Lake Burley Griffin

Lake Burley Griffin is an artificial lake in the centre of Canberra, the capital of Australia. It was completed in 1963 after the Molonglo River, which ran between the city centre and Parliamentary Triangle, was dammed. It is named after Walter Burley Griffin, the American architect who won the competition to design the city of Canberra.

Griffin designed the lake with many geometric motifs, so that the axes of his design lined up with natural geographical landmarks in the area. However, government authorities changed his original plans, and no substantial work was completed before he left Australia in 1920. Griffin's proposal was further delayed by the Great Depression and World War II, and it was not until the 1950s that planning resumed. After political disputes and consideration of other proposed variations, excavation work began in 1960 with the energetic backing of Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies. After the completion of the bridges and dams, the dams were locked in September 1963. However, because of a drought, the lake's target water level was not reached until April 1964. The lake was formally inaugurated on 17 October 1964.

The lake is located in the approximate geographic centre of the city, and it is the centrepiece of the capital in accordance with Griffin's original designs. Numerous important institutions, such as the National Gallery, National Museum, National Library, Australian National University and the High Court were built on its shores, and Parliament House is a short distance away. Its surrounds, consisting mainly of parklands, are popular with recreational users, particularly in the warmer months. Though swimming in the lake is uncommon, it is used for a wide variety of other activities, such as rowing, fishing, and sailing.

The lake is an ornamental body with a length of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) and a width, at its widest, of 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi). It has an average depth of 4 metres (13 ft) and a maximum depth of about 18 metres (59 ft) near the Scrivener Dam. Its flow is regulated by the 33-metre-tall (108 ft) Scrivener Dam, designed to handle floods that occur once in 5,000 years. In times of drought, water levels can be maintained through the release of water from Googong Dam, located on an upstream tributary of the Molonglo River.

## Design history

Charles Robert Scrivener (1855–1923) recommended the site for Canberra in 1909, which was to be a planned capital city for the country. One of the reasons for the location's selection was its ability to store water "for ornamental purposes at reasonable cost"; Scrivener's work had demonstrated that the topography could be used to create a lake through flooding.

In 1911, a competition for the design of Canberra was launched, and Scrivener's detailed survey of the area was supplied to the competing architects. The Molonglo River flowed through the site, which was a flood plain and Scrivener's survey showed in grey an area clearly representing an artificial lake—similar to the lake later created—and four possible locations for a dam to create it. Most of the proposals took the hint and included artificial bodies of water.

### Walter Burley Griffin's design

The American architect Walter Burley Griffin won the contest and was invited to Australia to oversee the construction of the nation's new capital after the judges' decision was ratified by King O'Malley, the Minister for Home Affairs. Griffin's proposal, which had an abundance of geometric patterns, incorporated concentric hexagonal and octagonal streets emanating from several radii.

His lake design was at the heart of the city and consisted of a Central Basin in the shape of circular segment, a West and East Basin, which were both approximately circular, and a West and East Lake, which were much larger and irregularly shaped, at either side of the system. The East Lake was supposed to be 6 metres (20 ft) higher than the remaining components. Griffin's proposal was "the grandest scheme submitted, yet it had an appealing simplicity and clarity.

The lakes were deliberately designed so that their orientation was related to various topographical landmarks in Canberra. The lakes stretched from east to west and divided the city in two; a land axis perpendicular to the central basin stretched from Capital Hill—the future location of the new Parliament House on a mound on the southern side—north northeast across the central basin to the northern banks along Anzac Parade to the Australian War Memorial (although a casino was originally planned in its place). This was designed so that looking from Capital Hill, the War Memorial stood directly at the foot of Mount Ainslie. At the southwestern end of the land axis was Bimberi Peak.

The straight edge of the circular segment that formed the central basin was designated the water axis, and it extended northwest towards Black Mountain. A line parallel to the water axis, on the northern side of the city, was designated the municipal axis. The municipal axis became the location of Constitution Avenue, which linked City Hill in Civic Centre and Market Centre. Commonwealth Avenue and Kings Avenue were to run from the southern side from Capital Hill to City Hill and Market Centre on the north respectively, and they formed the western and eastern edges of the central basin. The area enclosed by the three avenues was known as the Parliamentary Triangle, and was to form the centrepiece of Griffin's work.

Later, Scrivener, as part of a government design committee, was responsible for modifying Griffin's winning design. He recommended changing the shape of the lake from Griffin's very geometric shapes to a much more organic one using a single dam, unlike Griffin's series of weirs. Griffin lobbied for the retention of the pure geometry, saying that they were "one of the reasons d'etre of the ornamental waters", but he was overruled. The new design included elements from several of the best design submissions and was widely criticised as being ugly. The new plan for the lake retained Griffin's three formal basins: east, central, and west, though in a more relaxed form.

Griffin entered into correspondence with the government over the plan and its alternatives, and he was invited to Canberra to discuss the matter. Griffin arrived in August 1913 and was appointed Federal Capital Director of Design and Construction for three years.

The plans were varied again in the following years, but the design of Lake Burley Griffin remained based largely on the original committee's plan. It was later gazetted and legally protected by the federal parliament in 1926, based on a 1918 plan. However, Griffin had a strained working relationship with the Australian authorities and a lack of federal government funding meant that by the time he left in 1920, little significant work had been done on the city. A 1920s proposal to reduce West Lake into a ribbon of water was made on the basis of flood safety. However, the Owen and Peake report of 1929 ruled that the original design was hydrologically sound.

### Political disputes and modifications

With the onset of the Great Depression, followed by World War II, development of the new capital was slow, and in the decade after the end of the war, Canberra was criticised for resembling a village, and its disorganised collection of buildings was deemed ugly. Canberra was often derisively described as "several suburbs in search of a city".

During this time, the Molonglo River flowed through the flood basin, with only a small fraction of the water envisaged in Griffin's plan. The centre of his capital city consisted of mostly farmland, with small settlements—mostly wooden, temporary and ad hoc—on either side. There was little evidence that Canberra was planned, and the lake and Parliamentary Triangle at the heart of Griffin's plan was but a paddock. Royal Canberra Golf Course, and Acton Racecourse and a sports ground were located on the pastoral land that was to become the West Lake, and people had to disperse the livestock before playing sport. A rubbish dump stood on the northern banks of the location of central basin, and no earth had been moved since Griffin's departure three decades earlier.

In 1950, the East Lake—the largest component—was eliminated upon the advice of the National Capital Planning and Development Committee (NCPDC). Today, what would have been the East Lake corresponds to the suburb of Fyshwick. The rationale given was that around 1,700 acres (690 ha) of farmland would be submerged and that the Molonglo would have insufficient water to keep the lake filled.

In 1953, the NCPDC excised the West Lake from its plans and replaced it with a winding stream, which was 110 metres (360 ft) wide and covered around a fifth of the original area. As the NCPDC had only advisory powers, this change was attributed to the influence of senior officials in the Department of the Interior who felt that Griffin's plan was too grandiose. Advocates of watered-down scheme thought it was more economical and saved 350 hectares (860 acres) of land for development. However, according to engineering reports that were ignored, the smaller plan would actually cost more money and require a more complicated structure of dams that would in any case be less able to prevent flooding.

Initially, there was little opposition during the consultation period before the alterations were made. However, opposition to the reduction of the water area grew. The process that resulted in the alteration was criticised for being non-transparent and sneaky. Some organisations complained that they were not given an opportunity to express their opinion before the change was gazetted, and many politicians and the chief town planner were not informed. Critics bitterly insinuated that politically influential members of the Royal Canberra Golf Club, whose course was situated on the location of the proposed West Lake, were responsible for the change in policy.

The Parliamentary Public Works Committee advised the Parliament to restore the West Lake. After an inquiry in late 1954, it concluded that:

> The West Lake is desirable and practicable. It was eliminated from the Canberra plan by the Department of the Interior without adequate investigation by the National Capital Planning and Development Committee and replaced by a ribbon of water scheme involving a capitalised cost or nearly 3 million more. The lake should be restored to the plan, and the necessary Ministerial action is recommended as soon as possible.

The Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment. Over time his attitude changed from one of contempt to that of championing its development. He fired two ministers charged with the development of the city, feeling that their performance lacked intensity.

In 1958, the newly created National Capital Development Commission (NCDC), which had been created and given more power by Menzies following a 1955 Senate inquiry, restored the West Lake to its plans, and it was formally gazetted in October 1959. The NCDC also blocked a plan by the Department of Works to build a bridge across the lake along the land axis between Parliament House and the War Memorial contrary to Griffin's plans.

A powerful Senate Select Committee oversaw the NCDC and renowned British architect Sir William Holford was brought in to fine-tune Griffin's original plans. He changed the central basin's geometry so that it was no longer a segment of circle; he converted the southern straight edge into a polygonal shape with three edges and inserted a gulf on the northern shore. The result was closer to Scrivener's modified design some decades earlier.

## Final layout

The lake contains 33,000,000 cubic metres (27,000 acre⋅ft) of water with a surface area of 6.64 square kilometres (2.56 sq mi). It is 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) long, 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) wide at its widest point, has a shoreline of 40.5 kilometres (25.2 mi) and a water level of 555.93 metres (1,823.9 ft) above sea level.

The lake is relatively shallow; the maximum depth is 17.6 metres (58 ft) near the Scrivener Dam, and the average depth is 4.0 metres (13 ft). The shallowest part of the complex in the East Basin, which has an average depth of 1.9 metres (6.2 ft). The minimum depth of the water at the walls is around 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) and rock is placed at the toe of the wall to inhibit aquatic plant growth.

Lake Burley Griffin initially contained six islands, three unnamed small islands and three larger named islands. Of the larger islands, Queen Elizabeth II Island is located in Central Basin while Springbank and Spinnaker Island are located in the West Lake. Queen Elizabeth II Island is connected to dry land by a footbridge, and is the site of the Australian National Carillon. A seventh island was created as part of the Kingston Foreshore development in the East Basin, where a wide channel was excavated creating an island out of the northern most part of the Kingston Foreshore.

## Construction

In 1958, engineers conducted studies into the hydrology and structural requirements needed for the building of the dam. Further studies were done to model water quality, siltation, climate effects and change in land quality. Modelling based on the data collection suggested that the water level could be kept within a metre of the intended level of 556 metres (1,824 ft) above sea level in the case of a flood.

In February 1959, formal authority for beginning construction was granted. However, while Menzies was on holiday, some officials from the Department of Treasury convinced ministers to withhold money needed for the lake, so the start of the construction was delayed. Once it started, progress was fast. At its peak, the number of people physically working on the construction in the lakes was between 400 and 500. John Overall, the Commissioner of the NCDC, promised Menzies that the work would be finished within four years, and he succeeded, despite the Prime Minister's scepticism. Equipment was quickly requisitioned.

After the lengthy political wrangling over the design had passed, the criticism of the scheme died down. Menzies strongly denounced the "moaning" by opponents of the lake. Most critics decried the project as a waste of money that should have been spent on essential services across Australia. Less strident concerns centred on the potentially negative effects of the lake, such as mosquitoes, ecological degeneration, siltation and the possibility that the lake would create fog. The latter of these concerns has proven to be unfounded.

### Lakes, islands and foreshore

The excavation of Lake Burley Griffin began in 1960 with the clearing of vegetation from the floodplain of the Molonglo River. The trees on the golf course and along the river were pulled up, along with the various sports grounds and houses.

During major earthworks, at least 382,000 cubic metres (500,000 cu yd) of topsoil was excavated. It was collected for use at several public parks and gardens, including the future Commonwealth Park on the northern shore. It was also used to create the six artificial islands including Springbank Island. The island was named after the former Springbank Farm that was situated there. Land excavated to create a sailing course at Yarralumla was used for the thematically named Spinnaker Island to its north, while excavated stone was moved beside the Kings Avenue Bridge at the eastern edge of the central basin from Queen Elizabeth II Island.

Care was taken to excavate the entire lake floor to a depth of at least 2 metres (6.6 ft) to provide sufficient clearance for boat keels. Another reason given for this was that mosquitoes would not breed nor would weeds grow at such a depth. A soil conservation program was launched in the catchment and bed load traps were installed to minimise loss of earth. The traps have been used as a source of sand and gravel for building sites. Drainage blankets were used to prevent the loss of groundwater beneath the lake.

During the following phase of work, four types of lake margin were constructed. On the southern side of the Central Basin, low reinforced concrete retaining walls were used, while on the eastern side, grouted rock wall can be seen near Commonwealth Park, as well as much of the East Basin. Sand and gravel beaches were built to cater for lakeside recreational pursuits. These are mostly prevalent on the western half of the lake complex. Rocky outcrops, steeply sloping stable shores with water vegetation such as bullrushes were also used. This treatment is evident in the West Lake in Yarralumla. William Holford and Partners were responsible for the foreshore landscaping, and over 55,000 trees were planted in accordance with a detailed scheme. Eucalypts were preferred so as to maintain the natural colour of the city landscape.

### Bridges

Lake Burley Griffin is crossed by Commonwealth Avenue Bridge (310 metres or 1,020 feet), Kings Avenue Bridge (270 metres or 890 feet) and a roadway over Scrivener Dam. The two bridges were constructed before the lake was filled, and replaced wooden structures.

Site testing for both the Commonwealth Avenue and Kings Avenue bridges took place during late 1959 to early 1960. The construction of the Kings Avenue Bridge began in 1960, followed by Commonwealth Avenue Bridge the year after. Fortunately for the builders, Canberra was in a drought and the ground remained dry during construction. Both bridges use post-tensioned concrete, reinforced with rustproof steel cables.

Both bridges are made of concrete and steel and are dual-carriageway; Commonwealth Avenue has three lanes in each direction while Kings Avenue has two. Instead of traditional lamp post lighting, Kings Avenue Bridge was illuminated by a series of fluorescent tubes on the handrails, a concept known as "integral lighting". The design was deemed a success, so it was introduced to the Commonwealth Avenue Bridge also. Both structures won awards from the Illuminating Engineering Society.

Kings Avenue Bridge opened on 10 March 1962. Prime Minister Menzies unlocked a ceremonial chain before the motorcade and pageant crossed the lake in front of a large crowd. Commonwealth Avenue Bridge opened in 1963 without an official ceremony. Menzies called it "the finest building in the national capital".

### Dam

The dam that holds back the waters of Lake Burley Griffin was named Scrivener Dam after Charles Robert Scrivener. The dam was designed and built by Rheinstahl Union Bruckenbau in West Germany, and utilised state-of-the-art post-tensioning techniques to cope with any problems or movements in the riverbed. This was required because of the quartz porphyry and geological faulting upon which the dam sits. About 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of concrete was used in its construction. The dam is 33 metres (108 ft) high and 319 metres (1,047 ft) long with a maximum wall thickness of 19.7 metres (65 ft). The dam is designed to handle a once in 5,000-year flood event. Construction began in September 1960 and the dam was locked in September 1963.

The dam has five bay spillway controlled by 30.5 metres (100 ft) wide, hydraulically operated fish-belly flap gates. The fish-belly gates allow for a precise control of water level, reducing the dead area on the banks between high and low water levels. The five gates have only been opened simultaneously once in the dam's history, during heavy flooding in 1976. The gates hold two-thirds of the lake's volume. They were designed to allow easy flow of debris out of the lake.

The dam has the capacity to allow a flow of 5,600 cubic metres per second (200,000 cu ft/s) but can withstand up to 8,600 cubic metres per second (300,000 cu ft/s) before "catastrophic damage" results; A flow of 2,830 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s) can be dealt with without any substantial change in the water level. The highest recorded flow in the Molonglo was 3,400 cubic metres per second (120,000 cu ft/s) during an earlier flood.

Lady Denman Drive, a roadway atop the dam wall, provides a third road crossing for the lake. It consists of a roadway and a bicycle path, and allows residents in western Canberra to cross the lake. This was possible because the dam gates are closed by pushing up from below, unlike most previous designs that wherein the gates were lifted from above.

### Lake filling

A prolonged drought coincided with and eased work on the lake's construction. The valves on the Scrivener Dam were closed on 20 September 1963 by Minister for the Interior, Gordon Freeth; Menzies was absent due to ill health. Several months on, with no rain in sight, mosquito-infested pools of water were the only visible sign of the lake filling. With the eventual breaking of the drought, the lake reached the planned level on 29 April 1964. On 17 October 1964, Menzies (by now Sir Robert) commemorated the filling of the lake and the completion of stage one with an opening ceremony amid the backdrop of sailing craft. The ceremony was accompanied by fireworks display, and Griffin's lake had finally come to fruition after five decades, at the cost of AUD5,039,050. Freeth suggested that Menzies had "been in a material sense the father of the lake" and that the lake should be named after him. Menzies insisted that the lake should be named after Griffin.

In times of severe drought, Lake Burley Griffin's water level can fall unacceptably low. When this happens, a release of water from Googong Dam located upstream can be scheduled to top up and restore the lake water level. The Googong Dam is on the Queanbeyan River which is a tributary of the Molonglo River. The dam whose construction was finished in 1979 is one of three dams—the Cotter and Corin Dams are the others—that meet the water supply needs of the Canberra and Queanbeyan region. The Googong Dam's water carrying capacity is 124,500,000 cubic metres (100,900 acre⋅ft).

## Later history and development

Griffin's design made the lake a focal point of the city. In the four decades since the initial construction of the lake, various buildings of national importance were added. According to the policy plan of the government, "The lake is not only one of the centrepieces of Canberra's plan in its own right, but forms the immediate foreground of the National Parliamentary Area."

The creation of the lake also gave a water frontage to many prominent institutions that were previously landlocked. The Royal Canberra Hospital was located on the Acton Peninsula between the West Lake and the West Basin on the north shore until its demolition. Government House, the historic Blundell's Cottage—which was built over 50 years before construction of Canberra began—and the newly built Australian National University, on the southern and northern shores of the West Lake, both gained a waterfront.

In 1970, two tourist attractions were added to the middle of Central Basin. The Captain James Cook Memorial was built by the government to commemorate the Bicentenary of (then Lieutenant) James Cook's first sighting of the east coast of Australia. It includes a water jet fountain located in the central basin (based on the Jet d'eau in Geneva) and a skeleton globe sculpture at Regatta Point showing the paths of Cook's expeditions. On 25 April 1970, Queen Elizabeth II officially inaugurated the memorial. As part of the same ceremony, Queen Elizabeth also opened the National Carillon on Queen Elizabeth II Island, a set of 53 bronze bells donated by the British Government to commemorate the city's 50th anniversary.

The completion of the central basin placed a waterway between Parliament House and the War Memorial and a landscaped boulevard was built along the land axis. Later, various buildings of national importance were built along the land axis in the late-1960s through to the early 1980s. The National Library was opened on the western side of the axis in April 1968. Building of the High Court and National Gallery occurred in the late-1970s and the buildings were opened in May 1980 and October 1982 respectively. The latter two buildings lie on the eastern side of the axis and are connected by an aerial bridge. In 1988, the new Parliament House was built on Capital Hill, thereby completing the most important structure in the Parliamentary Triangle.

The current home of the National Museum was built on the former site of the Royal Canberra Hospital in 2001. This occurred after the public were encouraged to watch the controlled demolition of the hospital in 1997, but a girl was killed by flying debris, leading to criticism of the ACT Government.

At the start of the 21st century, the layout of the lake was significantly altered for the first time since its construction, through the Kingston Foreshores Redevelopment on southern shore of the East Basin, which was planned in 1997. A bidding process was enacted, multimillion-dollar luxury apartment complexes were built in the suburb of Kingston, driving property values to record-breaking levels. After a dispute over the environmental impact of the development, building works commenced on the previously industrial lakeside area of the suburb. In 2007, work started to reclaim land from the lakebed to form a harbour.

The Kingston Powerhouse, which used to provide the city's power supply, was converted into the Canberra Glassworks in 2007, 50 years after the electricity generators stopped. A 25-metre-high (82 ft) tower of glass and light named Touching Lightly was unveiled on 21 May 2010 by Chief Minister and Minister for the Arts and Heritage Jon Stanhope. It was built by Australian artist Warren Langley.

In 2007, the government unveiled a proposal to redevelop the area surrounding the historic Albert Hall into a tourist and dining precinct. This included the building of an eight-storey building and the rezoning of some waterfront land currently designated as cultural to commercial. It was met with widespread hostility from heritage activists and the general community, which submitted more than 3,300 signatories in a petition against the scheme. One of the criticisms was that the project was tilted too heavily towards business, and neglected the arts and community events. The proposal was scrapped in 2009.

It was proposed that a footbridge, to be named Immigration Bridge, be built between the National Museum of Australia and Lennox Gardens on the south shore, in recognition of the contributions that immigrants have made to Australia. The proposal mostly received negative feedback. An inquiry recommended that the bridge be redesigned or moved to accommodate the needs of other lake users. The proposal was abandoned in March 2010.

## Lakeside recreation

The surrounds of Lake Burley Griffin are very popular recreational areas, and is known locally as LBG. Public parks exist along most of the shore line, with free electric barbecue facilities, fenced-in swimming areas, picnic tables and toilets. These parklands form a large part of the area around the lake, and occupy 3.139 km2 (776 acres) in total. Some of the parks reserved for public recreation include Commonwealth, Weston, Kings and Grevillea Parks, Lennox Gardens and Commonwealth Place. Commonwealth and Kings Park on the northern shore of the Central Basin are among the two most popular. The former is an urban horticultural park and is the location of the Canberra Festival.

Commonwealth Park is the location of Floriade, an annual flower festival that is held for around a month in spring and attracts upwards of 300,000 visitors, a number comparable to the city population. The largest flower festival in Australia, the event is a major tourist attraction for the city, and legal action was threatened after another festival in Australia wanted to use the same name. An expansion is being planned to coincide with the centenary of the national capital. The Weston Park to the west is known for its woodland and conifers, while Black Mountain Peninsula is known as a picnicking site with eucalypts. Grevillea and Bowen Parks on the East Basin tend to be little used.

Owing to the proliferation of beaches, boat ramps and jetties, the West Lake is the area most used by swimmers and vessels. A bike path also surrounds the lake, and riding, walking or jogging around the lake are a popular activity on the weekends. Fireworks are often held over the lake on New Year's Eve, and a large show called Skyfire has been held at the lake since 1989.

### Water sports

Lake Burley Griffin, apart from being ornamental, is used for many recreational activities. Canoeing, sailing, paddleboating, windsurfing and dragon boating are popular. A rowing course is set up at the western end of the lake. The National Championships were held in the lake in 1964, but high winds have deterred organisers. On one occasion, winds swept a boat into a bridge pylon. While not particularly popular, opportunities for swimming have been limited recently because of increasingly frequent lake closures due to concerns about water quality; another deterrent against swimming is the generally cold water temperature. During summer, the lake is used for the swim leg of numerous triathlon and aquathlon events including the Sri Chinmoy Triathlon Festival.

Generally, powerboat use on the lake is not permitted. Permits are available for the use of powered boats on the lake for use in rescue, training, commercial purposes or special interest (such as historic steam-powered boats). Molonglo Reach, an area of the Molonglo River just before it enters the east basin is set aside for water skiing. Ten powerboats may be used in this limited area.

### Safety

The lake is patrolled by the Australian Federal Police water police. The water police give assistance to lake users, helping to right boats and towing crippled craft to shore.

At most swimming locations around Lake Burley Griffin there are fenced-in swimming areas for safety. In the more popular areas, there are also safety lockers with life belts and emergency phones for requesting help. Between 1962 and 1991, seven people died from drowning.

For safety and water quality reasons, the lake has different zones for different activities. The eastern extremity is zoned for primary contact water activities such as swimming and water skiing. The East and Central Basins, closer to populated areas, are zoned for secondary contact water sports such as sailing or rowing. West Lake and Tarcoola Reach, which covers the area between Commonwealth Avenue and Kurrajong Point, is the primary recreational area of the lake, and both primary and secondary contact water sports are permitted. Yarramundi Reach near Scrivener Dam has a marked rowing course, and is zoned as secondary, although primary contact activities are also allowed.

## Environmental issues

### Water quality

Toxic blue-green algae blooms are a reasonably common occurrence in the lake. Warnings about coming into contact with the water are released when an algal bloom is detected. Attempts are being made to limit the amount of phosphates entering the lake in the hope of improving its water quality. Blue-green algae (more correctly cyanobacteria) produce toxins, which can be harmful for humans and any other animals that come in contact with the contaminated water. There have been several cases of dogs being affected after playing in and drinking the lake water.

The water also appears murky due to a high level of turbidity; however, this is not usually a health risk. However, the turbidity, which is caused by wind, prevents photosynthetic stabilisation. Siltation is not considered a major problem and is only a factor in the East Basin, but dredging is not required. The problem has eased with the construction of the Googong Dam, and the spectre of heavy metal pollution has receded, partly due to the closure of some lead mines upstream. However, leaching and groundwater leakage still causes some pollution. Rubbish, oil and sediment traps have been set up at the incoming openings to the lake to minimise pollution.

### Aquatic life and fishing

Fishing is quite popular in the lake. The most common species caught is the illegally introduced carp. Annual monitoring is carried out to determine fish populations. Almost equally as common are the introduced redfin European perch, with these being a regular by catch when fishing for golden perch. However, a number of less common species also inhabit the lake, including native Murray cod, western carp gudgeon and golden perch, as well as introduced goldfish, Gambusia, rainbow trout and brown trout.

The lake has been stocked annually with a variety of introduced and native species and over half a million fish have been released since 1981. There have been many changes to the fish populations in the lake as well as stocking practices since it was first filled.

Regular stocking since the start of the 1980s have re-established reasonable populations of golden perch and Murray cod; native fish that were indigenous to the Molonglo River before the lake was built, but had been lost to mining pollution of the Molonglo River in the first half of the 20th century. The main reason for stocking is to boost fish stocks along the Molonglo, which have been depleted by overfishing, introduced species and habitat destruction. One of the motives for raising the level of Murray cod and golden perch is to balance the ecosystem by having them act as native predators of other fish.

Native Silver perch and introduced brown trout were released in 1981–1983 and 1987–1989 respectively, but have not been stocked since. Silver perch stockings resulted in almost no captures. Introduced rainbow trout have been released sporadically, approximately once a decade, but have not been released since 2002–04, due to unacceptably low survival rates. According to a government report, the reason for the low survival rate is unknown, but the dominance of carp in the competition for food is one suggested theory. However, the eutrophic nature and high water temperatures of the lake in summer are more probable reasons. Golden perch and Murray cod have accounted for around four-fifths of the released fish in the last three decades and have been the only fish stocked in the last five years. The government plans to stock only these two species for the five years leading up to 2014.

## Engineering heritage award

The lake is listed as a National Engineering Landmark by Engineers Australia as part of its Engineering Heritage Recognition Program.

Man-made lake in Canberra, Australia

Recipients of Engineers Australia engineering heritage markers

Reservoirs in the Australian Capital Territory


Megan Rapinoe

Megan Anna Rapinoe (/rəˈpiːnoʊ/ ; born July 5, 1985) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a winger for OL Reign of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), as well as the United States national team. Winner of the Ballon d'Or Féminin and named The Best FIFA Women's Player in 2019, Rapinoe won gold with the national team at the 2012 London Summer Olympics, 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, and 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup and she played for the team at the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup where the U.S. finished in second place. Rapinoe co-captained the national team alongside Carli Lloyd and Alex Morgan from 2018 to 2020. She previously played for the Chicago Red Stars, Philadelphia Independence, and MagicJack in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), as well as Olympique Lyon in France's Division 1 Féminine.

Rapinoe is internationally known for her crafty style of play and her activism off the pitch. Her precise cross to Abby Wambach in the 122nd minute of the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup quarterfinal match against Brazil resulted in an equalizer and eventual win for the Americans after a penalty shootout. The last-minute goal received ESPN's 2011 ESPY Award for Best Play of the Year. During the 2012 London Olympics, she scored three goals and tallied a team-high four assists to lead the United States to a gold medal. She is the first player, male or female, to score a goal directly from a corner at the Olympic Games, having done so twice. She won the Golden Boot and Golden Ball awards at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France.

Rapinoe is an advocate for numerous LGBTQIA+ organizations, including the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network (GLSEN) and Athlete Ally. In 2013, she received the Board of Directors Award from the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center. Rapinoe was included in Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2020. In July 2022, Rapinoe received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from Joe Biden.

## Early life

Rapinoe grew up in Redding, California, with her parents, Jim and Denise, and five siblings, including her fraternal twin Rachael Rapinoe. Denise and Jim raised seven children together, not all their own. Denise has a son and daughter, Michael and Jenny, from a previous marriage; then came older brother Brian and then the twins five years later. Jim and her grandfather Jack both served in the Army. She has Italian (from her paternal grandfather) and Irish ancestry. She idolized her older brother Brian and started playing soccer at age three after watching him play the sport, but he started using drugs when the girls were in second grade. When she was ten and he was fifteen, he was put in juvenile detention, and was thereafter in and out of various prisons including Pelican Bay State Prison. Brian has since made a determined effort to avoid drugs after seeing his younger sister's success in international soccer. For Rachael and Megan, soccer was a means to get away from the drug abuse that is widespread in California.

### High school

Rapinoe spent most of her youth playing with teams coached by her father until high school. Instead of playing soccer at Foothill High School, Rapinoe played for the Elk Grove Pride club team, located south of Sacramento. She competed in track as a freshman and sophomore; competed in basketball as a freshman, sophomore, and senior; and was on the honor roll every semester of high school. Rapinoe was named Parade and National Soccer Coaches Association of America (NSCAA) All-American as a junior and senior. She was named to McDonald's All-American Girls High School Soccer West Team in 2004. Rapinoe played for the under-14 Northern California state Olympic Development Program (ODP) team in 1999, as well as the regional ODP team in 2002.

### Elk Grove United, 2002–2005

From 2002 to 2005, Rapinoe played for Elk Grove Pride in the Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) along with her sister, Rachael, and future national teammate, Stephanie Cox. She and her family commuted two-and-a-half hours from her hometown to play with the team. During the US Youth Soccer National Championships, she scored an equalizer goal in the 18th minute to tie the game 1–1 against the Peachtree City Lazers. Elk Grove United finished second at the nationals after the Lazers scored a game-winning goal in the second half.

### University of Portland Pilots, 2005–2008

Rapinoe and her sister attended the University of Portland in Portland, Oregon. The Rapinoe twins almost committed to Santa Clara University before choosing to play for the Portland Pilots on full scholarships. Rapinoe played in the 2004 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship in 2004, where the United States finished third. The result was that she did not play college soccer in that year.

In 2005, as a freshman, Rapinoe helped the Pilots to an undefeated season and the NCAA Division I Women's Soccer Championship. During the College Cup quarterfinal against Notre Dame, she scored twice and served one assist, helping the Pilots win 3–1 and advance in the College Cup. During the College Cup final against UCLA, she scored one goal and served an assist helping the Pilots win 4–0. She was named NSCAA First Team All-American and was on the Soccer America First Team Freshman All-America. Rapinoe made the NCAA Women's Soccer Championship All Tournament Team and was the West Coast Conference Freshman of the Year. She was also named to the All-West Coast Conference First Team and the All-West Coast Conference Freshman Team. Rapinoe played and started all 25 games as an attacking midfielder, scoring 15 goals and adding 13 assists for 43 points – ranking fifth for freshman point totals in the school's history. That year, she also scored seven game-winning goals.

As a sophomore in 2006, Rapinoe was among the nation's leading scorers with ten goals and two assists in eleven matches. During a match against Washington State University on October 5, she suffered her first season-ending anterior cruciate ligament injury (ACL) injury. Despite her injury, she was one of four Portland players in the program's history, including Christine Sinclair, Tiffeny Milbrett, and Shannon MacMillan, to score 25 goals and 15 assists in two seasons. In 2007, Rapinoe suffered her second season-ending ACL injury two games into the season. She was granted a medical hardship waiver by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) but did not use it.

After taking her time to recover from her second ACL injury, Rapinoe returned for the 2008 season and was on the starting lineup in all 22 games for the Pilots. She helped the team secure a 20–2 record scoring five goals and serving 13 assists. Her 13 assists ranked first for the Pilots as well as in the West Coast Conference and she was named West Coast Conference Player of the Year. She was also named a Soccer America First-Team All-American and NSCAA Second Team All-American. Although she had one more season of college eligibility remaining due to her NCAA medical hardship waiver, she opted to enter the Women's Professional Soccer Draft instead. Rapinoe's 88-point career, including 30 goals and 28 assists, ranks tenth in the school's history despite her playing only 60 games.

## Club career

### Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), 2009–2011

Rapinoe was selected second overall in the 2009 WPS Draft by the Chicago Red Stars for the inaugural season of Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), the highest division of soccer in the United States at the time. She was on the starting lineup in 17 of the 18 games in which she appeared for the Red Stars for a total of 1375 minutes on the pitch. Rapinoe scored two goals and assisted on three others. In August 2009, she was named to the league's All-Star Team and played in the 2009 WPS All-Star Game against Swedish Damallsvenskan champions Umeå IK. In 2010, she started in 19 of the 20 games in which she appeared for the Red Stars. She scored one goal.

In December 2010, Rapinoe signed with expansion team Philadelphia Independence after the Chicago Red Stars ceased operations. She appeared in four games and scored one goal before being traded to MagicJack (formerly Washington Freedom) while she was in Germany for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. It was reported that the "cash considerations" involved in the transfer were . The average salary for a female player in the league was . Rapinoe scored two goals in her eight regular season appearances for MagicJack helping the team finish third in the league standings and secure a spot in the playoffs. During the team's semi-final match against the Boston Breakers on August 17, 2011, Rapinoe scored in the 61st minute solidifying the team's 3–1 win and advancement to the championship final. MagicJack was later defeated 2–0 by the Philadelphia Independence in the final. On October 25, 2011, the WPS voted to terminate the MagicJack franchise, leaving Rapinoe and many other players as free agents for the 2012 season. The league suspended operations in early 2012.

### Sydney FC and Seattle Sounders Women, 2011–2012

In October 2011, Rapinoe signed with Australian W-League team Sydney FC as a guest player for two games. In her second game against Melbourne Victory, she scored with seven minutes remaining to seal three points for Sydney. The win was the first for Sydney during the 2011–12 season. Sydney FC went on to finish third in the regular season and advanced to the playoffs where they were defeated by Brisbane Roar in penalty kicks.

During the summer of 2012, Rapinoe joined fellow national team members Hope Solo, Sydney Leroux, Alex Morgan and Stephanie Cox to play with the Seattle Sounders Women in between camps with the national team as they prepared for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Of the signing, Sounders head coach Michelle French said, "Stemming from her leadership and success at the University of Portland, Megan has continued to evolve and grow into one of the most exciting, unpredictable, creative, and flashy players in the women's game." Rapinoe made two appearances during the regular season with the team, serving two assists. With Rapinoe and her national teammates' presence on the team, the Sounders sold out nine of their ten home matches at the 4,500 capacity Starfire Stadium. Average attendance during the 2012 season for the Sounders Women was four times higher than the next closest team.

### Olympique Lyonnais, 2013–2014

In January 2013, Rapinoe signed for six months with Olympique Lyonnais, the French side that had previously won six consecutive French league championships and two straight European titles, for a reported (or approximately ) a month. Rapinoe played in six regular season matches for the team, scoring two goals primarily playing as a left winger in the squad's 4–3–3 formation.

Rapinoe made her UEFA Women's Champions League debut during the first leg of the 2012–13 quarterfinal against FC Malmö on March 20. She scored one goal during her 24 minutes on the pitch contributing to Lyon's 5–0 final victory. She later scored a goal and served an assist during Lyon's 6–1 win over FCF Juvisy in the second leg of the semi-finals. Rapinoe became the fifth American woman in history to play in a Champions League final when Lyon faced German side VfL Wolfsburg on May 23. Lyon was defeated 1–0 in the final. Rapinoe concluded her Champions League debut having made five appearances, scoring two goals and serving one assist.

After returning to Lyon for the 2013–14 season, Rapinoe scored three goals in her eight appearances for the club. During the 2013–14 Champions League, she made four appearances for Lyon and scored one goal during the team's 6–0 defeat of FC Twente. Lyon was eliminated in the Round of 16. In January 2014, it was announced that Rapinoe had ended her time with Lyon earlier than planned and would be returning to the Seattle Reign for the entire 2014 season. She finished her time with Lyon having scored 8 goals in 28 matches in all competitions.

### Seattle Reign FC, 2013–present

In 2013, Rapinoe joined Seattle Reign FC to which she had been previously allocated in the National Women's Soccer League. Before Rapinoe joined the squad, the team had been struggling to score goals and were in ten games. With the addition of Rapinoe, her national team and former Seattle Sounders Women teammate, Hope Solo, and some lineup changes to the front line, the Reign improved their goal-scoring ability and turned their league record around. During a match against her former team in the WPS, the Chicago Red Stars, Rapinoe played a direct role in all of Seattle's four goals – leading the team to a 4–1 win over Chicago. After scoring two goals and serving one assist during the match, she was named NWSL Player of the Week for Week 16 for the 2013 NWSL season. Despite only playing approximately half of the season (12 out of 22 regular season games), Rapinoe was the Reign's leading scorer with five goals.

After suffering a foot injury during the first home match of the 2014 season on April 14, Rapinoe sat out several games and made her second season appearance on July 3 against Western New York Flash. Her four goals and one assist during the regular season helped the Reign secure the league's regular season title (NWSL Shield) with a record and 54 points – 13 points ahead of the second place team, FC Kansas City. During the team's playoff semi-final match against Washington Spirit, Rapinoe scored a goal helping the Reign win 2–1 and advance to the championship final against FC Kansas City. Despite Rapinoe's goal during the championship final, the Reign was ultimately defeated by Kansas City 2–1.

Rapinoe returned to the Reign for the 2015 season. During the team's first match against Western New York Flash, she scored her first professional hat trick and served an assist to Jess Fishlock to help the Reign defeat the Flash 5–1. She was subsequently named the league's NWSL Player of the Week for week 1 of the season.

In September 2019, the Reign FC recognized Rapinoe, along with 11 others, as a Reign FC Legend, joining the 36 previous legends.

During the 2021 season, Rapinoe scored six goals in 12 appearances for the club and co-captained the squad with Lauren Barnes. In August 2021, Rapinoe was named NWSL Player of the Month. The Reign finished in second place during the regular season with a record. After advancing to the NWSL Playoffs, they were eliminated by eventual champions Washington Spirit.

On July 8, 2023, Rapinoe announced that she would retire from professional soccer after the 2023 National Women's Soccer League season.

## International career

### Youth national teams

Rapinoe played for the United States under-16 national soccer team in 2002 and traveled with the team to France and Houston, Texas. She also played at the United States Youth Soccer Association International Tournament in Houston in May 2003.

From 2003 to 2005, Rapinoe played for the United States under-19 team. She made 21 appearances and scored nine goals. Her first camp with the under-19 team occurred in January 2003 in Chula Vista, California. She traveled with the team during a European tour to the Netherlands and Germany in July 2003. She scored her first goal with the team against Mexico on March 1, 2003. Rapinoe played in three matches at the 2004 CONCACAF Under-19 qualifying tournament, scoring three goals. During the 2004 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship in Thailand she scored a team-high three goals, including one in the third place match victory against Brazil.

### Senior national team

#### National team debut and injury recovery, 2006–2009

Rapinoe trained with the United States women's national soccer team for the first time during the team's 2006 Residency Training Camp in Carson, California. She made her debut for the senior team on July 23, 2006, during a friendly match against Ireland. She scored her first two goals on October 1, 2006, during a friendly match against Taiwan.

Due to two separate ACL injuries, Rapinoe did not play for the senior team in 2007 or 2008 and subsequently missed the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup and the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Upon her return to the team in 2009, she led the team in points with five, including two goals and one assist. She was on the starting lineup in six of the seven games in which she played the same year.

During the 2009 Algarve Cup, Rapinoe scored the game-winning goal against Norway leading the team to a 1–0 victory during the team's third group stage match of the tournament. After the U.S. finished at the top of their group, they were defeated during a penalty kick shootout by Sweden in the championship final.

#### 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup

In 2010, Rapinoe started eight of the ten games she played and scored four goals with two assists. Rapinoe scored against Sweden and China and twice against Guatemala at the 2010 CONCACAF Women's World Cup Qualifying Tournament, in which she played three games. After the United States finished third at the tournament, they traveled to Italy to vie for a place at the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup in the UEFA-CONCACAF play-off against Italy. During the team's second match of the series, Rapinoe served the assist for Amy Rodriguez's game-winning goal helping the United States earn a berth to the 2011 World Cup.

Rapinoe was named to the United States roster for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. During the team's second group stage match against Colombia, she entered the match during the 50th minute and scored almost immediately to put the United States up 2–0. Rapinoe celebrated her goal by running to the corner to the left of Colombia's goal, picking up an on-field microphone being used for the match's television broadcast, tapping it, and singing Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." into it.

During the quarterfinal match against Brazil, Rapinoe came on as a substitute and served the precise cross to Abby Wambach's equalizer goal in the 122nd minute of the game: a goal that holds the record for latest goal ever scored in a World Cup match. Rapinoe would later convert her shot during the penalty shootout to help send the United States to the semi-finals. Rapinoe described her last minute cross against Brazil: "I just took a touch and friggin' smacked it with my left foot. I don't think I've hit a ball like that with my left foot. I got it to the back post and that beast in the air just got a hold of it."

Following the match against Brazil, Rapinoe was named ESPN's Next Level Player of the Week for completing 5 of 10 crosses while the rest of the team was 0 for 18. She served an assist in the semi-final against France in which the United States won 3–1. During the dramatic final match against Japan in front of spectators at sold-out Commerzbank-Arena in Frankfurt and a record-breaking international television audience, Rapinoe served her third assist of the tournament to Alex Morgan who scored the game-opening goal in the 69th minute. The United States tied Japan 2–2 during regular and overtime leading to their second penalty kick shootout of the tournament. They were defeated 3–1 in penalties and concluded the tournament with a silver medal. Rapinoe's tournament record included one goal and three assists. She played in all six games for the United States.

#### 2012 London Olympics

Rapinoe helped lead the United States to a gold medal at the 2012 Olympic Games in London. During the team's second group stage match against Colombia, she scored the game-winning goal in the 33rd minute in what became a 3–0 win for the Americans. After the U.S. defeated North Korea 1–0 in their final group stage match, they faced New Zealand in the quarterfinals and won 2–0.

During a dramatic semi-final match against Canada at Old Trafford, Rapinoe scored two game-equalizing goals in the 54th and 70th minutes. Her first goal was scored directly from a corner — a corner kick that goes untouched by another player into the net. She is the first and so far only player, male or female, to score an Olimpico at the Olympic Games. The U.S. defeated Canada 4–3 with a stoppage time goal in the 123rd minute by Alex Morgan. With her two goals, Rapinoe is one of only five players, including Wei Haiying, Cristiane, Angela Hucles and Christine Sinclair, to have scored two goals during an Olympic semi-final.

The United States team clinched the gold medal after defeating Japan 2–1 at Wembley Stadium in front of 80,203 spectators — the largest crowd ever for a women's Olympic soccer game. Rapinoe assisted on Carli Lloyd's second goal of the final in the 53rd minute. She ended the tournament with three goals and a team-high of four assists (tied with Alex Morgan). Widely regarded as one of the top players of the Olympics, Rapinoe was named to numerous 'Team of the Tournament' lists including those selected by the BBC and All White Kit.

Rapinoe achieved a career-best 8 goals and 12 assists for the United States in 2012.

#### 2013–2014

At the 2013 Algarve Cup in Portugal, Rapinoe was named the Player of the Tournament, despite playing in only two of the four matches in which the United States competed. She was injured in practice and did not play during the final as the team defeated Germany to win the 2013 Algarve Cup.

During a friendly match against South Korea on June 20, 2013, Rapinoe served a corner kick that ended up being the assist for Abby Wambach's record-breaking 159th international goal. Wambach's goal broke the world record for most international goals scored by a male or female. During a friendly match against New Zealand at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California, Rapinoe scored the game-opening goal on a direct free kick (her 23rd international goal) to help the U.S. win 4–1 and was named Player of the Match.

#### 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup

In April 2015, Rapinoe was named to the roster for the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada coached by national team head coach Jill Ellis. During the team's first group stage match against Australia, she scored the game opening goal in the 12th minute. She also scored a second goal in the 78th minute. With an additional goal scored by teammate Christen Press in the 61st minute, the United States won 3–1.

During training for a Victory Tour match to celebrate the team's World Cup win in late 2015, Rapinoe tore her anterior cruciate ligament. The national team game that she was training for was later cancelled due to poor field conditions.

#### 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup

Rapinoe was named to the United States' 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup roster in May 2019; it was her third World Cup appearance. In a 13–0 win over Thailand during the group stage of the tournament, she contributed a goal. The United States advanced to the knockout stage, where they faced Spain. Rapinoe scored twice in a 2–1 victory that sent the U.S. to a quarterfinal matchup against the host country, France. In the fifth minute, Rapinoe scored on a free kick to give the United States an early lead. She later added a second goal, and the U.S. held on to earn a semi-final berth. Rapinoe was named Player of the Match by FIFA for her performances in the round of 16 and quarterfinals.

Because of an injured hamstring, Rapinoe was forced to sit out of the United States' semi-final victory over England, but she recovered in time to start in the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup Final. During the final on July 7 in front of a sold-out crowd of 57,900 fans at Parc Olympique Lyonnais, Rapinoe scored her 50th international goal on a penalty kick in the 61st minute. After a second goal by teammate Rose Lavelle, the United States defeated the Netherlands 2–0 to clinch its second consecutive World Cup championship. At age 34, Rapinoe was the oldest woman to score in a World Cup final and was named Player of the Match. She was awarded the Golden Boot as the top scorer in the tournament with six goals, having played fewer minutes than her teammate Alex Morgan and England's Ellen White, who also recorded six goals. Rapinoe also earned the Golden Ball award as the best player at the tournament.

#### 2020 Tokyo Olympics

On August 5, 2021, she scored twice (including a second Olympic Olimpico) in a 4–3 win over Australia in the bronze medal match of the 2020 Summer Olympics.

#### 2022 SheBelievesCup

In February 2022, U.S. women's national team coach, Vlatko Andonovski, announced that Rapinoe would not be included on the national team roster for the SheBelieves Cup.

#### 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup

On June 21, 2023, Andonovski named Rapinoe to the United States squad for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup in Australia. On July 8, she announced that the 2023 World Cup would be her last major tournament, and that she would retire from professional soccer at the end of the year. On August 6, 2023, the USWNT was knocked out of the tournament on penalties against Sweden in the Round of 16. Rapinoe was one of the three U.S. players to miss a penalty kick in what would be Rapinoe's final World Cup match.

## Personal life

Rapinoe has stated that she knew that she was a lesbian by her first year in college. She publicly came out in the July 2012 edition of Out magazine, stating that she had been in a relationship with Australian soccer player Sarah Walsh since 2009. After approximately five years together, Rapinoe and Walsh ended their relationship in 2013. Rapinoe later dated Sub Pop recording artist Sera Cahoone. Rapinoe and Cahoone announced their engagement in August 2015. In January 2017, Rapinoe stated that their wedding plans were on hold. On July 20, 2017, Rapinoe and basketball player Sue Bird of Seattle Storm confirmed that they had been dating since late 2016. In 2018, Bird and Rapinoe became the first same-sex couple on the cover of ESPN's The Body Issue. They announced their engagement on October 30, 2020.

Speaking in a 2020 interview with Terry Gross on Fresh Air, Rapinoe discussed how her older brother, who was the first to inspire her to play soccer, had suffered with drug abuse. He has also spent periods of time in jail, including solitary confinement. Rapinoe explained that during his incarceration, her brother became involved with white supremacist groups within prison.

### Activism

Rapinoe garnered national attention for kneeling during the national anthem at an international match in September 2016 in solidarity with NFL player Colin Kaepernick. Following the match, she stated:

> It was a little nod to Kaepernick and everything that he's standing for right now. I think it's actually pretty disgusting the way he was treated and the way that a lot of the media has covered it and made it about something that it absolutely isn't. [...] Being a gay American, I know what it means to look at the flag and not have it protect all of your liberties. It was something small that I could do and something that I plan to keep doing in the future and hopefully spark some meaningful conversation around it.

During the 2015 World Cup, she stood in silence for the national anthem. She spoke out against the use of stadiums with artificial turf, its first use in a senior women's or men's World Cup tournament.

Rapinoe has been involved in the women's team's equal pay complaint to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission since at least 2016. In March 2019, she, along with 27 of her US Women's soccer teammates filed a lawsuit against the United States Soccer Federation accusing it of gender discrimination, hoping to achieve equal pay. In May of the following year a judge dismissed key parts of the lawsuit including the complaint over receiving lower pay than the U.S. men's team but allowed other claims to move to trial.

Rapinoe has been a longtime advocate for the inclusion of transgender women in women’s sports, and has characterized the issue as being part of a larger effort to “legislate away people’s full humanity“.

### Philanthropy

Rapinoe has done philanthropic work for the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network (GLSEN) and the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee. In 2013, she became an ambassador for Athlete Ally, a nonprofit organization that focuses on ending homophobia and transphobia in sports.

In September 2017, Rapinoe and U.S. teammate Alex Morgan were part of a group of soccer players who signed up for the "Common Goal" campaign created by Juan Mata of Manchester United. As participants in the campaign, players donate one percent of their individual wages in support of other soccer-related charities. Rapinoe and Morgan were the first two women players to sign on to the campaign.

Rapinoe was among several athletes to criticize the U.S. Supreme Court's decision to overturn Roe v. Wade in June 2022. She had been one of five hundred former and current athletes who signed an amicus brief supporting abortion rights for the Supreme Court case back in September 2021.

### Endorsements

Rapinoe has signed endorsement deals with Nike and Samsung. She has appeared in multiple commercials for Nike throughout her career. In 2013, she appeared in advertisements for the clothing company Wildfang and began a partnership with medical device company, DJO Global. In 2016, she appeared in television commercials and print advertisements for Energy Brands' Vitamin Water. The same year, she was featured in a Nike commercial starring Cristiano Ronaldo. In 2019, she was sponsored by Procter & Gamble, BodyArmor, Hulu, LUNA Bar, and VISA. In 2021, she was announced as one of the new faces of Victoria's Secret, and appeared in ads for Subway. Rapinoe co-starred in a commercial for ESPN's SportsCenter in January 2023 with Becky Sauerbrunn and Sophia Smith. In July 2023, she starred in a television commercial for Google Pixel, called "Legend".

### Politics

In December 2019, Rapinoe endorsed Elizabeth Warren in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. During the opening night of the 2020 Democratic National Convention, Rapinoe hosted a panel with frontline workers of the COVID-19 pandemic.

## In popular culture

### Print media

Rapinoe was featured on the cover of the March 2013 edition of Curve. She was profiled on August 6, 2012, edition of Sports Illustrated, and the July 2012 edition of Out. The April 11, 2013, edition of The New York Times featured an article about her experiences in France, with the national team, and coming out publicly before the 2012 Olympics. In July 2014, she was featured in the ESPN's The Body Issue. In 2019, she became the first openly gay woman in the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. She was featured on multiple covers of Sports Illustrated, Marie Claire, and InStyle the same year.

### Television and film

Rapinoe has made appearances on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, The Today Show, The Rachel Maddow Show, Meet the Press, Good Morning America, and Jimmy Kimmel Live. In 2012, she appeared in an ESPN feature called Title IX is Mine: USWNT. She was the focus of a Fox Soccer feature, Fox Soccer Exclusive: Megan Rapinoe in November 2012.

In 2016, Rapinoe starred with teammates Hope Solo and Crystal Dunn in a docu-series called Keeping Score broadcast by Fullscreen. The episodes follow the athletes as they prepare for the 2016 Rio Olympics and addresses issues such as equal pay and racism. In February 2019, she was featured in Nike's "Dream Crazier" ad with Serena Williams, Simone Biles, Ibtihaj Muhammad, Chloe Kim, and other women athletes. The ad appeared during the 2019 Oscars. In 2019, Rapinoe makes a cameo guest appearance on Showtime's The L Word: Generation Q.

In December 2020, it was reported that Rapinoe's bestselling memoir "One Life" is set to be adapted as a scripted TV series after Sony Pictures Television optioned the rights.

On July 17, 2023, it was announced that Rapinoe will be one of the players featured in an upcoming Netflix documentary about the U.S. Women’s National Soccer Team competing in the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup. The docuseries is slated to premiere this fall.

### Video games and LEGO

Rapinoe was featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports' FIFA video game series starting in FIFA 16, the first time women players were included in the game. In September 2015, she was ranked by EA Sports as the No. 2 women's player following teammate Carli Lloyd. In 2023, Rapinoe was included in LEGO's Icons of Play set.

### Ticker tape parades, White House and Congressional honors, and a corn maze

Following the United States' win at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, Rapinoe and her teammates became the first women's sports team to be honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City. Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio. In October of the same year, the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House, and the president made note of the Northern California farm that had built a corn maze in the shape of Rapinoe's face.

Following the 2019 Women's World Cup, New York City honored the women's national team with a second ticker tape parade and were introduced by Robin Roberts at City Hall. Rapinoe and her teammates were invited to the national capitol by Senator Chuck Schumer and Congresswomen Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Ayanna Pressley and Nancy Pelosi.

### Fashion

According to Vogue, Rapinoe has developed her own signature look and possesses the swagger and attitude of a style icon whereas The Guardian took note of Rapinoe's "diverse approach to clothes" and referred to her as "an expert in mixing matching." In 2020, Rapinoe signed a contract to be the spokeswoman for international luxury fashion brand Loewe, and in 2022, Rapinoe designed her own logo and limited collection entitled "Victory Redefined" in collaboration with Nike.

### National anthem

On September 4, 2016, during a game in Chicago against the Red Stars, Rapinoe knelt during the national anthem in solidarity with Colin Kaepernick, the San Francisco 49ers quarterback who refused to stand during the anthem to protest racial injustice and minority oppression. She said at the time she planned to continue to kneel. Later that week on September 7, the Washington Spirit uncharacteristically played the national anthem prior to the teams taking the field, indicating that they did not want to "subject our fans and friends to the disrespect we feel such an act would represent". In an additional statement, the Spirit management said "to willingly allow anyone to hijack this tradition that means so much to millions of Americans and so many of our own fans for any cause would effectively be just as disrespectful as doing it ourselves."

Rapinoe expressed displeasure with this move, saying, "it was incredibly distasteful, four days before one of the worst tragedies in our country, to say I tried to hijack this event." She continued the protest on September 15, 2016, during the national team game against Thailand. U.S. Soccer then issued a statement saying: "Representing your country is a privilege and honor for any player or coach that is associated with U.S. Soccer's National Teams. Therefore, our national anthem has particular significance for U.S. Soccer. In front of national and often global audiences, the playing of our national anthem is an opportunity for our Men's and Women's National Team players and coaches to reflect upon the liberties and freedom we all appreciate in this country. As part of the privilege to represent your country, we have an expectation that our players and coaches will stand and honor our flag while the national anthem is played." In addressing the issue, Rapinoe stated in an interview that "using this blanketed patriotism as a defense against what the protest actually is was pretty cowardly", and further stated that she would probably never sing the national anthem again.

## Autobiography

In November 2020 Rapinoe published her autobiography, One Life () which details her early life, her career highlights and setbacks, her activism for racial and gender equality, and her personal relationships. The book became a New York Times best seller and was optioned by Sony Pictures Television.

## Career statistics

### Club

### International goals

Note

## Honors

Lyon

- Division 1 Féminine: 2012–13
- Coupe de France Féminine: 2012–13

OL Reign (formerly Seattle Reign FC)

- NWSL Shield: 2014, 2015, 2022
- The Women's Cup: 2022

United States

- FIFA Women's World Cup:2015, 2019
- Olympic Gold Medal: 2012
- Olympic Bronze Medal: 2021
- Algarve Cup: 2011, 2013, 2015
- CONCACAF Women's Championship: 2014, 2018, 2022
- SheBelieves Cup: 2018, 2020, 2021, 2023
- Tournament of Nations: 2018
- CONCACAF Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament: 2020

Individual

- Algarve Cup MVP: 2013
- NWSL Player of the Week: 2013 Week 16, 2015 Week 1, 2017 Week 11, 2017 Week 14, 2018 Week 1, 2018 Week 7
- NWSL Second XI: 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019
- NWSL Best XI: 2018
- IFFHS World's Best Woman Playmaker: 2019
- IFFHS Women's World Team: 2019
- The Best FIFA Women's Player: 2019
- FIFA Women's World Cup Golden Ball: 2019
- FIFA Women's World Cup Golden Boot: 2019
- FIFPro World XI: 2019, 2020
- FIFA Women's World Cup Final Player of the Match: 2019
- Ballon d'Or Féminin: 2019
- IFFHS CONCACAF Woman Team of the Decade 2011–2020

Media

- ESPY Award - Best Team (2015, 2019 as a member of the U.S. Women's National Team)

### Awards and recognition

Following the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, Rapinoe's hometown of Redding honored her with a parade and named September 10 "Megan Rapinoe Day". She received the Harry Glickman Professional Female Athlete of the Year award at the 60th annual Oregon Sports Awards held on February 12, 2012. On October 25, 2012, she was one of ten female soccer players shortlisted for the FIFA Women's World Player of the Year award. The same year, she was named a finalist for Sports Illustrated's Most Inspiring Performers of 2012. Rapinoe was awarded the board of directors Award by the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center on November 10, 2012, for bringing awareness to LGBT people in sports.

In March 2013, Rapinoe was named Player of the Tournament at the 2013 Algarve Cup, which the U.S. won. She tallied a goal and assist in two games played. After scoring two goals and serving one assist during a 4–1 win over the Chicago Red Stars on July 25, 2013, she was named NWSL Player of the Week by the media for Week 16 of the 2013 NWSL season.

In December 2014, Rapinoe was inducted into the Shasta County Sports Hall of Fame along with several other athletes from Shasta County including Ryan O'Callaghan and Ricky Ray. In 2015, she was inducted into the National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame. Also in 2015, she was named NWSL Player of the Week for Week 1 of the 2015 NWSL season.

In 2019, Rapinoe won the Golden Boot (the second American to do so after Michelle Akers in 1999) and Golden Ball awards at the Women's World Cup in France. The same year, she was Sports Illustrated's Sportsperson of the Year and was named The Best FIFA Women's Player In 2020, Rapinoe won the Best in Sports Shorty Award. On July 1, 2022, the White House announced that Rapinoe would be awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

On July 7, 2022, Rapinoe was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest honor given to civilians, by President Joe Biden in a ceremony at the White House; she was among a group of 17 honorees that included Simone Biles.

## See also

- List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
- List of FIFA Women's World Cup winning players
- List of Olympic medalists in soccer
- List of soccer players with 100 or more caps
- List of LGBT sportspeople
- The 100 Best Female Footballers in the World
- List of OL Reign players
- List of foreign W-League (Australia) players
- List of foreign Division 1 Féminine players
- List of most expensive association football transfers
- List of Nike sponsorships
- Timeline of the gender pay gap in sports
- List of University of Portland alumni
- List of Golden Scarf recipients
- List of Victoria's Secret models

American soccer player (born 1985)

Expatriate women's footballers in France

Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in soccer

Olympic gold medalists for the United States in soccer

Parade High School All-Americans (girls' soccer)

Sportspeople from Shasta County, California

U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)

United States women's international soccer players

Women's association football midfielders


Countershading

Countershading, or Thayer's law, is a method of camouflage in which an animal's coloration is darker on the top or upper side and lighter on the underside of the body. This pattern is found in many species of mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, and insects, both in predators and in prey.

When light falls from above on a uniformly coloured three-dimensional object such as a sphere, it makes the upper side appear lighter and the underside darker, grading from one to the other. This pattern of light and shade makes the object appear solid, and therefore easier to detect. The classical form of countershading, discovered in 1909 by the artist Abbott Handerson Thayer, works by counterbalancing the effects of self-shadowing, again typically with grading from dark to light. In theory this could be useful for military camouflage, but in practice it has rarely been applied, despite the best efforts of Thayer and, later, in the Second World War, of the zoologist Hugh Cott.

The precise function of various patterns of animal coloration that have been called countershading has been debated by zoologists such as Hannah Rowland (2009), with the suggestion that there may be multiple functions including flattening and background matching when viewed from the side; background matching when viewed from above or below, implying separate colour schemes for the top and bottom surfaces; outline obliteration from above; and a variety of other largely untested non-camouflage theories. A related mechanism, counter-illumination, adds the creation of light by bioluminescence or lamps to match the actual brightness of a background. Counter-illumination camouflage is common in marine organisms such as squid. It has been studied up to the prototype stage for military use in ships and aircraft, but it too has rarely or never been used in warfare.

The reverse of countershading, with the belly pigmented darker than the back, enhances contrast and so makes animals more conspicuous. It is found in animals that can defend themselves, such as skunks. The pattern is used both in startle or deimatic displays and as a signal to warn off experienced predators. However, animals that habitually live upside-down but lack strong defences, such as the Nile catfish and the Luna moth caterpillar, have upside-down countershading for camouflage.

## Early research

The English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton, author of The Colours of Animals (1890) discovered the countershading of various insects, including the pupa or chrysalis of the purple emperor butterfly, Apatura iris, the caterpillar larvae of the brimstone moth, Opisthograptis luteolata and of the peppered moth, Biston betularia. However he did not use the term countershading, nor did he suggest that the effect occurred widely.

The New Hampshire artist Abbott Handerson Thayer was one of the first to study and write about countershading. In his 1909 book Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, he correctly described and illustrated countershading with photographs and paintings, but wrongly claimed that almost all animals are countershaded. For this reason countershading is sometimes called Thayer's law. Thayer wrote:

> Animals are painted by Nature darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and vice versa. ... the fact that a vast majority of creatures of the whole animal kingdom wear this gradation, developed to an exquisitely minute degree, and are famous for being hard to see in their homes, speaks for itself.

Thayer observed and painted a number of examples, including the Luna moth caterpillar Actias luna, both in its habitual upside-down feeding position, where its countershading makes it appear flat, and artificially inverted from that position, where sunlight and its inverted countershading combine to make it appear heavily shaded and therefore solid. Thayer obtained a patent in 1902 to paint warships, both submarines and surface ships, using countershading, but failed to convince the US Navy to adopt his ideas.

Hugh Bamford Cott in his 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals described many instances of countershading, following Thayer in general approach but criticising Thayer's excessive claim ("He says 'All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever prey or are preyed upon are under certain normal circumstances obliterative.'") that effectively all animals are camouflaged with countershading. Cott called this "Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme".

Both Thayer and Cott included in their books photographs of a non-countershaded white cockerel against a white background, to make the point that in Thayer's words "a monochrome object can not be 'obliterated', no matter what its background" or in Cott's words "Colour resemblance alone is not sufficient to afford concealment". Cott explained that

> Contrary to what might have been expected by any one lacking in artistic perception, the bird appears highly conspicuous, the back looking lighter, and the breast darker, than the background, although in actual fact, back, background and breast are all pure white."

## Application

### In animals

Countershading is observed in a wide range of animal groups, both terrestrial, such as deer, and marine, such as sharks. It is the basis of camouflage in both predators and prey. It is used alongside other forms of camouflage including colour matching and disruptive coloration. Among predatory fish, the gray snapper, Lutianus griseus, is effectively flattened by its countershading, while it hunts an "almost invisible" prey, the hardhead fish, Atherina laticeps which swims over greyish sands. Other countershaded marine animals include blue shark, herring, and dolphin; while fish such as the mackerel and sergeant fish are both countershaded and patterned with stripes or spots.

> It tones the canvas on which are painted the Leopard's spots, the Tiger's stripes ... It is the dress almost universally worn by rodents... It is the essential uniform adopted by Conies, Asses, Antelopes, Deer ... It is repeated extensively among the marsupials ... It provides a basic livery for the great majority of snakes, lizards, and amphibians. Among insects it reaches a fine state of perfection in different caterpillars and grasshoppers. ... It is, however, in rivers, and in the surface waters of the sea, that countershading reaches its maximum development and significance.

Mesozoic marine reptiles had countershading. Fossilised skin pigmented with dark-coloured eumelanin reveals that ichthyosaurs, leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies. The ornithischian dinosaur Psittacosaurus similarly appears to have been countershaded, implying that its predators detected their prey by deducing shape from shading. Modelling suggests further that the dinosaur was optimally countershaded for a closed habitat such as a forest.

### Counter-illumination

Another form of animal camouflage uses bioluminescence to increase the average brightness of an animal to match the brightness of the background. This is called counter-illumination. It is common in mid-water pelagic fish and invertebrates especially squid. It makes the counter-illuminated animal practically invisible to predators viewing it from below. As such, counter-illumination camouflage can be seen as an extension beyond what countershading can achieve. Where countershading only paints out shadows, counter-illumination can add in actual lights, permitting effective camouflage in changing conditions, including where the background is bright enough to make an animal that is not counter-illuminated appear as a shadow.

### Military

Countershading, like counter-illumination, has rarely been applied in practice for military camouflage, though not because military authorities were unaware of it. Both Abbott Thayer in the First World War and Hugh Cott in the Second World War proposed countershading to their countries' armed forces. They each demonstrated the effectiveness of countershading, without succeeding in persuading their armed forces to adopt the technique, though they influenced military adoption of camouflage in general.

Cott was a protege of John Graham Kerr who had quarrelled with Norman Wilkinson in the First World War about dazzle camouflage for ships. Wilkinson remained influential in 1939 as an inspector of camouflage, so a political argument developed. Cott was invited to camouflage a 12-inch rail-mounted gun, alongside a similar gun camouflaged conventionally. Cott carefully combined disruptive contrast to break up the gun barrel's outlines with countershading to flatten out its appearance as a solid cylinder. The guns were then photographed from the air from various angles, and in Peter Forbes's view "the results were remarkable." Cott's gun is "invisible except to the most minute scrutiny by someone who knows exactly where to look and what to look for. The other gun is always highly visible." The authorities hesitated, appearing to be embarrassed by the evidence that Cott was right, and argued that countershading would be too difficult to use as an expert zoologist would be needed to supervise every installation. Cott was posted to the Middle East, and Kerr unsuccessfully intervened, pleading for guns to be painted Cott's way and Cott to be brought home.

The Australian zoologist William Dakin in his 1941 book The Art of Camouflage followed Thayer in describing countershading in some detail, and the book was reprinted as a military handbook in 1942. Dakin photographed model birds, much as Thayer and Cott had done, and argued that the shoulders and arms of battledress should be countershaded.

Countershading was described in the US War Department's 1943 Principles of Camouflage, where after four paragraphs of theory and one on its use in nature, the advice given is that:

> Upper surfaces should be painted and textured so as to conform to the color and tone of the surrounding country (background) and the sides graded and toned from this to the white which the under surfaces and parts in shade should be painted.

Inventors have continued to advocate military usage of countershading, with for example a 2005 US patent for personal camouflage including countershading in the form of "statistical countercoloring" with varying sizes of rounded dark patches on a lighter ground.

Research by Ariel Tankus and Yehezkel Yeshurun investigating "camouflage breaking", the automated detection of objects such as tanks, showed that analysing images for convexity by looking for graded shadows can "break very strong camouflage, which might delude even human viewers." More precisely, images are searched for places where the gradient of brightness crosses zero, such as the line where a shadow stops becoming darker and starts to become lighter again. The technique defeated camouflage using disruption of edges, but the authors observed that animals with Thayer countershading are using "counter-measures to convexity based detectors", which implied "predators who use convexity based detectors."

## Function

Hannah Rowland, reviewing countershading 100 years after Abbott Thayer, observed that countershading, which she defines as "darker pigmentation on those surfaces exposed to the most lighting" is a common but poorly understood aspect of animal coloration. She noted there had been "much debate" about how countershading works. She considered the evidence for Thayer's theory that this acts as camouflage "by reducing ventral shadowing", and reviewed alternative explanations for countershading.

Camouflage theories of countershading, Rowland wrote, include "self-shadow concealment which results in improved background matching when viewed from the side"; "self-shadow concealment that flattens the form when viewed from the side"; "background matching when viewed from above or below"; and "body outline obliteration when viewed from above". These are examined in turn below.

### Flattening and background matching when viewed from the side

Cott, like Thayer, argued that countershading would make animals hard to see from the side, as they would "fade into a ghostly elusiveness". Rowland notes that Cott is here reviewing Thayer's theory and "reinforcing the view that a gradation in shading would act to eliminate the effects of ventral shadowing." Kiltie measured the effect of the countershading of the grey squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis, showing that when the squirrel is horizontal the self-shadowing of the belly is partly concealed, but that when the squirrel is vertical (as when climbing a tree trunk) this effect did not occur.

Thayer's original argument, restated by Cott, was that nature did the exact opposite with countershading that an artist did with paint when creating the illusion of solid three-dimensionality, namely counteracting the effect of shade to flatten out form. Shading is a powerful cue used by animals in different phyla to identify the shapes of objects. Research with chicks showed that they preferred to peck at grains with shadows falling below them (as if illuminated from above), so both humans and birds may make use of shading as a depth cue.

### Background matching from above or below

A completely different function of animal (and military vehicle) coloration is to camouflage the top and bottom surfaces differently, to match their backgrounds below and above respectively. This was noted, for example, by Frank Evers Beddard in 1892:

> Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark-coloured and the lower surface white, so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below.

Early researchers including Alfred Russel Wallace, Beddard, Cott and Craik argued that in marine animals including pelagic fish such as marlin and mackerel, as well as dolphins, sharks, and penguins the upper and lower surfaces are sharply distinct in tone, with a dark upper surface and often a nearly white lower surface. They suggested that when seen from the top, the darker dorsal surface of the animal would offer camouflage against the darkness of the deep water below. When seen from below, the lighter ventral area would similarly provide the least possible contrast with the sunlit ocean surface above. There is some evidence for this in birds, where birds that catch fish at a medium depth, rather than at the surface or on the seabed, are more often coloured in this way, and the prey of these birds would see only the underside of the bird. Rowland concluded that each possible role for coloration patterns lumped together as "countershading" needs to be evaluated separately, rather than just assuming it functions effectively.

### Outline obliteration from above

Rowland (2009) identified an additional mechanism of countershading not previously analysed, namely that a round body such as a cylinder illuminated and seen from above appears to have dark sides. Using a graphics tool, she demonstrated that this effect can be flattened out by countershading. Since predators are known to use edges to identify prey, countershading may therefore, she argues, make prey harder to detect when seen from above.

### Non-camouflage theories

Non-camouflage theories include protection from ultraviolet light; thermoregulation; and protection from abrasion. All three of these "plausible" theories remained largely untested in 2009, according to Rowland.

## Evidence

Despite demonstrations and examples adduced by Cott and others, little experimental evidence for the effectiveness of countershading was gathered in the century since Thayer's discovery. Experiments in 2009 using artificial prey showed that countershaded objects do have survival benefits and in 2012, a study by William Allen and colleagues showed that countershading in 114 species of ruminants closely matched predictions for "self-shadow concealment", the function predicted by Poulton, Thayer and Cott.

## Mechanism

Evolutionary developmental biology has assembled evidence from embryology and genetics to show how evolution has acted at all scales from the whole organism down to individual genes, proteins and genetic switches. In the case of countershaded mammals with dark (often brownish) upper parts and lighter (often buff or whitish) under parts, such as in the house mouse, it is the Agouti gene which creates the difference in shading. Agouti encodes for a protein, the Agouti signalling peptide (ASP), which specifically inhibits the action of the Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R). In the absence of the Agouti protein, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone stimulates the cells bearing MC1R, melanocytes, to produce dark eumelanin, colouring the skin and fur dark brown or black. In the presence of the Agouti protein, the same system produces the lighter-coloured, yellow or red phaeomelanin. A genetic switch active in the cells of the embryo that will become the belly skin causes the Agouti gene to become active there, creating the countershading seen in adult mammals.

## Reverse countershading

If countershading paints out shadows, the reverse, darkening the belly and lightening the back, would maximise contrast by adding to the natural fall of light. This pattern of animal coloration is found in animals such as the skunk and honey badger with strong defences—the offensive stink of the skunk, and the sharp claws, aggressive nature and stink of the honey badger. These animals do not run when under attack, but move slowly, often turning to face the danger, and giving deimatic or threat displays either to startle inexperienced predators, or as an aposematic signal, to warn off experienced ones.

The caterpillar of the Luna moth, as discovered by Thayer, is in Cott's phrase "countershaded in relation to [its] attitude", i.e. shaded with a light back grading to a dark belly, as is the Nile catfish, Synodontis batensoda for the same reason: these animals (and other caterpillars including Automeris io and the eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellatus) habitually live 'upside down' with the belly uppermost. Similarly in the sea slug Glaucus atlanticus, the reverse countershading is associated with inverted habits. These animals are thus employing countershading in the usual way for camouflage.

## Examples in animals

## See also

- Synodontis nigriventris, an "upside-down" catfish (with reverse countershading)
- Counterchanging, a heraldic device of similar appearance

Camouflage to counteract self-shading