Bishop of Gniezno appointed Vito (Lithuanian: Vitas), a monk of the Dominican Order, to this position, but he was not recognized by Mindaugas or accepted by the populace. The activities of Vito in Lithuania are unknown, although he is sometimes associated with Mindaugas' Cathedral. Finally, in 1254, Christian (Lithuanian: Kristijonas) from the Livonian Order was appointed. Mindaugas endowed him with some lands in Samogitia, but not much is known about his activities. Historical sources do not mention any sponsorship of missionaries, education of priests, or construction of churches during that time, and Bishop Christian went back to Germany in 1259, where he died in 1271. The establishment of Mindaugas' Cathedral remains problematic, but recent archeological research found the remains of a 13th-century brick building on the site of the present-day Vilnius Cathedral. The general assumption is that the remains are those of Mindaugas Cathedral, built to satisfy the agreement with the pope. However, as later events showed, Lithuanians resisted Christianization, and Mindaugas' baptism had only a temporary impact on further developments.

Immediately after his coronation, Mindaugas transferred some western lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia, Nadruva, and Dainava. There is some discussion as to whether in later years (1255, 1257, 1259, 1261) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the Order. The deeds might have been falsified by the Order; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas. Whatever the case, relative peace and stability was established for about eight more years. Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on expansion to the east. He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia, in Pinsk, and took advantage of the collapsed Kievan Rus' by conquering Polatsk, a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin. He also negotiated a peace with Galicia–Volhynia, and married a daughter to Svarn, the son of Daniel of Galicia, who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania. Diplomatic relations with western Europe and the Holy See were also reinforced. In 1255, Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania. In the domestic arena, Mindaugas strove to establish state institutions: his own noble court, administrative systems, a diplomatic service, and a monetary system. Silver Lithuanian long currency (Lithuanian: Lietuvos ilgieji) circulated, providing an indice of statehood.

The Livonian Order used this period to consolidate their control over Samogitian lands. They built three castles along the border: Memelburg (Klaipėda), Georgenburg (Jurbarkas), and Doben (Durbe in Latvia). The Samogitians responded by electing Algminas as their war leader, and attacked Courland, as the Order had limited battlefield successes. In 1259, the Livonian Order lost the Battle of Skuodas, and in 1260, it lost the Battle of Durbe. The first loss encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians, and the later loss spurred the Prussians into an uprising against the Order. The Great Prussian Uprising lasted for 14 years. Encouraged by Treniota, his nephew, Mindaugas broke peace with the Order. Some chronicles hint that he also returned to his former pagan beliefs, but this is disputable. Nevertheless, all the diplomatic achievements made since his coronation were lost.

Mindaugas then formed an alliance with Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod and marched against the Order. Treniota led an army to Cēsis and battled Masovia, hoping to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership. He waged successful battles, but did not manage to capture the fortified castles or spark a coalition of Baltic forces against the Order. His personal influence grew because Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Russian lands, dispatching a large army to Bryansk. Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities. In the midst of these events, Mindaugas' wife Morta died, and Mindaugas expressed the wish to marry Daumantas' wife. Daumantas and Treniota responded to this insult by assassinating Mindaugas and two of his sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, in 1263.

## Years after Mindaugas

### Years of instability

After Mindaugas' death, the state did not disintegrate and Treniota took over the title of Grand Duke. However, his power was fragile; he was challenged by Tautvilas, who had not forgotten his own claims to power. Tautvilas was also assassinated by Treniota. However, just a year later, in 1264, Treniota was killed by Mindaugas' former servants. Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas and brother-in-law Švarnas from Volhynia took over the control in Lithuania. Daumantas was forced to flee to Pskov, was baptized Timofei, ruled successfully from 1266 to 1299 and even became a saint. In 1265 Vaišvilkas, as a Christian, reconciled with the Livonian Order and, without support from Lithuania, the rebellions among the Balts that had been fueled by Treniota began to subside.

Little is known about Švarnas and his rule, but historians believe he was unable to take control of all Lithuania, and ruled only over its southern portions.

### Reign of Traidenis

The circumstances surrounding the advance to power in 1269 of the next ruler, Traidenis, are not clear. From the outset his relationships with Galicia–Volhynia were tense and eventually resulted in the 1274–1276 war. Traidenis was successful in battle, and his control over Black Ruthenia was strengthened. Traidenis, known for his strong anti-German attitude, was also successful in fighting with the Livonian Order. In 1270 he won the Battle of Karuse, fought on ice near Saaremaa. However, in 1272 the Order retaliated, attacking Semigalia and building Dünaburg (Daugavpils) Castle in 1273 on lands nominally controlled by Traidenis. Several years later, in 1281, Traidenis conquered Jersika Castle in the present-day Preiļi District, and was able to exchange it for the Dünaburg Castle. Dünaburg remained a Lithuanian outpost until 1313. In 1279 the Order attacked Lithuanian lands, reaching as far as Kernavė, but on their way back they suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Aizkraukle. The Order's master, Ernst von Rassburg, died in the battle, and the conquered Semigallians rebelled. The Semigallians were now willing to acknowledge Lithuania's superiority and asked Traidenis for assistance.

Traidenis' reign was the longest and most stable regime during the period of unrest. After his death the Orders finalized their conquests: the conquered Baltic tribes did not rebel again and the Orders could now concentrate on Lithuania. In 1274 the Great Prussian Rebellion ended, and the Teutonic Knights proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274–1277, and the Yotvingians in 1283; the Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291.

### Rise of Gediminids

There is considerable uncertainty about the identities of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania between Traidenis' death in 1282 and Vytenis' assumption of power in 1295. This is in part because the two main sources for Lithuanian history in the 13th century, the Hypatian Codex and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, end in the early 1290s. In 1285, one chronicle mentions Daumantas as Grand Duke. He attacked the Bishop of Tver and was severely wounded or even killed in the battle.

The Gediminid dynasty began its ascent in Lithuania during this time with the emergence of its first leader, Butigeidis. In 1289, leading about 8,000 troops, he attacked Sambia. In 1289 the Teutonic Knights built a castle in present-day Sovetsk (Tilsit) and their raids intensified. Butigeidis was the first to build strong castles along the Neman River. He died in 1290 or 1292, and his brother Butvydas (also known as Pukuveras) inherited the crown. Butvydas was the father of Vytenis and probably of Gediminas. During his short reign Butvydas tried to defend the duchy against the Teutonic Knights; he also attacked Masovia, an ally of the knights.

## Legacy

The state united and ruled by Mindaugas constituted the first Lithuanian state. The state effectively protected Lithuanians and Samogitians from assimilation induced by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order, the destiny of Prussians, Skalvians, Curonians, Selonians and other Baltic tribes. Mindaugas ruled about 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi) of Lithuanian ethnic territory, an area with an estimated population of 300,000. The Slavic lands under his control and influence occupied another 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi). By about 1430, at its peak during the reign of Vytautas the Great, the Grand Duchy controlled some 930,000 km2 (360,000 sq mi) and almost 2.5 million people.

The period from 1219 to 1295 also shaped future conflicts: the pagan Lithuanians were surrounded by the aggressive Roman Catholic Orders to its north and southwest, and by adherents of the Orthodox Church in the east. The Catholic Orders' raids intensified after they overcame the "buffer zone" created by Prussians, Nadruvians, Skalvians, Yotvingians, and Semigalians by 1283. The Lithuanian relationships with the Orthodox Church were more peaceful. The people were allowed to practise their religion; Lithuanian dukes did not hesitate to marry daughters of Orthodox dukes; at least some of the dukes' scribes must have been Orthodox as well. Struggles with the Teutonic Knights and expansion to the east were characteristic of the years from 1295 to 1377. It was inevitable that Lithuania could not endure religious, political, and cultural isolation forever and would have to choose either Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1386, Grand Duke Jogaila elected baptism in the Catholic rite to marry Jadwiga of Poland and become King of Poland; the last pagan state in Europe was converted to Christianity.

History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania