Miriam Makeba

Zenzile Miriam Makeba (4 March 1932 – 9 November 2008), nicknamed Mama Africa, was a South African singer, songwriter, actress, and civil rights activist. Associated with musical genres including Afropop, jazz, and world music, she was an advocate against apartheid and white-minority government in South Africa.

Born in Johannesburg to Swazi and Xhosa parents, Makeba was forced to find employment as a child after the death of her father. She had a brief and allegedly abusive first marriage at the age of 17, gave birth to her only child in 1950, and survived breast cancer. Her vocal talent had been recognized when she was a child, and she began singing professionally in the 1950s, with the Cuban Brothers, the Manhattan Brothers, and an all-woman group, the Skylarks, performing a mixture of jazz, traditional African melodies, and Western popular music. In 1959, Makeba had a brief role in the anti-apartheid film Come Back, Africa, which brought her international attention, and led to her performing in Venice, London, and New York City. In London, she met the American singer Harry Belafonte, who became a mentor and colleague. She moved to New York City, where she became immediately popular, and recorded her first solo album in 1960. Her attempt to return to South Africa that year for her mother's funeral was prevented by the country's government.

Makeba's career flourished in the United States, and she released several albums and songs, her most popular being "Pata Pata" (1967). Along with Belafonte, she received a Grammy Award for Best Folk Recording for their 1965 album An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba. She testified against the South African government at the United Nations and became involved in the civil rights movement. She married Stokely Carmichael, a leader of the Black Panther Party, in 1968, and consequently lost support among white Americans. Her visa was revoked by the US government when she was traveling abroad, forcing her and Carmichael to relocate to Guinea. She continued to perform, mostly in African countries, including at several independence celebrations. She began to write and perform music more explicitly critical of apartheid; the 1977 song "Soweto Blues", written by her former husband Hugh Masekela, was about the Soweto uprising. After apartheid was dismantled in 1990, Makeba returned to South Africa. She continued recording and performing, including a 1991 album with Nina Simone and Dizzy Gillespie, and appeared in the 1992 film Sarafina!. She was named an FAO Goodwill Ambassador in 1999, and campaigned for humanitarian causes. She died of a heart attack during a 2008 concert in Italy.

Makeba was among the first African musicians to receive worldwide recognition. She brought African music to a Western audience, and popularized the world music and Afropop genres. Despite her cosmopolitan background, she was frequently viewed by Western audiences as an embodiment of Africa: she was also seen as a style icon in both South Africa and the West. Makeba made popular several songs critical of apartheid, and became a symbol of opposition to the system, particularly after her right to return was revoked. Upon her death, former South African President Nelson Mandela said that "her music inspired a powerful sense of hope in all of us."

## Early years

### Childhood and family

Zenzile Miriam Makeba was born on 4 March 1932 in the black township of Prospect, near Johannesburg, as the only child of her father and the sixth of her mother. Her Xhosa father, Caswell Makeba, was a teacher; he died when she was six years old. Her Swazi mother, Christina Makeba, was a domestic worker; she had previously separated from her first husband and met and married Caswell shortly afterwards. Makeba later said that before she was conceived, her mother had been warned that any future pregnancy could be fatal. Neither Miriam nor her mother seemed likely to survive after a difficult labour and delivery. Miriam's grandmother, who attended the birth, often muttered "uzenzile", a Xhosa word that means "you brought this on yourself", to Miriam's mother during her recovery, which inspired her to give her daughter the name "Zenzile".

When Makeba was eighteen days old, her mother was arrested and sentenced to a six-month prison term for selling umqombothi, a homemade beer brewed from malt and cornmeal. The family could not afford the small fine required to avoid a jail term, and Miriam spent the first six months of her life in jail. By the time of her mother's release from prison, Makeba's father, who had been having difficulty finding work as a teacher, had obtained a job as a clerk at the Shell Oil Company in Nelspruit (now Mbombela) and the family moved along with him accordingly. After her father's death she moved to the house of her maternal grandmother in Riverside Township outside of Pretoria, along with her siblings and cousins, while her mother worked for white families in Johannesburg to support the family.

As a child, Makeba sang in the choir of the Kilnerton Training Institute in Pretoria, an all-black Methodist primary school that she attended for eight years. Her talent for singing earned her praise at school. Makeba was baptised a Protestant, and sang in church choirs, in English, Xhosa, Sotho, and Zulu; she later said that she learned to sing in English before she could speak the language.

Makeba was influenced by her family's musical tastes; her mother played several traditional instruments, and her elder brother collected records, including those of Duke Ellington and Ella Fitzgerald, and taught Makeba songs. Her father played the piano and sang in a group called The Mississippi 12, and his musical inclination was later a factor in Makeba's family accepting what was seen as a risque choice of career.

Makeba left school to support her family and first worked as a live-in nanny for a Greek family in the Johannesberg suburb of Waverley for three months. The mother stopped paying her and went to the police to accuse her of stealing, so Makeba fled back to her grandmother's home in Riverside. Around that time Makeba's mother began the process of becoming a sangoma or traditional healer, which required her to go back to her ancestral homeland in Eswatini (then Swaziland). Makeba stayed behind working as a launderer for expatriate workers to support her family.

In 1949, Makeba married James Kubay, a policeman in training, with whom she had her only child, Sibongile "Bongi" Makeba, in 1950. Makeba was then diagnosed with breast cancer, and her husband, who was said to have beaten her, left her shortly afterwards, after a two-year marriage. A decade later she overcame cervical cancer via a hysterectomy.

### Early career

Makeba began her professional musical career with the Cuban Brothers, a South African all-male close harmony group, with whom she sang covers of popular American songs. Soon afterwards, at the age of 21, she joined a jazz group, the Manhattan Brothers, who sang a mixture of South African songs and pieces from popular African-American groups. Makeba was the only woman in the group. With the Manhattan Brothers she recorded her first hit, "Lakutshn, Ilanga", in 1953, and developed a national reputation as a musician. In 1956 she joined a new all-woman group, the Skylarks, singing a blend of jazz and traditional South African melodies. Formed by Gallotone Records, the group was also known as the Sunbeams. Makeba sang with the Skylarks when the Manhattan Brothers were travelling abroad; later, she also travelled with the Manhattan Brothers. In the Skylarks, Makeba sang alongside Rhodesian-born musician Dorothy Masuka, whose music Makeba had followed, along with that of Dolly Rathebe. Several of the Skylarks' pieces from this period became popular; the music historian Rob Allingham later described the group as "real trendsetters, with harmonisation that had never been heard before." Makeba received no royalties from her work with the Skylarks.

While performing with the Manhattan Brothers in 1955, Makeba met Nelson Mandela, then a young lawyer; he later remembered the meeting, and that he felt that the girl he met "was going to be someone." With the Manhattan Brothers, Makeba recorded "Lakutshona Ilanga", written by Mackay Davashe. The song's popularity prompted requests for an English version, and in 1956, Gallotone Records released "Lovely Lies", Makeba's first solo success and first recording in English. However, the Xhosa lyric about a man looking for his beloved in jails and hospitals was replaced with the unrelated and innocuous line "You tell such lovely lies with your two lovely eyes" in the English version. The piece became the first South African record to chart on the United States Billboard Top 100. In 1957, Makeba was featured on the cover of Drum magazine.

In 1959, Makeba sang the lead female role in the Broadway-inspired South African jazz opera King Kong; among those in the cast was the musician Hugh Masekela. The musical was performed to racially integrated audiences, raising her profile among white South Africans. Also in 1959, she had a short guest appearance in Come Back, Africa, an anti-apartheid film produced and directed by the American independent filmmaker Lionel Rogosin. Rogosin cast her after seeing her on stage in African Jazz and Variety show, on which Makeba was a performer for 18 months. The film blended elements of documentary and fiction and had to be filmed in secret as the government was expected to be hostile to it. Makeba appeared on stage, and sang two songs: her appearance lasted four minutes. The cameo made an enormous impression on viewers, and Rogosin organised a visa for her to attend the premiere of the film at the twenty-fourth Venice Film Festival in Italy, where the film won the prestigious Critics' Choice Award. Makeba's presence has been described as crucial to the film, as an emblem of cosmopolitan black identity that also connected with working-class black people due to the dialogue being in Zulu.

Makeba's role in Come Back, Africa brought her international recognition and she travelled to London and New York to perform. In London she met the American singer Harry Belafonte, who became her mentor, helping her with her first solo recordings. These included "Pata Pata", which would be released many years later, and a version of the traditional Xhosa song "Qongqothwane", which she had first performed with the Skylarks. Though "Pata Pata"—described by Musician magazine as a "groundbreaking Afropop gem"—became her most famous song, Makeba described it as "one of my most insignificant songs". While in England, she married Sonny Pillay, a South African ballad singer of Indian descent; they divorced within a few months.

Makeba then moved to New York, making her US music debut on 1 November 1959 on The Steve Allen Show in Los Angeles for a television audience of 60 million. Her New York debut at the Village Vanguard occurred soon after; she sang in Xhosa and Zulu, and performed a Yiddish folk song. Her audience at this concert included Miles Davis and Duke Ellington; her performance received strongly positive reviews from critics. She first came to popular and critical attention in jazz clubs, after which her reputation grew rapidly. Belafonte, who had helped Makeba with her move to the US, handled the logistics for her first performances. When she first moved to the US, Makeba lived in Greenwich Village, along with other musicians and actors. As was common in her profession, she experienced some financial insecurity, and worked as a babysitter for a period.

## Exile

### United States

#### Breakthrough

Soon after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, Makeba learned that her mother had died. When she tried to return home for the funeral, she found that her South African passport had been cancelled. Two of Makeba's family members were killed in the massacre. The incident left her concerned about her family, many of whom were still in South Africa, including her daughter: the nine-year-old Bongi joined her mother in the US in August 1960. During her first few years in the US, Makeba had rarely sung explicitly political music, but her popularity had led to an increase in awareness of apartheid and the anti-apartheid movement. Following the Sharpeville killings, Makeba felt a responsibility to help, as she had been able to leave the country while others had not. From this point, she became an increasingly outspoken critic of apartheid and the white-minority government; before the massacre, she had taken care to avoid overtly political statements in South Africa.

Her musical career in the US continued to flourish. She signed a recording contract with RCA Victor, and released Miriam Makeba, her first studio album, in 1960, backed by Belafonte's band. RCA Victor chose to buy out Makeba's contract with Gallotone Records, and despite the fact that Makeba was unable to perform in South Africa, Gallotone received US\$45,000 in the deal, which meant that Makeba received no royalties for her debut album. The album included one of her most famous hits in the US, "Qongqothwane", which was known in English as "The Click Song" because Makeba's audiences could not pronounce the Xhosa name. Time magazine called her the "most exciting new singing talent to appear in many years", and Newsweek compared her voice to "the smoky tones and delicate phrasing" of Ella Fitzgerald and the "intimate warmth" of Frank Sinatra. The album was not commercially successful, and Makeba was briefly dropped from RCA Victor: she was re-signed soon after as the label recognised the commercial possibilities of the growing interest in African culture. Her South African identity had been downplayed during her first signing, but it was strongly emphasised the second time to take advantage of this interest. Makeba made several appearances on television, often in the company of Belafonte. In 1962, Makeba and Belafonte sang at the birthday party for US President John F. Kennedy at Madison Square Garden, but Makeba did not go to the party afterwards because she was ill. Kennedy nevertheless insisted on meeting her, so Belafonte sent a car to pick her up.

In 1964, Makeba released her second studio album for RCA Victor, The World of Miriam Makeba. An early example of world music, the album peaked at number eighty-six on the Billboard 200. Makeba's music had a cross-racial appeal in the US; white Americans were attracted to her image as an "exotic" African performer, and black Americans related their own experiences of racial segregation to Makeba's struggle against apartheid. Makeba found company among other African exiles and émigrés in New York, including Hugh Masekela, to whom she was married from 1963 to 1968. During their marriage, Makeba and Masekela were neighbours of the jazz musician Dizzy Gillespie in Englewood, New Jersey; they spent much of their time in Harlem. She also came to know actors Marlon Brando and Lauren Bacall, and musicians Louis Armstrong and Ray Charles. Fellow singer-activist Nina Simone became friendly with Makeba, as did actor Cicely Tyson; Makeba and Simone performed together at Carnegie Hall. Makeba was among black entertainers, activists, and intellectuals in New York at the time who believed that the civil rights movement and popular culture could reinforce each other, creating "a sense of intertwined political and cultural vibrancy"; other examples included Maya Angelou and Sidney Poitier. She later described her difficulty living with racial segregation, saying "There wasn't much difference in America; it was a country that had abolished slavery but there was apartheid in its own way."

#### Travel and activism

Makeba's music was also popular in Europe, and she travelled and performed there frequently. Acting on the advice of Belafonte, she added songs from Latin America, Europe, Israel, and elsewhere in Africa to her repertoire. She visited Kenya in 1962 in support of the country's independence from British colonial rule, and raised funds for its independence leader Jomo Kenyatta. Later that year she testified before the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid about the effects of the system, asking for economic sanctions against South Africa's National Party government. She requested an arms embargo against South Africa, on the basis that weapons sold to the government would likely be used against black women and children. As a result, her music was banned in South Africa, and her South African citizenship and right to return were revoked. Makeba thus became stateless, but she was soon issued passports by Algeria, Guinea, Belgium and Ghana. Throughout her lifetime she held nine passports and was granted honorary citizenship in ten countries.

Soon after her testimony, Haile Selassie, the emperor of Ethiopia, invited her to sing at the inauguration of the Organisation of African Unity; she was the only performer asked to participate. As word spread about her ban from South Africa, she became a cause célèbre for Western liberals, and her presence in the civil rights movement linked it with the anti-apartheid struggle. In 1964 she was taught the song "Malaika" by a Kenyan student while backstage at a performance in San Francisco; the song later became a staple of her performances.

Throughout the 1960s, Makeba strengthened her involvement with a range of black-centred political movements, including the civil rights, anti-apartheid, Black Consciousness, and Black Power movements. She briefly met the Trinidadian-American activist Stokely Carmichael—the leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and a prominent figure in the Black Panther Party—after Belafonte invited him to one of Makeba's concerts; they met again in Conakry six years later. They entered a relationship, initially kept secret from all but their closest friends and family. Makeba participated in fundraising activities for various civil rights groups, including a benefit concert for the 1962 Southern Christian Leadership Conference that civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. referred to as the "event of the year". Following a concert and rally in Atlanta in support of King, Makeba and others were denied entrance to a restaurant as a result of Jim Crow laws, leading to a televised protest in front of the establishment. She also criticised King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference for its investment in South African companies, informing press that "Now my friend of long standing supports the country's persecution of my people and I must find a new idol". Her identity as an African woman in the civil rights movement helped create "an emerging liberal consensus" that extreme racial discrimination, whether domestically or internationally, was harmful. In 1964 she testified at the UN for a second time, quoting a song by Vanessa Redgrave in calling for quick action against the South African government.

On 15 March 1966, Makeba and Belafonte received the Grammy Award for Best Folk Recording for An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba. The album dealt with the political plight of black South Africans under apartheid, including several songs critical of the South African government, such as "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd" ("Watch our Verwoerd", a reference to Hendrik Verwoerd, one of the architects of apartheid). It sold widely and raised Makeba's profile in the US; Belafonte and Makeba's concert tour following its release was often sold out, and the album has been described as the best they made together. Makeba's use of lyrics in Swahili, Xhosa, and Sotho led to her being seen as a representation of an "authentic" Africa by American audiences. In 1967, more than ten years after she first recorded the song, the single "Pata Pata" was released in the US on an album of the same title, and became a worldwide hit. During its recording, she and Belafonte had a disagreement, after which they stopped recording together.

### Guinea

Makeba married Carmichael in March 1968; this caused her popularity in the US to decline markedly. Conservatives came to regard her as a militant and an extremist, an image that alienated much of her fanbase. Her performances were cancelled and her coverage in the press declined despite her efforts to portray her marriage as apolitical. White American audiences stopped supporting her, and the US government took an interest in her activities. The Central Intelligence Agency began following her, and placed hidden microphones in her apartment; the Federal Bureau of Investigation also placed her under surveillance. While she and her husband were travelling in the Bahamas, she was banned from returning to the US, and was refused a visa. As a result, the couple moved to Guinea, where Carmichael changed his name to Kwame Touré. Makeba did not return to the US until 1987.

Guinea remained Makeba's home for the next 15 years. She and her husband became close to President Ahmed Sékou Touré and his wife, Andrée, as well as with Kwame Nkrumah, the deposed president of Ghana. Touré wanted to create a new style of African music, creating his own record label Syliphone for this purpose, and all musicians received a minimum wage if they practised for several hours every day. Makeba recorded for this label, and later stated that "I've never seen a country that did what Sékou Touré did for artists." After her rejection from the US she began to write music more directly critical of the US government's racial policies, recording and singing songs such as "Lumumba" in 1970 (referring to Patrice Lumumba, the assassinated Prime Minister of the Congo), and "Malcolm X" in 1974.

Makeba performed more frequently in African countries, and as countries became independent of European colonial powers, was invited to sing at independence ceremonies, including in Kenya, Angola, Zambia, Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania), and Mozambique. In September 1974 she performed alongside a multitude of well-known African and American musicians at the Zaire 74 festival in Kinshasa, Zaire (formerly the Congo). She also became a diplomat for Ghana, and was appointed Guinea's official delegate to the UN in 1975; that year, she addressed the United Nations General Assembly, where she advocated for South Africa's liberation from apartheid. Also in 1975, she visited Mozambique as part of a Guinean delegation to mark Mozambique's independence from Portugal. To celebrate the moment, Makeba commissioned the song "Aluta Continua" (The Struggle Continues) from her daughter Bongi and Bill Salter.

She continued to perform in Europe and Asia, along with her African concerts, but not in the US, where a de facto boycott was in effect. Her performances in Africa were immensely popular: she was described as the highlight of FESTAC 77, a Pan-African arts festival in Nigeria in 1977, and during a Liberian performance of "Pata Pata", the stadium proved so loud that she was unable to complete the song. "Pata Pata", like her other songs, had been banned in South Africa. Another song she sang frequently in this period was "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", though she never recorded it. Makeba later stated that it was during this period that she accepted the label "Mama Africa": scholar Omotayo Jolaosho writes that the epithet, by which she came to be widely known, was first given her by her daughter Bongi in an interview.

In 1976, the South African government replaced English and native South African languages with Afrikaans as the medium of instruction for many subjects in black schools, setting off the Soweto uprising. Between 15,000 and 20,000 students took part; caught unprepared, the police opened fire on the protesting children, killing hundreds and injuring more than a thousand. Hugh Masekela wrote "Soweto Blues" in response to the massacre, and the song was performed by Makeba, becoming a staple of her live performances for many years. A review in the magazine Musician said that the song had "searingly righteous lyrics" about the uprising that "cut to the bone". She had separated from Carmichael in 1973; in 1978 they divorced and in 1981 she married Bageot Bah, an airline executive. Makeba's daughter Bongi, and her three children, lived with Makeba for a period. Bongi, who was a singer in her own right, often accompanied her mother on stage, and contributed to her reputation. However, the relationship between the two grew strained after the death of Bongi's youngest child.

### Belgium

Makeba's daughter Bongi died in childbirth in 1985. Makeba was left responsible for her two surviving grandchildren, and decided to move out of Guinea, which had become less hospitable to her after Touré's death the previous year and the military coup that followed. She settled in the Woluwe-Saint-Lambert district of the Belgian capital Brussels. In the following year, Masekela introduced Makeba to Paul Simon, and a few months later she embarked on Simon's very successful Graceland Tour. The tour concluded with two concerts held in Harare, Zimbabwe, which were filmed in 1987 for release as Graceland: The African Concert. Makeba fractured her leg while on tour, but continued to perform from a wheelchair. Her involvement with Simon caused controversy: Graceland had been recorded in South Africa, breaking the cultural boycott of the country, and thus Makeba's participation in the tour was regarded as contravening the boycott (which Makeba herself endorsed). After touring the world with Simon, Warner Bros. Records signed Makeba and she released Sangoma ("Healer"), an album of healing chants named in honour of her sangoma mother.

In preparation for the Graceland tour, she worked with journalist James Hall to write an autobiography titled Makeba: My Story. The book contained descriptions of her experience with apartheid, and was also critical of the commodification and consumerism she experienced in the US. The book was translated into five languages. She took part in the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute, a popular-music concert staged on 11 June 1988 at London's Wembley Stadium, and broadcast to an audience of 600 million across 67 countries. Political aspects of the concert were heavily censored in the US by the Fox television network. The use of music to raise awareness of apartheid paid off: a survey after the concert found that among people aged between 16 and 24, three-quarters knew of Mandela, and supported his release from prison.

## Return to South Africa, final years and death

Following growing pressure from the anti-apartheid movement both domestically and internationally, in 1990 State President Frederik Willem de Klerk reversed the ban on the African National Congress and other anti-apartheid organisations, and announced that Mandela would shortly be released from prison. Mandela was released in February 1990. He persuaded Makeba to try to return to South Africa; she obtained a six-day visa after months of effort, and entered South Africa using her French passport on 10 June 1990. Her arrival was a considerable event, featuring meetings, interviews, and singing by Brenda Fassie.

Makeba, Gillespie, Simone, and Masekela recorded and released her studio album, Eyes on Tomorrow, in 1991. It combined jazz, R&B, pop, and traditional African music, and was a hit across Africa. Makeba and Gillespie then toured the world together to promote it. In November she made a guest appearance on a US sitcom, The Cosby Show. In April 1992, she performed two concerts in Johannesburg, her first in South Africa since her exile in 1960. In the same year she starred in the film Sarafina! which centred on students involved in the 1976 Soweto uprising. Makeba portrayed the title character's mother, Angelina, a role which The New York Times described as having been performed with "immense dignity".

On 16 October 1999, Makeba was named a Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. In January 2000, her album, Homeland, produced by the New York City based record label Putumayo World Music, was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music Album category. She worked closely with Graça Machel-Mandela, the South African first lady, advocating for children suffering from HIV/AIDS, child soldiers, and the physically handicapped. She established the Makeba Centre for Girls, a home for orphans, described in an obituary as her most personal project. She also took part in the 2002 documentary Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony, which examined the struggles of black South Africans against apartheid through the music of the period. Makeba's second autobiography, Makeba: The Miriam Makeba Story, was published in 2004. In 2005 she announced that she would retire and began a farewell tour, but despite having osteoarthritis, continued to perform until her death. During this period, her grandchildren Nelson Lumumba Lee and Zenzi Lee, and her great-grandchild Lindelani, occasionally joined her performances.

On 9 November 2008, Makeba fell ill during a concert in Castel Volturno, near Caserta, Italy. The concert had been organised to support the writer Roberto Saviano in his stand against the Camorra, a criminal organisation active in the Campania region. She suffered a heart attack after singing her hit song "Pata Pata", and was taken to the Pineta Grande clinic, where doctors were unable to revive her.

## Music and image

### Musical style

The groups with which Makeba began her career performed mbube, a style of vocal harmony which drew on American jazz, ragtime, and Anglican church hymns, as well as indigenous styles of music. Johannesburg musician Dolly Rathebe was an early influence on Makeba's music, as were female jazz singers from the US. Historian David Coplan writes that the "African jazz" made popular by Makeba and others was "inherently hybridized" rather than derivative of any particular genre, blending as it did marabi and jazz, and was "Americanized African music, not Africanized American music". The music that she performed was described by British writer Robin Denselow as a "unique blend of rousing township styles and jazz-influenced balladry".

Makeba released more than 30 albums during her career. The dominant styles of these shifted over time, moving from African jazz to recordings influenced by Belafonte's "crooning" to music drawing from traditional South African musical forms. She has been associated with the genres of world music and Afropop. She also incorporated Latin American musical styles into her performances. Historian Ruth Feldstein described her music as "[crossing] the borders between what many people associated with avant-garde and 'quality' culture and the commercial mainstream"; the latter aspect often drew criticism. She was able to appeal to audiences from many political, racial, and national backgrounds.

She was known for having a dynamic vocal range, and was described as having an emotional awareness during her performances. She occasionally danced during her shows, and was described as having a sensuous presence on stage. She was able to vary her voice considerably: an obituary remarked that she "could soar like an opera singer, but she could also whisper, roar, hiss, growl and shout. She could sing while making the epiglottal clicks of the Xhosa language." She sang in English and several African languages, but never in Afrikaans, the language of the apartheid government in South Africa. She once stated "When Afrikaaners sing in my language, then I will sing theirs." English was seen as the language of political resistance by black South Africans due to the educational barriers they faced under apartheid; the Manhattan Brothers, with whom Makeba had sung in Sophiatown, had been prohibited from recording in English. Her songs in African languages have been described as reaffirming black pride.

### Politics and perception

Makeba said that she did not perform political music, but music about her personal life in South Africa, which included describing the pain she felt living under apartheid. She once stated "people say I sing politics, but what I sing is not politics, it is the truth", an example of the mixing of personal and political issues for musicians living during apartheid. When she first entered the US, she avoided discussing apartheid explicitly, partly out of concern for her family still in South Africa. Nonetheless, she is known for using her voice to convey the political message of opposition to apartheid, performing widely and frequently for civil rights and anti-apartheid organisations. Even songs that did not carry an explicitly political message were seen as subversive, due to their being banned in South Africa. Makeba saw her music as a tool of activism, saying "In our struggle, songs are not simply entertainment for us. They are the way we communicate." She expressed her political views, and criticism of apartheid in particular, more frequently in later years; her exile, and the death of her daughter, have both been identified as making her more vocal.

Makeba's use of the clicks common in languages such as Xhosa and Zulu (as in "Qongqothwane", "The Click Song") was frequently remarked upon by Western audiences. It contributed to her popularity and her exotic image, which scholars have described as a kind of othering, exacerbated by the fact that Western audiences often could not understand her lyrics. Critics in the US described her as the "African tribeswoman" and as an "import from South Africa", often depicting her in condescending terms as a product of a more primitive society. In seeing her as an embodiment of Africa, Western audiences tended to ignore her cosmopolitan background. Conversely, she is also described as shaping Pan-African identity during the decline of colonialism. Commentators also frequently described her in terms of the prominent men she was associated with, despite her own prominence. During her early career in South Africa she had been seen as a sex symbol, an image that received considerably less attention in the US.

Makeba was described as a style icon, both in her home country and the US. She wore no makeup and refused to straighten her hair for shows, thus helping establish a style that came to be known internationally as the "Afro look". According to music scholar Tanisha Ford, her hairstyle represented a "liberated African beauty aesthetic". She was seen as a beauty icon by South African schoolgirls, who were compelled to shorten their hair by the apartheid government. Makeba stuck to wearing African jewellery; she disapproved of the skin-lighteners commonly used by South African women at the time, and refused to appear in advertisements for them. Her self-presentation has been characterised by scholars as a rejection of the predominantly white standards of beauty that women in the US were held to, which allowed Makeba to partially escape the sexualisation directed at women performers during this period. Nonetheless, the terms used to describe her in the US media have been identified by scholars as frequently used to "sexualize, infantalize, and animalize" people of African heritage.

## Legacy

### Musical influence

Makeba was among the most visible Africans in the US; as a result, she was often emblematic of the continent of Africa for Americans. Her music earned her the moniker "Mama Africa", and she was variously described as the "Empress of African Song", the "Queen of South African music", and Africa's "first superstar". Music scholar J. U. Jacobs said that Makeba's music had "both been shaped by and given shape to black South African and American music". The jazz musician Abbey Lincoln is among those identified as being influenced by Makeba. Makeba and Simone were among a group of artists who helped shape soul music. Longtime collaborator Belafonte called her "the most revolutionary new talent to appear in any medium in the last decade". Speaking after her death, Mandela called her "South Africa's first lady of song", and said that "her music inspired a powerful sense of hope in all of us."

Outside her home country Makeba was credited with bringing African music to a Western audience. She is credited, along with artists such as Youssou N'Dour, Salif Keita, Ali Farka Touré, Baaba Maal and Angélique Kidjo, with popularising the genre of world music. She disliked this label, however, believing it marginalized music from the "third world". Her work with Belafonte in the 1960s has been described as creating the genre of world music before the concept entered the popular imagination, and also as highlighting the diversity and cultural pluralism within African music. Within South Africa, Makeba has been described as influencing artists such as kwaito musician Thandiswa Mazwai and her band Bongo Maffin, whose track "De Makeba" was a modified version of Makeba's "Pata Pata", and one of several tribute recordings released after her return to South Africa. South African jazz musician Simphiwe Dana has been described as "the new Miriam Makeba". South African singer Lira has frequently been compared with Makeba, particularly for her performance of "Pata Pata" during the opening ceremony of the 2010 Football World Cup. A year later, Kidjo dedicated her concert in New York to Makeba, as a musician who had "paved the way for her success". In an obituary, scholar Lara Allen referred to Makeba as "arguably South Africa's most famous musical export".

### Activism

Makeba was among the most visible people campaigning against the apartheid system in South Africa, and was responsible for popularising several anti-apartheid songs, including "Meadowlands" by Strike Vilakezi and "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd" (Watch out, Verwoerd) by Vuyisile Mini. Due to her high profile, she became a spokesperson of sorts for Africans living under oppressive governments, and in particular for black South Africans living under apartheid. When the South African government prevented her from entering her home country, she became a symbol of "apartheid's cruelty", and she used her position as a celebrity by testifying against apartheid before the UN in 1962 and 1964. Many of her songs were banned within South Africa, leading to Makeba's records being distributed underground, and even her apolitical songs being seen as subversive. She thus became a symbol of resistance to the white-minority government both within and outside South Africa. In an interview in 2000, Masekela said that "there [was] nobody in Africa who made the world more aware of what was happening in South Africa than Miriam Makeba."

Makeba has also been associated with the movement against colonialism, with the civil rights and black power movements in the US, and with the Pan-African movement. She called for unity between black people of African descent across the world: "Africans who live everywhere should fight everywhere. The struggle is no different in South Africa, the streets of Chicago, Trinidad or Canada. The Black people are the victims of capitalism, racism and oppression, period". After marrying Carmichael she often appeared with him during his speeches; Carmichael later described her presence at these events as an asset, and Feldstein wrote that Makeba enhanced Carmichael's message that "black is beautiful". Along with performers such as Simone, Lena Horne, and Abbey Lincoln, she used her position as a prominent musician to advocate for civil rights. Their activism has been described as simultaneously calling attention to racial and gender disparities, and highlighting "that the liberation they desired could not separate race from sex". Makeba's critique of second-wave feminism as being the product of luxury led to observers being unwilling to call her a feminist. Scholar Ruth Feldstein stated that Makeba and others influenced both black feminism and second-wave feminism through their advocacy, and the historian Jacqueline Castledine referred to her as one of the "most steadfast voices for social justice".

### Awards and recognition

Makeba's 1965 collaboration with Harry Belafonte won a Grammy Award, making her the first African recording artist to win this award. Makeba shared the 2001 Polar Music Prize with Sofia Gubaidulina. They received their prize from Carl XVI Gustaf, the King of Sweden, during a nationally televised ceremony at Berwaldhallen, Stockholm, on 27 May 2002. Rolling Stone placed her 53rd in its list of the "The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time" in 2023.

Makeba won the Dag Hammarskjöld Peace Prize in 1986, and in 2001 was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold by the United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin, "for outstanding services to peace and international understanding". She also received several honorary doctorates. In 2004, she was voted 38th in a poll ranking 100 Great South Africans.

From 25 to 27 September 2009, a tribute television show to Makeba, entitled Hommage à Miriam Makeba and curated by Beninoise singer-songwriter and activist Angélique Kidjo, was held at the Cirque d'hiver in Paris. The show was presented as Mama Africa: Celebrating Miriam Makeba at the Barbican in London on 21 November 2009. A documentary film titled Mama Africa, about Makeba's life, co-written and directed by Finnish director Mika Kaurismäki, was released in 2011. On 4 March 2013, and again on International Women's Day in 2017, Google honoured her with a Google Doodle on their homepage. In 2014 she was honoured (along with Nelson Mandela, Albertina Sisulu and Steve Biko) in the Belgian city of Ghent, which named a square after her, the "Miriam Makebaplein". Makeba was named 1967's "woman of the year" by Time magazine in 2020, as one of a list of 100 "women of the year" for the years 1920–2019.

In 2016 the French singer Jain released "Makeba", a tribute. Mama Africa, a musical about Makeba, was produced in South Africa by Niyi Coker. Originally titled Zenzi!, the musical premiered to a sold-out crowd in Cape Town on 26 May 2016. It was performed in the US in St. Louis, Missouri and at the Skirball Center for the Performing Arts in New York City between October and December 2016. The musical returned to South Africa in February 2017 for what would have been Makeba's 85th birthday. American-born African jazz singer Somi wrote a play about Makeba, Dreaming Zenzile, which premiered in 2021, and released a tribute album dedicated to her, Zenzile: The Reimagination of Miriam Makeba (2022). In June 2023, "Makeba" received a resurgence in popularity due to the virality it achieved on TikTok.

## Notable songs and albums

This is a list of albums and songs, including covers, by Miriam Makeba that have received significant mention in commentary about her or about the musical and political movements she participated in.

Albums

- Miriam Makeba (1960)
- The Many Voices of Miriam Makeba (1962)
- An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba (1965)
- Comme une symphonie d'amour (1979)
- The Queen of African Music (1987)
- Sangoma (1988)
- Welela (1989)
- Eyes on Tomorrow (1991)
- Homeland (2000)

Songs

- "Lakutshn, Ilanga/Lovely Lies" (1956)
- "Sophiatown is Gone"
- "The Click Song" / "Mbube" (1963)
- "Pata Pata" (1967)
- "Lumumba" (1970)
- "Malcolm X" (1974)
- "Soweto Blues" (1977)
- "Thula Sizwe/I Shall Be Released" (1991)
- "Malaika"

## See also

- Culture of South Africa

South African singer and activist (1932–2008)

20th-century South African women singers

21st-century South African women singers

South African expatriates in the United States


2009 Orange Bowl

The 2009 FedEx Orange Bowl was the 75th edition of Orange Bowl, an annual college football bowl game. It pitted the 2008 Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) champion Virginia Tech Hokies against the Big East Conference champion Cincinnati Bearcats on January 1, 2009, at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. Virginia Tech defeated Cincinnati, 20–7. The game was the second contest in the 2008–2009 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) of the 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was the concluding game of the season for both teams. The game was televised in the United States on FOX, and an estimated 9.3 million viewers watched the broadcast live.

Virginia Tech was selected to participate in the Orange Bowl after a 9–4 season that culminated in a 30–12 victory in the 2008 ACC Championship Game. Cincinnati was selected as the other half of the matchup after an 11–2 season that ended with a 29–24 win against Hawaii. In the weeks between the teams' selection and the playing of the game, media attention focused on the nature of Cincinnati's first BCS game appearance and Virginia Tech's attempt to win its first BCS game since 1995. Attention also focused on Cincinnati's proficient offense and Virginia Tech's highly rated defense.

The game kicked off at 8:47 p.m. Eastern Standard Time in warm weather, and Cincinnati scored first, converting the game's opening possession into a touchdown and a 7–0 lead in the first quarter. Virginia Tech responded in the second quarter, tying the game at seven before taking a 10–7 lead with a field goal as time expired in the first half. In the third quarter, the two teams battled defensively, with only the Hokies able to score any points as Tech extended its lead to 13–7. During the final quarter, Virginia Tech scored its second touchdown of the game, giving the Hokies a 20–7 lead that lasted until time expired.

In recognition of his performance during the game, Virginia Tech running back Darren Evans was named the game's most valuable player. He set a Virginia Tech bowl-game record for carries and tied the Tech record for rushing yards in a bowl game. Cincinnati replaced two coaches after the loss, and three months after the game, players from each team entered the National Football League (NFL) via the 2009 NFL Draft. Cincinnati had six players selected in the draft, while Virginia Tech had one.

## Team selection

The Orange Bowl is one of five Bowl Championship Series (BCS) bowl games that have been played at the conclusion of every college football season since 2006. As defined by contract, the bowl matches the champion of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) against an at-large pick chosen by a special committee. On December 6, 2008, the Virginia Tech Hokies defeated the Boston College Eagles in the 2008 ACC Championship Game, thus winning an automatic bid to the 2009 Orange Bowl Game.

The at-large spot in the Orange Bowl was filled via a round-robin selection procedure defined by the other Bowl Championship series games (the Sugar, Fiesta, and Rose bowls) and the automatic bids. The order of at-large selections rotates annually among the BCS bowls. In 2009, the Fiesta Bowl picked first, followed by the Sugar Bowl, then the Orange Bowl. The Fiesta Bowl picked Ohio State, while the Sugar Bowl selected Utah. The Orange Bowl was thus left to select Big East Conference champion Cincinnati, fulfilling the BCS' contractual obligation to provide a game for the conference's champion.

### Cincinnati

The Cincinnati Bearcats ended the 2007 college football season with a 10–2 record, including a win in the 2007 PapaJohns.com Bowl over Southern Miss, 31–21. It was only the second time in school history that Cincinnati had won 10 games in a season. Before the 2008 season, the Bearcats hoped quarterback Ben Mauk would be allowed to play an unusual sixth year of college football, a possibility created by a year lost to injury and a redshirt year. After Mauk's request was denied by the NCAA, the annual poll of media covering Big East football picked Cincinnati to finish fifth in the eight-team Big East.

The Bearcats opened the 2008 college football season against , winning 40–7 in an offensive effort led by senior quarterback Dustin Grutza, who was named the team's starter at that position following Mauk's dismissal. For its second game of the season, Cincinnati traveled to Norman, Oklahoma, to face the Oklahoma Sooners for the first time. In a 52–26 loss to a team that would play for the national championship that season, Grutza broke his ankle and was replaced by junior Tony Pike.

For their third game of the season, the Bearcats returned to Nippert Stadium—their home field—to play the first of two Mid-American Conference (MAC) opponents, in-state rival Miami. In the 113th Battle for the Victory Bell, Cincinnati won, 45–20. Following the victory against Miami, the Bearcats traveled to Akron, Ohio to play the Akron Zips. Against the Zips, Pike broke his arm and was replaced by redshirt freshman Chazz Anderson, who was also injured during the game. Fellow redshirt freshman Zach Collaros then entered the game and led the Bearcats to a 17–15 victory. The close win against Akron was followed by a 33–10 win over Marshall, the Bearcats' final nonconference game before beginning Big East play.

At the start of conference play, the Bearcats were 4–1, and their only loss was against top-five opponent Oklahoma. With Pike still injured, Cincinnati beat Rutgers, 13–10, in the Bearcats' first Big East game of the season. The Bearcats suffered their second defeat of the season in the following week, however, losing to the UConn Huskies, 40–16. Pike returned from the injury and had the Bearcats leading at halftime, but he left the game at the half when numbness in his non-throwing hand prevented him from being able to take the snap. In the two weeks that followed the loss to the Huskies, Cincinnati recovered to beat two top-25 opponents: No. 23 South Florida and No. 20 West Virginia. The two victories pushed the Bearcats to a 3–1 conference record and the No. 22 position in the AP Poll before Cincinnati's annual rivalry game against Louisville. That game, also known as the Battle for The Keg of Nails, ended in a Cincinnati victory for the first time since 2002.

Following the rivalry game win, Cincinnati played the Pittsburgh Panthers in a game for control of first place in the Big East. In front of a record crowd at Cincinnati's home field, the Bearcats claimed first place with a 28–21 win. Heading into its game against the Syracuse Orange, Cincinnati was assured at least a share of the Big East Championship, but a 30–10 win over Syracuse gave the Bearcats sole possession of the championship, the first Big East title in school history. After clinching the Big East Championship and a bid to a BCS bowl, Cincinnati ended the regular season with a game in Hawaii against the Hawaiʻi Warriors. Despite trailing for much of the game, the Bearcats scored 19 unanswered points and ended the regular season with a 29–24 victory. Already assured a BCS berth by virtue of their Big East championship, on December 7, 2008, the Bearcats were selected to participate in the 2009 Orange Bowl.

### Virginia Tech

The Virginia Tech Hokies entered the 2008 season after an 11–3 overall 2007 record that included a win in the 2007 ACC Championship Game and a loss to the Kansas Jayhawks in the 2008 Orange Bowl. Although the Hokies won the ACC for the second time in less than four years, fans and analysts anticipated Virginia Tech would spend 2008 rebuilding a team that saw 12 starters graduate or enter the National Football League (NFL) Draft. Though picked in a preseason poll to win the Coastal Division of the ACC, the Hokies were upset in their season opener by East Carolina University.

Following the loss, Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer announced that backup quarterback Tyrod Taylor, who had previously been expected to redshirt and sit out the season, would play in the Hokies' second game, against Furman. Both Taylor and Sean Glennon performed well against Furman, and Tech won, 24–7. Tech's third game of the season came against the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets, who were debuting a new offensive system the spread option under first-year head coach Paul Johnson. Unlike the game against Furman, Taylor started the game and remained at quarterback throughout, guiding the Hokies to their first ACC victory of the season, 20–17. The win gave Tech the tiebreaker against the Yellow Jackets in the event of a tie in the division standings at the end of the season. The Hokies' fourth game of the season came against the North Carolina Tar Heels, who were defeated by the same margin of victory as Tech's win against Georgia Tech, 20–17.

The twin conference victories were followed by two out-of-conference wins: at Big 12 opponent Nebraska and against independent Western Kentucky. At the end of the four-game winning streak, the Hokies had a 4–1 record, 2–0 in conference, and were ranked No. 17 in the country. On October 18, however, the Hokies lost to unranked Boston College in Boston, 28–23. The game was a rematch of the previous year's ACC Championship Game and was a preview of the 2008 ACC Championship Game matchup. The loss was the start of a skid that saw Tech lose three of four games, only managing a victory against Maryland, 23–13. The final contest of that four-game stretch was a 16–13 loss to Coastal Division rival Miami, which then held the tiebreaker over the Hokies in the event of any head-to-head tie.

During the last two games of the regular season, however, the Hokies managed two victories: a 14–3 win against last-place ACC team Duke, and a 17–14 triumph over traditional rival Virginia. Miami, meanwhile, lost its final two games of the season: against Georgia Tech and North Carolina State. These losses dropped Miami to a 4–4 record in the ACC, one game behind the Hokies, who were tied with Georgia Tech at 5–3 following the end of the regular season. By virtue of the Hokies' head-to-head win against the Yellow Jackets, Virginia Tech won the Coastal Division and a spot in the ACC Championship Game. When Tech won the championship game against Atlantic Division champion Boston College, 30–12, it was awarded the ACC's automatic bid to the Orange Bowl.

## Pregame buildup

Pregame media coverage of the game focused on the fact that the 2009 Orange Bowl was Cincinnati's first Bowl Championship Series game in school history. For Virginia Tech, coverage focused on the Hokies' winless history in BCS games since 1995, as Tech had lost all four of its appearances in a BCS game since an upset win over Texas in the 1995 Sugar Bowl. Also mentioned was the fact that the two teams had faced each other in the 1947 Sun Bowl, which had been each school's first bowl game. The low win rate of ACC teams in general was another point of interest. Teams from the conference had won just one of their ten appearances in a BCS bowl before the Orange Bowl. Before the Orange Bowl matchup, the two teams last played in 2006, when the Hokies defeated the Bearcats, 29–13, at Virginia Tech's home field, Lane Stadium. For the Orange Bowl, spread bettors favored a reversal of that 2006 final, as Cincinnati was initially favored by one point. This expanded to 1.5 points by December 9. The trend toward Cincinnati continued, and on December 27, betting organizations gave Cincinnati the edge by two or two and a half points.

The game featured two teams both ranked lower than the two teams playing in a non-BCS bowl, a first in BCS history. The 2008 Poinsettia Bowl featured the No. 9 Boise State Broncos against the No. 11 TCU Horned Frogs. In Miami, Virginia Tech and Cincinnati each made preparations to switch accommodations to a different hotel on the day before the game to better simulate the feel of a regular-season game. Cincinnati's move was accelerated a day when rapper Sean "Diddy" Combs moved into the hotel and coaches, seeking to avoid a distraction, moved up the date of the team's departure.

### Ticket sales

The pace of ticket sales for the Orange Bowl varied wildly between the two schools. Each team received an allotment of 17,500 tickets to sell to its fans, and each school sold about 4,000 tickets in the two days immediately following the announcement. Media covering Virginia Tech considered the rate of ticket sales to be slow because the Hokies had sold 50 percent more during a similar timeframe the previous year. Media following Cincinnati ticket sales considered the pace to be fast, calling the Orange Bowl game a "hot ticket". The \$125 tickets sold by Cincinnati generated the largest amount of ticket sale revenue ever recorded by the Cincinnati Athletics Department, netting the school more than \$500,000 in the first day of sales. Travel agencies offered packages including game tickets, airfare, and a hotel room to fans of both teams. Owing to the demand, fans were warned against the danger of counterfeit tickets.

In the days immediately following the announcement of the matchup, ticket sales diverged. By December 12, Cincinnati sold about 9,000 tickets. This total increased to approximately 13,000 tickets by December 20, and the school prepared multiple tour buses for a student convoy to the game. At Virginia Tech, meanwhile, sales lagged. In an effort to spur sales, Tech administrators had head football coach Frank Beamer star in a video asking Hokies fans to buy tickets to the game. Owing to limited demand for tickets, prices in the secondary market plunged.

As late as December 31, neither team had sold its entire allotment of 17,500 tickets. Cincinnati fans had bought 13,000 tickets, while Virginia Tech fans bought fewer than 5,000 tickets from the school's allotment. Countering Virginia Tech's low direct ticket sales were large numbers of fans who avoided paying face value for tickets—US\$125—by buying them on the secondary market, often for as little as 99 cents.

### Cincinnati offense

Before the Orange Bowl, Cincinnati was ranked 50th (of 119 Division I FBS teams) in total offense. The team was ranked 24th in passing offense, with the five quarterbacks pressed into service during the season averaging 254.1 passing yards per game. By the end of the season, Tony Pike emerged as Cincinnati's sole starting quarterback. He finished the regular season having completed 183 of 291 pass attempts for 2,168 yards, 18 touchdowns, and 7 interceptions. He ranked second in the Big East and 29th nationally in passing efficiency with a passer rating of 141.07.

Among Cincinnati receivers, there was none of the uncertainty that afflicted the Bearcats' quarterbacks. Wide receiver Mardy Gilyard caught 74 passes during the regular season, setting a Cincinnati record with 1,118 receiving yards. He also had 10 touchdowns during the season, leading all Cincinnati players. Gilyard also played as the Bearcats' primary kick returner. He returned 32 kicks, accumulating a school-record 897 yards and 2 touchdowns. Fellow wide receiver Dominick Goodman outpaced Gilyard in receptions with 78, but he had only 977 receiving yards and 7 touchdowns. On the first play of Cincinnati's game against Hawaiʻi, Dominick injured his shoulder and his ability to play in the Orange Bowl was in doubt.

Cincinnati's ground offense was less statistically significant than its passing offense. It was led by running back Jacob Ramsey, who carried the ball 148 times for 630 yards and two touchdowns. Backup running back John Goebel had 124 rushing attempts for 581 yards and 7 touchdowns.

### Virginia Tech offense

At the conclusion of the regular season before the Orange Bowl, Virginia Tech's offense was ranked among the worst in Division I, 107th among 119 teams. The Hokies averaged just 296 yards per game during the regular season, and during the ACC Championship Game—the last Tech game before the Orange Bowl—had created a season-low 234 yards of offense. Starting left guard Nick Marshman was not expected to play after becoming academically ineligible following the fall semester, and was replaced by redshirt freshman Jaymes Brooks.

On the field, the Hokies' offense was led by quarterback Tyrod Taylor, who completed 86 of his 151 pass attempts for 896 yards, 2 touchdowns, and 6 interceptions in the season before the Orange Bowl. He also carried the ball 132 times for a total gain of 691 yards and 6 touchdowns on the ground. As successful as Taylor was rushing the ball, Virginia Tech's offense on the ground was led by freshman running back Darren Evans, who set a Virginia Tech freshman record for rushing yards by accumulating 1,112 during the regular season. He also scored 10 touchdowns, was named a second-team All-ACC player, and finished second in the voting for the ACC's rookie of the year award. Evans became the sixth freshman in the history of the Atlantic Coast Conference to rush for more than 1,000 yards and set a Virginia Tech single-game record for rushing yards when he ran for 253 yards in Tech's game against Maryland.

### Cincinnati defense

Entering the Orange Bowl, the Bearcats were ranked 26th in total defense, allowing an average of 316 yards per game to opposing offenses. Cincinnati was 26th in scoring defense, permitting an average of 20.2 points per game. The Bearcats were No. 1 in sacks among Big East teams, recording 35 during the season.

Defensive end Connor Barwin led the Bearcats' defense in sacks with 11, a figure that also was the highest in the Big East and No. 14 nationally. He finished the regular season with 48 tackles, a figure that included the 11 sacks. In recognition of his performance, he was named a first-team All-Big East selection, signifying his status as the best player at his position in the conference.

In the defensive secondary, the Bearcats were led by cornerback Mike Mickens and safety Brandon Underwood. Mickens was a second-team All-Big East selection, and Underwood was a first-team All-Big East selection. Mickens was Cincinnati's career leader in interceptions and interception return yardage, and had 65 tackles (third on the team) despite missing three games due to injury. Underwood was fifth on the team in tackles with 60, and had 3 interceptions and 6 pass breakups.

The most notable player for Cincinnati, however, was punter Kevin Huber, who was named an Associated Press All-American and became the first player in Bearcats history to earn that honor in two consecutive years. Thanks to Huber's performance during the regular season, Cincinnati led the country in punting average (41.5 yards per kick) and was No. 1 in the Big East for the second consecutive year.

### Virginia Tech defense

Virginia Tech's defense was considered among the best in Division I before the Orange Bowl. The Hokies were ranked seventh in total defense, allowing just 277.08 yards per game on average. Virginia Tech also was highly ranked in several other defensive categories: eighth in turnovers gained (30), 13th in scoring defense (17.46 points per game), 15th in pass defense (170.08 yards per game), and 19th in rushing defense (107.00 yards per game). The Hokies' defense also scored five defensive touchdowns during the regular season.

Tech's defense was led on the field by senior cornerback Victor "Macho" Harris. During the regular season, Harris tied for fifth in the country in interceptions with six, including two returned for touchdowns. He also had 44 tackles, and was named the top defensive player in the state of Virginia. At defensive end, Tech featured Orion Martin, a former walk-on who rose to a starting position and had 7.5 sacks, 13 tackles for loss, and 53 tackles during the regular season. Heading into the Orange Bowl, the Hokies' defense was afflicted by injuries. Defensive end Jason Worilds had a shoulder injury. Starting linebacker Brett Warren, who had 86 tackles, with 5 tackles for loss, 2 forced fumbles, and 2 interceptions during the regular season, suffered a torn anterior cruciate ligament and was expected to miss the game.

## Game summary

The 2009 Orange Bowl kicked off at 8:47 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. An estimated total of 73,602 tickets were sold for the game, but bowl officials estimated 15,781 sold tickets went unused, giving a turnstile attendance of 57,821. The game was televised on FOX, and the announcers were Thom Brennaman, Charles Davis, and Chris Myers. An estimated 9.3 million viewers watched the broadcast, earning it a Nielsen rating of 5.4. Figures on the total payout vary, but Virginia Tech and Cincinnati each received between \$17 million and \$18 million for playing in the Orange Bowl, an amount that was shared with the other teams in each school's athletic conference.

The ceremonial performance of the national anthem was played on trumpet by Arturo Sandoval. At the start of the game, the weather was clear, with an air temperature of 68 °F (20 °C) and relative humidity of 69 percent. The wind was from the northeast at 7 miles per hour (11 km/h). J. O'Neill was the referee, B. Neale was the umpire, and the linesman was J. Quinn. Orange Bowl Committee chairman Daniel Ponce performed the ceremonial pre-game coin toss to determine first possession. The toss was won by Virginia Tech, which elected to receive the ball to begin the second half, ensuring Cincinnati the right to receive the ball to begin the game.

### First quarter

Virginia Tech's opening kickoff was returned to the Cincinnati 28-yard line, where the Bearcats executed the game's first play, a five-yard run by running back John Goebel. On the next play, the Bearcats earned the game's initial first down with a 13-yard pass from quarterback Tony Pike to wide receiver Dominick Goodman. Now at their 46-yard line, Pike then threw his second-longest completed pass of the game, a 38-yard pass to wide receiver Mardy Gilyard. The play advanced the Bearcats' offense to the Virginia Tech 16-yard line, and three plays later, Pike completed a 15-yard pass to Gilyard for a touchdown and the game's first points. The extra point kick by Cincinnati kicker Jake Rogers was good, and with 13:08 remaining in the opening quarter, the Bearcats took a 7–0 lead over Virginia Tech.

Cincinnati's kickoff after the touchdown was returned to the Virginia Tech 24-yard line, and the Hokies prepared for their first offensive possession of the game. That play was a 27-yard run by wide receiver Dyrell Roberts, who ran an end-around for the big gain. Now on the Cincinnati side of the field, Virginia Tech running Back Darren Evans ran for one yard, then Hokies quarterback Tyrod Taylor completed a 34-yard pass to wide receiver Danny Coale. The catch gave Virginia Tech a first down at the Cincinnati 14-yard line. On the first play following the long completion, Evans was tackled for a six-yard loss, pushing the Hokies back to the Bearcats' 20-yard line. On the next two plays, Tyrod Taylor rushed for a total of 11 yards, but was unable to gain another first down. Facing fourth down, Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer sent kicker Dustin Keys into the game to attempt a 26-yard field goal. The kick sailed right of the uprights, however, and Virginia Tech was denied a scoring opportunity.

After the missed kick, Cincinnati's offense took to the field at their 20-yard line. The Bearcats were not able to gain a first down, however, and went three and out before punting back to Virginia Tech. Following the kick, the Hokies started at their 16-yard line. Tech's first play of the drive was a 14-yard pass from Taylor to wide receiver Jarrett Boykin for a first down, but the Hokies were unable to gain another first down. Tech punted back to Cincinnati, and the ball rolled out of bounds at the Cincinnati 30-yard line. The first play of the drive resulted in a short loss, but on the second play, Pike completed a 39-yard pass to Gilyard. The play advanced the Bearcats deep into Virginia Tech territory and gave them a first down. Despite the long play, Cincinnati was unable to gain another first down, and Rogers entered the game to attempt a 44-yard field goal. The kick was partially blocked and fell short, denying the Bearcats three points. With 3:07 remaining in the quarter, Cincinnati still held a 7–0 lead.

Following the missed field goal, Virginia Tech's offense took over at their 27-yard line, the spot from which the kick had been missed. Taylor completed a 12-yard pass to Coale, then Evans ran 11 yards, advancing the ball to the 50-yard line. After a pass from Taylor fell incomplete, he completed his next two attempts for a total gain of 19 yards and a first down. Virginia Tech then committed a five-yard false start penalty, pushing the Hokies back to the Cincinnati 26-yard line. With time running out in the quarter, however, Virginia Tech running back Josh Oglesby made good the penalty with a 13-yard run to the Cincinnati 23-yard line. At the end of the first quarter, Cincinnati still led, 7–0.

### Second quarter

The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a second down and two at the Cincinnati 24-yard line. On the first play of the quarter, Cincinnati committed an offsides penalty, giving the Hokies five yards and a first down. From the Bearcats' 19-yard line, Taylor completed a two-yard pass. On the next play, Taylor attempted to run forward with the ball, but fumbled before recovering the loose football. Now facing third down, Taylor scrambled 18 yards to the goal line for Virginia Tech's first touchdown of the game. The extra point kick by Keys was good, and with 13:00 remaining in the quarter, the game was tied at 7–7.

Virginia Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Cincinnati 28-yard line, and the Bearcats' offense began its first possession of the second quarter. Pike threw an incomplete pass, then connected on a 10-yard throw for a first down. That gain was countered on the next play by a 10-yard holding penalty against the Bearcats. Cincinnati was unable to regain the yardage lost to the penalty and punted. Following the kick, Virginia Tech was similarly stymied by consecutive penalties and a sack of Taylor by Cincinnati's Terrill Byrd. Tech punted, and the kick was returned by Cincinnati wide receiver D.J. Woods to the Virginia Tech 45-yard line. Despite starting in Virginia Tech's half of the field, Cincinnati was unable to capitalize and went three and out. The Bearcats' punt was downed at the Virginia Tech three-yard line, and the Hokies' offense returned to the field.

Despite being pinned against their own goal line, the Hokies initially had some success moving the ball. Taylor completed a two-yard pass, Evans ran for six yards, and Taylor ran for two yards on third down to earn a first down at the Tech 13-yard line. After a Tech timeout, Darren Evans ran for five yards. On the next play, he broke free for a 32-yard run, advancing the ball to the 50-yard line. The Hokies were unable to capitalize on Evans' run, however, as on the next play, a pass from Taylor was intercepted by Cincinnati defender Brandon Underwood at the Cincinnati 28-yard line.

Cincinnati's offense took over at the spot of the interception and immediately began moving down the field. Pike completed three consecutive passes: a five-yard pass to Gilyard, a 10-yard throw to Goodman, then a 31-yard toss to Gilyard. After the long throw, Cincinnati had a first down at the Virginia Tech 26-yard line. The Bearcats continued their drive after an incomplete pass by Pike with an 18-yard completion to Goebel that gave the Bearcats a first down at the Virginia Tech eight-yard line. Two plays later, however, Cincinnati's drive came to an end when Virginia Tech defender Stephan Virgil intercepted a pass from Pike to a player in the end zone, denying the Bearcats a chance to score. Virgil was downed in the end zone for a touchback, and Virginia Tech's offense started at its 20-yard line after the turnover.

Tech's drive began with a completed pass for no gain to Evans. This was followed by a five-yard run by Evans and a 23-yard pass from Taylor to tight end Greg Boone for a first down at the Tech 48-yard line. Taylor then completed a nine-yard pass to Boone. After two plays were stopped for no gain, Taylor ran two yards for a first down, keeping the drive alive. With time running out in the first half, Taylor completed a nine-yard pass to Boone, then ran six yards for a first down at the Cincinnati 26-yard line. The Hokies then called another timeout to stop the clock with three seconds remaining in the quarter. Tech kicker Dustin Keys returned to the game, and as time expired in the first half, he kicked a 43-yard field goal that gave the Hokies a 10–7 lead.

### Third quarter

Following a halftime musical performance by The Doobie Brothers, the second half began. Because Cincinnati received the ball to begin the game, Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half.

The Bearcats' kickoff was returned to the Tech 14-yard line, and the Hokies began the first drive of the third quarter. Evans rushed for four yards, but Oglesby lost four yards on a run during the next play. Facing third and ten, Taylor picked up the first down with an 11-yard run, but fumbled the ball at the end of the play. The loose ball was scooped up by Boone, who kept the Hokies' drive going at the Tech 30-yard line. After the fumble, Evans ran for seven yards and Taylor completed a 10-yard pass to Roberts for a first down at the Tech 47-yard line. Coale then rushed for seven yards on an end-around, and his run was followed by one by Boone, who ran for 16 yards and a first down at the Cincinnati 30-yard line. Two more rushes by Roberts and Evans resulted in another first down, but once the Hokies passed the Cincinnati 20-yard line, the Bearcats' defense stiffened and denied the Hokies another first down. Facing fourth down, Tech again sent in Keys, who kicked a 35-yard field goal. The kick extended Tech's lead to 13–7 with 8:32 remaining in the quarter.

Following Virginia Tech's kickoff, Cincinnati began its first drive of the second half at its 36-yard line. Pike was stopped for no gain on a rushing attempt, then attempted a long pass downfield. The ball was intercepted by Virginia Tech defender Kam Chancellor, and the Hokies' offense returned to the field after just two Cincinnati plays. Tech's first play after the interception resulted in Taylor being sacked by Cincinnati defender Brandon Underwood for a loss of three yards, but Darren Evans made up the lost yardage by rushing 14 yards to the Tech 43-yard line for a first down. Taylor and Evans alternated short rushes, then Taylor completed a five-yard pass to Coale for another first down, this one at the Cincinnati 47-yard line. Once in Cincinnati territory, however, the Hokies' offense faltered. Evans was tackled for a two-yard loss, then Taylor was sacked again, this time by John Hughes. A long pass attempt fell incomplete, and Tech punted for the first time in the second half. Returner Danny Milligan fumbled the ball, but he recovered the loose ball and returned it to the Cincinnati 20-yard line.

The Bearcats' second possession of the second half was more successful than their first. On the first play of the drive, running back Jacob Ramsey broke free of the Tech defense for a 25-yard run, the longest run of any Cincinnati player in the game. He followed that first-down run by gaining eight more yards on consecutive runs. Pike then ran three yards for a first down at the Tech 44-yard line. There, however, Cincinnati's offense sputtered and could not gain another first down. The Bearcats' punted, and the ball rolled out of bounds at the Tech 14-yard line with six seconds remaining in the quarter. The Hokies had time for one play, a 21-yard run by Evans to the Tech 35-yard line. With one quarter remaining, Virginia Tech had a 13–7 lead over Cincinnati.

### Fourth quarter

The fourth quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a first down at their 35-yard line. The first play of the quarter resulted in a 20-yard gain by Evans on a running play. After that, however, the Hokies did not gain another first down and punted to Cincinnati. Following the kick, the Bearcats started their first possession of the fourth quarter at their 14-yard line. Running back Isaiah Pead ran for three yards, but then a pass by Pike was intercepted at the 10-yard line by Tech defender Orion Martin. Three rushing plays later, Evans ran six yards for a touchdown. The extra point kick was good, and with 11:29 remaining in the game, Virginia Tech took a 20–7 lead.

The Tech kickoff was returned 17 yards by Gilyard to the Cincinnati 40-yard line, giving the Bearcats good field position to start their drive. Two rushes by Goebel resulted in 11 yards and a first down at the Tech 49-yard line. This success on the ground was followed by more through the air, as Pike completed three consecutive passes: a 16-yarder to Gilyard, a 3-yarder to Goodman, and a 14-yarder to Gilyard. Goebel then ran five yards to the Tech 11-yard line. Two Pike passes fell incomplete, setting up fourth down. Rather than attempt to kick a field goal, Cincinnati head coach Brian Kelly ordered the offense to attempt to convert the fourth down. This was done when Pike completed a seven-yard pass to Goodman for a first down at the Virginia Tech four-yard line. Two more Pike passes fell incomplete before Goebel rushed three yards to the Virginia Tech one-yard line. Cincinnati again faced a fourth down, and again, Kelly elected to attempt to score a touchdown rather than kick a field goal. Pike attempted to cross the goal line on a running play, but was stopped by the Virginia Tech defense. With 7:25 remaining in the game, Cincinnati turned the ball over on downs to the Virginia Tech offense, which returned to the field.

With a firm lead and now in possession of the ball, Virginia Tech began to run out the clock by executing short rushing plays up the center of the field. Since the game clock does not stop in American college football if a player remains in bounds short of the first down marker, the Hokies could hasten the end of the game and preserve their lead by following this strategy. From their one-yard line, Taylor ran the ball for a one-yard gain, followed by two rushes by Evans for another four yards. The Hokies prepared to punt the ball, but during the kick, Cincinnati committed a 15-yard personal foul penalty by tackling Tech punter Brent Bowden. The penalty gave Virginia Tech a first down and kept their drive going. From the Tech 21-yard line, Evans was stopped for a loss of one yard, but broke free for an 11-yard gain and a first down on the next play. As the clock continued to tick down, Cincinnati began to use its timeouts in an effort to stop the clock after each play. This strategy was partially successful, as Tech was denied another first down and punted with 2:31 remaining in the game.

The kick was returned to the Cincinnati 48-yard line, and the Bearcats prepared for a desperation drive in hopes of narrowing the Hokies' lead. On the first play after the punt, however, Pike threw an interception to Virginia Tech defender Cody Grimm. Back in possession of the ball, Taylor kneeled on the ball four times to wind down the game clock. After the final kneeldown, Virginia Tech secured the 20–7 win.

## Statistical summary

In recognition of his performance during the game, Virginia Tech running back Darren Evans was named the game's most valuable player. Evans finished the game with 28 carries for 158 yards and a touchdown. He also caught two passes for five yards, set a Virginia Tech bowl-game record for carries, and tied the Tech record for rushing yards. Evans finished the season with 1,265 rushing yards and 11 touchdowns–both marks were Virginia Tech records for a freshman. On the opposite side of the ball, Cincinnati's rushing offense was led by Jacob Ramsey, who finished the game with 4 carries for 34 yards. Cincinnati's John Goebel had nine carries but only accumulated 26 rushing yards.

Most of the Bearcats' offense came through the air, however. Cincinnati quarterback Tony Pike finished the game having completed 16 of his 33 pass attempts, resulting in 239 passing yards, 1 touchdown, and 4 interceptions. Pike also ran the ball five times for four yards. Pike's four interceptions were a career-high and marked only the second time he threw more than one interception in a game. For Virginia Tech, quarterback Tyrod Taylor finished the game with 13 completions from 22 pass attempts, resulting in 140 passing yards and 1 interception. In addition to his passing, Taylor ran with the ball 15 times, gaining 47 yards and a touchdown in the process.

Taylor's favorite passing targets were wide receiver Danny Coale, who finished the game having caught three passes for 52 yards, and tight end Greg Boone, who caught 3 balls for 41 yards. On the Bearcats' side of the field, Cincinnati's Mardy Gilyard led all receivers with 7 catches for 158 yards and a touchdown. Gilyard's receiving total was his best of the season and set a new Cincinnati bowl-game record. He also set a Bearcat bowl-game record for kickoff return yardage, recording 97 yards in that category. Fellow Cincinnati receiver Dominick Goodman caught 6 passes for 51 yards, in the process becoming Cincinnati's all-time leader in career receiving yards.

The two teams' defenses also performed statistically well during the game. Cincinnati's Terrill Byrd led all defenders by recording 11 tackles during the game. Included in that total were four tackles for loss, including one sack. That performance was his best in terms of quantity during the season, and his four tackles for loss moved him into sixth place on Cincinnati's list of career tackles for loss leaders. For the Hokies, Dorian Porch had eight tackles, leading all Tech players. Cody Grimm, Orion Martin, Stephan Virgil, and Kam Chancellor each recorded one interception. The four interceptions were a Tech bowl-game record, and Chancellor's catch gave him six for the season, tying him with Victor Harris for the most on the team. It was the first time since 1968 that two Virginia Tech players had six interceptions apiece. Cincinnati's sole interception came at the hands of Brandon Underwood, who tallied his third of the season.

Each team found success on special teams as well. Cincinnati punter Kevin Huber, a first-team All-American, kicked the ball four times, averaging 45.8 yards per punt. A 56-yard punt in the first quarter marked the ninth consecutive game he had a kick of at least 50 yards. Virginia Tech placekicker Dustin Keys missed his first field goal attempt of the game but successfully converted his next two kicks, giving him 23 field goals and the Tech single-season record in that category.

## Postgame effects

Virginia Tech's victory raised it to a final record of 10–4, while Cincinnati's loss dropped it to a record of 11–3. The Hokies' 10-win season was the fifth consecutive year in which Tech recorded at least 10 wins, a feat matched only by the University of Southern California and the University of Texas during the same time period. As a reward for coaching the Hokies to an ACC Championship and an Orange Bowl championship, Virginia Tech coaches were given hundreds of thousands of dollars in bonuses.

In Miami, hoteliers and Dolphins Stadium had to quickly prepare for the arrival of Oklahoma and Florida, the two teams that played in the 2009 BCS National Championship Game one week after the Orange Bowl. Signs were changed, the playing field was repainted, and accommodations were prepared for the thousands of expected spectators. In total, South Florida's economy received an estimated \$220 million boost from visitors who arrived to watch the two games.

### Coaching changes

In the postseason that followed the Bearcats' loss to Virginia Tech, Cincinnati assistant head coach and defensive line coach Keith Gilmore resigned to accept the position of defensive line coach at the University of Illinois. To replace Gilmore, Cincinnati promoted special teams coach Mike Elston, who assumed assistant coaching and defensive line duties. In February, Cincinnati defensive coordinator Joe Tresey was fired by the school. He subsequently was hired by the University of South Florida to fill that school's vacant defensive coordinator position. Replacing Tresey is Virginia defensive coordinator Bob Diaco.

### 2009 NFL Draft

As the final game of the 2008–2009 regular season, the 2009 Orange Bowl gave Virginia Tech and Cincinnati players a chance to show their skills before the 2009 NFL Draft. Cincinnati had six players selected in the draft. Defensive end Connor Barwin was the first Bearcats player taken. He was picked in the second round, 46th overall. He was followed by punter Kevin Huber (142nd overall), cornerback DeAngelo Smith (143rd), cornerback Brandon Underwood (187th), cornerback Mike Mickens (227th), and guard Trevor Canfield (254th). Several Cincinnati players were signed as free agents after the draft. These included defensive tackle Adam Hoppel, linebacker Corey Smith, and offensive lineman Khalil El-Amin.

Virginia Tech had just one player taken in the 2009 draft: cornerback Victor Harris, who was picked by the Philadelphia Eagles with the 157th overall selection. Four Hokies were taken as free-agent selections after the draft. Defensive end Orion Martin, quarterback Sean Glennon, center Ryan Shuman, and fullback Devin Perez were signed to try out for various NFL teams.

## See also

- Glossary of American football

January 2009 sports events in the United States

Virginia Tech Hokies football bowl games