After Laughter

After Laughter is the fifth studio album by American rock band Paramore. It was released on May 12, 2017, through Fueled by Ramen, as a follow-up to their self-titled album Paramore (2013). The album was produced by guitarist Taylor York alongside previous collaborator Justin Meldal-Johnsen. It is the band's first album since the return of drummer Zac Farro, who left the band with his brother Josh in 2010, and the departure of former bassist Jeremy Davis, who left the band in 2015. After Laughter represents a complete departure from the usual pop-punk and alternative rock sound of their previous releases, while touching on themes of exhaustion, depression and anxiety, in direct contrast to the upbeat and vibrant sound of the record.

Upon release, After Laughter received critical acclaim from music critics, who praised the band's new sonic direction and the 1980s new wave and synth-pop sound on the album. Several publications featured the album in their year-end lists, including Billboard and Rolling Stone. In 2019, Pitchfork listed it at number 169 in their list of best albums of the decade.

After Laughter was supported by five singles: "Hard Times", released on April 19, 2017, as the lead single, "Told You So", released on May 3, 2017, as the second single, "Fake Happy", released on August 29, 2017, as the third single, "Rose-Colored Boy", released on March 2, 2018, as the fourth single, and "Caught in the Middle", released on June 26, 2018, as the fifth single. After Laughter debuted at number six on the US Billboard 200, marking their third top 10 on the chart, with 67,000 album-equivalent units.

## Background and recording

On January 19, 2016, singer Hayley Williams announced that the band was in the process of writing their fifth album, following up their 2013 self-titled album, Paramore. On June 8, 2016, the band posted a short video of themselves in a studio to their social media, the same month the album recording started. This was preceded by a number of images which all included both former drummer Zac Farro and producer Justin Meldal-Johnsen, leading fans and various media outlets to speculate the return of Farro. On June 17, Farro was featured yet again in a picture uploaded to social media, this time behind a drum set, confirming that he would be recording drums for the album, though he later clarified that he was only recording drums for the album and that he had not rejoined the band as a full member. Despite this, on February 2, 2017, the band announced that Farro would return as the band's official drummer. The album was recorded in Nashville's historic RCA Studio B, marking the first time the group recorded an album in their hometown. It was produced by the band's guitarist Taylor York, and Meldal-Johnsen, both of whom also produced their self-titled record. The recording of the album concluded in November 2016.

In an interview with The New York Times, Williams stated "I didn't even know if we were going to make another record...There was a moment when I didn't even want it to happen. Then it was like, I want it to happen, but I don't know how we're going to do it." Williams was also interviewed by DIY Magazine, where she mentioned "I still feel like we're really green, especially with this record. It felt like there were so many new things to try and so many new feelings about life – you're finally all the way over the hump of being able to deny that you're an adult now. Yeah, this was a crazy record to make."

## Release and promotion

On April 19, 2017, the lead single, "Hard Times", was released along with a music video. On the same day, pre-orders of the album were made available, revealing the album title, cover art, track listing, and release date. A European headline tour was later announced via the band's official website, kicking off in Ireland on June 15. Riot Fest also announced that Paramore would be part of the festival's lineup in September. On May 3, the band released a second single from the album, titled "Told You So", along with a music video. On May 10, the album leaked online before its official release. On the day of the album's release, the band announced their third "Parahoy!" cruise, which took place from April 6 to April 10, 2018, sailing from Miami to Nassau, Bahamas. On May 17, the band performed "Hard Times" on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Following this, on May 25, they performed "Told You So" on The Late Late Show. On August 29, 2017, the band released "Fake Happy" as the third single from the album, On February 5, 2018, a music video directed by Warren Fu for "Rose-Colored Boy" was released, which is also the album's fourth single. On June 26, 2018, a music video for "Caught in the Middle" was released, which also serves as the album's fifth and final single.

## Composition

### Music and lyrics

After Laughter is a departure from Paramore's previous material, leaving behind the pop-punk and emo genres of previous releases entirely. Matt Collar from AllMusic described the album's sound as new wave. Ilana Kaplan at Paste characterized the album as 1980s new wave pop. Similarly, Billboard'''s Chris Payne described it as an "early '80s new wave" album, as well as calling the songs on After Laughter "slick, sun-kissed alternative pop". Marianne Eloise of The Forty Five described the album as synth-pop. Brad Nelson of Spin also described the album as new wave, saying that "it's the band's brightest, most animated album. The sound is crisp, every layer discernible, lacking the blurs and reverberations that constitute traditional rock production and instead drawing from the rhythmic separations that characterize '80s pop and freestyle." Glenn Gamboa from Newsday stated that the band is "pushing deeper into their own pop-rock world," and that the album has "the candy-colored energy of '80s pop built on sleek synths and spiky, Afrobeat-tinged guitars." Pitchfork writer Ryan Dombal categorized the album a "piece of '80s pop-rock," stating "York focuses his inspirations the styles of 1980s rock and pop, conjuring a slicked-back take on fixtures like Talking Heads, Paul Simon, and the Bangles." The Line of Best Fits Dannii Leivers noted "the band have fully embraced chart-friendly, power pop." According to PopMatters, "[the album] fuses sleek elements of ’80s new wave, funk, and synthpop." Punknews.org described the album as an "80s electro-pop album". Eve Barlow from Variety observed "...these tunes builds upon the more ambitious, experimental sounds of radio stalker "Ain't It Fun" off their previous, self-titled LP, leaning on their crossover success."

The album's lyrical content predominantly touches upon themes of exhaustion, depression, and anxiety. NME said the album is a "pop triumph", highlighting the contrast between the "serious sadness" of the lyrics "underneath all the bangers". Similarly, The Guardian called the album a "vibrant record, a contrast to its lyrical themes, which cover masking misery, spiralling depression and the anxiety of ageing, only with a knowing wink." Newsday called the album "a collection of songs about remaining upbeat in the face of adversity that bounce around with." Billboard said "Williams sings about the act of crying on no less than five songs, and there are numerous moments where she could be addressing the unfriendly exit and subsequent legal entanglements of former bassist Jeremy Davis." Spin said the album "observes a different aspect of the subject of survival: the emptiness and pointlessness, and how often it fails to alter the indifferent universe that surrounds and requires it." The Line of Best Fit said "despite all its sunny hooks, After Laughter is a deep album with plenty to say. It's easily the most honest and mature Paramore have sounded yet."

### Songs and lyrical content

#### Tracks 1–6

After Laughter opens with "Hard Times", a synth-heavy, disco-tinged new wave song about the feeling of going through hard times, and being useless in achieving one's goals. "Rose-Colored Boy" is a synth-pop song that Rolling Stone compared to Cupid & Psyche 85 by pop group Scritti Politti. "Told You So" is a song that has been described as funk-pop, as well as new wave, indie pop and electropop. "Forgiveness" is a "dreamy power ballad" which features "sassy handclaps and hairflicks", which has been compared to pop rock bands Heart, Fleetwood Mac and Haim. NPR said the song is "the band's take on Haim's chiming California soft-rock revival." Spin called it one of the band's best songs, "their gentlest and most buoyant kiss-off". "Fake Happy" starts out as an acoustic dirge that transforms into an "ambitious, funky anthem about everyone masking their sadness." "26" is a string-laden ballad that "sighs into its lush strings". It has been compared to the songs "Misguided Ghosts" and "The Only Exception" from their 2009 album, Brand New Eyes.

#### Tracks 7–12

The seventh track "Pool", described as "aqueous" and "bouncy", is a new wave song that "bathes Williams' voice in crystalline distortion" and "shimmers like a mirage on a blazing day." "Grudges" is "a sweet reflection of Williams' repaired relationship with both Farro brothers", with Zac Farro harmonizing on the track. It has been compared by NME to The Bangles' work, whereas AllMusic compared it to The Cure's "Friday I'm in Love". "Caught in the Middle" is a "ska-inflected" song of persistence and goal setting. According to NME, it is one of the album's nods to their punk past, which they also compared to No Doubt's earlier music. "Idle Worship" is a commentary about fame, with Williams' voice providing even more of a contrast to the stunning acridity of lyrics. York revealed that he sampled wind howling through a building in the UK, then played the sample on a keyboard in the song. The "moody" and "marauding" eleventh track "No Friend" has been described as post-hardcore. It is the only Paramore song to not feature Williams on the vocals. Instead, Aaron Weiss from MewithoutYou is on the vocals, delivering a spoken word monologue buried in a cacophony of York and Farro's dark inversions of the "Idle Worship" riff. The lyrics add metrical detail to the sentiments of "Idle Worship", a song about interpersonal expectations, and the vast distance between one's self-conception and the idea of oneself that exists in the minds of others, Many of its lyrics also make references to past Paramore songs. Several publications referred to it as "the strangest song that's ever made it to a Paramore album." The album closes with "Tell Me How", a tender piano ballad which features a "vaguely tropical pulse and warily confessional words" that allows Williams' voice to curl around and into expressions of anxiety that sound impossible to quiet. It's been characterized as "a soft R&B exploration disguised as a piano ballad" by NPR, who compared it to works by Drake and The Weeknd.

## Title and artwork

Regarding the album's title, Williams told iHeartRadio that "After Laughter is about the look on people's faces when they're done laughing. If you watch somebody long enough, there's always this look that comes across their face when they're done smiling, and I always find it really fascinating to wonder what it is that brought them back to reality. So, that's what After Laughter is."

The artwork of After Laughter, which features an impossible trident optical illusion, was designed by Los Angeles–based designer Scott Cleary. It reflects a new sound and direction for the band. Cleary stated:

> The band came to me when they were recording the album in LA. We've been friends for a while so we were spending a lot of time together while they were in town from Nashville. They asked me if I'd be interested in doing the album artwork and band re-brand, to which I jumped at the chance. They had some ideas around the 80s vibes of the record, and a few visual references they were feeling. I did the usual "listen to the record, write/draw a bunch of stuff" and came up with the idea of a landscape where colors, shapes and textures would represent sounds and moments on the record...Sonically, the record is very "real" and I wanted the imagery details to have that finishing touch as well.

According to Cleary, his artwork was "the first piece of visual material that accompanied the new record and the band wanted a super-cohesive roll-out", therefore the music video for the lead single "Hard Times" was "very much influenced by the artwork."

## Critical reception

After Laughter received critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 82, based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim."

Matt Collar at AllMusic commented that "much credit here goes to York, who co-wrote all of the songs and whose deft guitar and keyboard make up much of the album's distinct aural character. But of course, Williams still beats at the center of everything, her voice providing the album's warm, exuberant core." Brice Ezell of Consequence stated "Colorful instrumentation and insistent hooks overpower the uneven parts of the band's fifth studio outing". Joe Goggins writing for Drowned in Sound described the band as being as "Musically...free as they’ve ever sounded [on this album]." In a positive review, Harriet Gibsone at The Guardian said the album is "candy-coated bitterness at its best – may steer them away from the Kerrang! crowd, but one thing remains consistent to Paramore's emo roots – the theatrical mellifluence of internal angst." Dannii Leivers of The Line of Best Fit called it a "deep album with plenty to say" and "one of the best pop albums [of the] year."

Writing for Newsday, Glenn Gamboa praised the album, stating that "the closer Paramore gets to breaking up, the better it gets at finding reasons to stick together," adding that the album "is packed with potential pop hits that only Paramore could deliver. And that's the perfect reason for the group to keep going." Leonie Cooper from Jon Caramanica from The New York Times noted that Paramore are "single-minded again, but not of the same mind as it once was. Ms. Williams and her bandmates, Zac Farro and Taylor York have remade themselves into a 1980s pop-rock outfit: tinny digital percussion, synthesizers and mostly constrained, saccharine singing from Ms. Williams." NME gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, writing: "Catharsis is never usually this joyous, but sometimes smiling through the pain works better than crying." Laura Snapes of 'The Observer called the album "one of the year’s best pop albums."

Iiana Kaplan of Paste said After Laughter is "an undeniably hooky record that strays from its grunge-rock roots and finds the band in a place where they've found the fun in their craft once again." Kaplan also stated that the Williams people love is still around, while noting "Once immersed in the pop-heavy album that is After Laughter, it becomes clear that the less angsty outlook of Paramore is something only surface-level. If you look beneath, it shows Williams battling with herself to make amends ("Forgiveness", "Caught In The Middle") and put on a front to the public ("Fake Happy")." Pitchfork writer Ryan Dombal described it as the band's most "fizzy" album, adding that it "highlights Williams' most existentially despondent musings to date." Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone was positive towards the writing stating, "[the] lyrics evince a weariness that makes [the brightness of the album] seem garishly empty and called the album a "gorgeously produced, hook-studded record." Sputnikmusic staff writer Sowing described the album as the "fresh start" that the self-titled album was meant to be, adding "After Laughter is the first post-2010 Paramore record to truly break form," mentioning "No Friend" and "26" as discography highlights. Patrick Ryan writing for USA Today noted that "Paramore is clearly aiming for more radio-friendly music here, but their deceptively moving lyrics and audacious fusing of genres is what makes it such a rewarding listen."

In a fifth anniversary retrospective review of the album, Yasmine Summan from Alternative Press considered it to be a "saving grace" for the band, and stated "Right now there might not be a Paramore as we know it, but with Zac's return, York's incredible talents and Williams having a place to confront her emotions, this album not only earns its acclaim for its chart-topping successes but is as crucial to the band's growth as Riot! or brand new eyes."

### Accolades

## Commercial performance

After Laughter debuted at number six on the US Billboard'' 200, making it their third top 10 on the chart, with 67,000 album-equivalent units, of which 53,000 were pure album sales, and was certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of 500,000 albums. It also debuted within the top 10 of seven other countries including Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland and the UK.

## Track listing

## Personnel

Paramore

- Hayley Williams – lead and background vocals, keyboards, percussion
- Taylor York – background vocals, guitars, keyboards, programming, percussion, marimba, production, additional mixing, engineering
- Zac Farro – background vocals, keyboards, drums, percussion, bells

Additional musicians

- Justin Meldal-Johnsen – bass guitar, keyboards, programming
- Zelly Boo Meldal-Johnsen – background vocals (2)
- David Davidson – violin (6)
- Benjamin Kaufman – violin (6)
- Betsy Lamb – viola (6)
- Claire Indie Nunn – cello (6)
- Daniel James – string arrangement (6)
- Aaron Weiss – lead vocals (11)

Technical

- Justin Meldal-Johnsen – production, engineering
- Carlos de la Garza – mixing, engineering
- Mike Schuppan – engineering, additional mixing
- Kevin Boettger – assistant engineering
- Dave Cooley – mastering

Artwork'''

- Scott Cleary – art direction, design
- Ken Tisuthiwongse – photography for artwork
- Lindsey Byrnes – band photography
- Brian Ranney – packaging production

## Charts

### Weekly charts

### Year-end charts

## Certifications

Albums produced by Justin Meldal-Johnsen


Habitat

In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ecological niche. Thus "habitat" is a species-specific term, fundamentally different from concepts such as environment or vegetation assemblages, for which the term "habitat-type" is more appropriate.

The physical factors may include (for example): soil, moisture, range of temperature, and light intensity. Biotic factors include the availability of food and the presence or absence of predators. Every species has particular habitat requirements, with habitat generalist species able to thrive in a wide array of environmental conditions while habitat specialist species requiring a very limited set of factors to survive. The habitat of a species is not necessarily found in a geographical area, it can be the interior of a stem, a rotten log, a rock or a clump of moss; a parasitic organism has as its habitat the body of its host, part of the host's body (such as the digestive tract), or a single cell within the host's body.

Habitat types are environmental categorizations of different environments based on the characteristics of a given geographical area, particularly vegetation and climate. Thus habitat types do not refer to a single species but to multiple species living in the same area. For example, terrestrial habitat types include forest, steppe, grassland, semi-arid or desert. Fresh-water habitat types include marshes, streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds; marine habitat types include salt marshes, the coast, the intertidal zone, estuaries, reefs, bays, the open sea, the sea bed, deep water and submarine vents.

Habitat types may change over time. Causes of change may include a violent event (such as the eruption of a volcano, an earthquake, a tsunami, a wildfire or a change in oceanic currents); or change may occur more gradually over millennia with alterations in the climate, as ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat, and as different weather patterns bring changes of precipitation and solar radiation. Other changes come as a direct result of human activities, such as deforestation, the plowing of ancient grasslands, the diversion and damming of rivers, the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed. The introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife – through increased predation, through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity.

## Definition and etymology

The word "habitat" has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin habitāre, to inhabit, from habēre, to have or to hold. Habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism, the type of place in which it is natural for it to live and grow. It is similar in meaning to a biotope; an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals.

## Environmental factors

The chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature, humidity, climate, soil and light intensity, and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it. Generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities.

Some plants and animals have habitat requirements which are met in a wide range of locations. The small white butterfly Pieris rapae for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica. Its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. The large blue butterfly Phengaris arion is much more specific in its requirements; it is found only in chalk grassland areas, its larvae feed on Thymus species, and because of complex life cycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which Myrmica ants live.

Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitat types. In the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. Wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow. Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. Similarly, coastal habitat types can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away, or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation. Another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat.

## Types

### Terrestrial

Terrestrial habitat types include forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts. Within these broad biomes are more specific habitat types with varying climate types, temperature regimes, soils, altitudes and vegetation. Many of these habitat types grade into each other and each one has its own typical communities of plants and animals. A habitat-type may suit a particular species well, but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance, on its dispersal abilities and its efficiency as a colonizer.

### Arid

Arid habitats are those where there is little available water. The most extreme arid habitats are deserts. Desert animals have a variety of adaptations to survive the dry conditions. Some frogs live in deserts, creating moist habitat types underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse. Couch's spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus couchii) emerges from its burrow when a downpour occurs and lays its eggs in the transient pools that form; the tadpoles develop with great rapidity, sometimes in as little as nine days, undergo metamorphosis, and feed voraciously before digging a burrow of their own.

#### List of arid habitat types

- Desert
- Fog desert
- Polar desert
- Steppe
- Savanna

### Wetland and riparian

Other organisms cope with the drying up of their aqueous habitat in other ways. Vernal pools are ephemeral ponds that form in the rainy season and dry up afterwards. They have their specially-adapted characteristic flora, mainly consisting of annuals, the seeds of which survive the drought, but also some uniquely adapted perennials. Animals adapted to these extreme habitat types also exist; fairy shrimps can lay "winter eggs" which are resistant to desiccation, sometimes being blown about with the dust, ending up in new depressions in the ground. These can survive in a dormant state for as long as fifteen years. Some killifish behave in a similar way; their eggs hatch and the juvenile fish grow with great rapidity when the conditions are right, but the whole population of fish may end up as eggs in diapause in the dried up mud that was once a pond.

#### List of wetland and riparian habitat types

- Bog
- Marsh
- Fen
- Flooded grasslands and savannas
- Floodplain
- Shrub swamp
- Swamp
- Vernal pool
- Wet meadow

### Forest

#### List of forest habitat types

- Boreal forest
- Cloud forest
- Peat swamp forest
- Temperate coniferous forest
- Temperate deciduous forest
- Temperate rain forest
- Thorn forest
- Tropical dry forest
- Tropical moist forest
- Tropical rain forest
- Woodland

### Freshwater

Freshwater habitat types include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes and bogs. Although some organisms are found across most of these habitat types, the majority have more specific requirements. The water velocity, its temperature and oxygen saturation are important factors, but in river systems, there are fast and slow sections, pools, bayous and backwaters which provide a range of habitat types. Similarly, aquatic plants can be floating, semi-submerged, submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water. Marginal plants provide important habitat for both invertebrates and vertebrates, and submerged plants provide oxygenation of the water, absorb nutrients and play a part in the reduction of pollution.

#### List of freshwater habitat types

### Marine

Marine habitats include brackish water, estuaries, bays, the open sea, the intertidal zone, the sea bed, reefs and deep / shallow water zones. Further variations include rock pools, sand banks, mudflats, brackish lagoons, sandy and pebbly beaches, and seagrass beds, all supporting their own flora and fauna. The benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms, anchored to the substrate, and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface. Some creatures float among the waves on the surface of the water, or raft on floating debris, others swim at a range of depths, including organisms in the demersal zone close to the seabed, and myriads of organisms drift with the currents and form the plankton.

#### List of marine habitat types

- Abyssal plain
- Aphotic zone
- Benthic zone
- Cold seep
- Coral reef
- Demersal zone
- Estuary
- Hydrothermal vent
- Intertidal zone
- Kelp forest
- Littoral zone
- Oceanic trench
- Photic zone
- Seagrass meadow
- Seamount
- Tide pool

### Urban

Many animals and plants have taken up residence in urban environments. They tend to be adaptable generalists and use the town's features to make their homes. Rats and mice have followed man around the globe, pigeons, peregrines, sparrows, swallows and house martins use the buildings for nesting, bats use roof space for roosting, foxes visit the garbage bins and squirrels, coyotes, raccoons and skunks roam the streets. About 2,000 coyotes are thought to live in and around Chicago. A survey of dwelling houses in northern European cities in the twentieth century found about 175 species of invertebrate inside them, including 53 species of beetle, 21 flies, 13 butterflies and moths, 13 mites, 9 lice, 7 bees, 5 wasps, 5 cockroaches, 5 spiders, 4 ants and a number of other groups. In warmer climates, termites are serious pests in the urban habitat; 183 species are known to affect buildings and 83 species cause serious structural damage.

## Microhabitat types

A microhabitat is the small-scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population. Every habitat includes large numbers of microhabitat types with subtly different exposure to light, humidity, temperature, air movement, and other factors. The lichens that grow on the north face of a boulder are different from those that grow on the south face, from those on the level top, and those that grow on the ground nearby; the lichens growing in the grooves and on the raised surfaces are different from those growing on the veins of quartz. Lurking among these miniature "forests" are the microfauna, species of invertebrate, each with its own specific habitat requirements.

There are numerous different microhabitat types in a wood; coniferous forest, broad-leafed forest, open woodland, scattered trees, woodland verges, clearings, and glades; tree trunk, branch, twig, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit; rough bark, smooth bark, damaged bark, rotten wood, hollow, groove, and hole; canopy, shrub layer, plant layer, leaf litter, and soil; buttress root, stump, fallen log, stem base, grass tussock, fungus, fern, and moss. The greater the structural diversity in the wood, the greater the number of microhabitat types that will be present. A range of tree species with individual specimens of varying sizes and ages, and a range of features such as streams, level areas, slopes, tracks, clearings, and felled areas will provide suitable conditions for an enormous number of biodiverse plants and animals. For example, in Britain it has been estimated that various types of rotting wood are home to over 1700 species of invertebrate.

For a parasitic organism, its habitat is the particular part of the outside or inside of its host on or in which it is adapted to live. The life cycle of some parasites involves several different host species, as well as free-living life stages, sometimes within vastly different microhabitat types. One such organism is the trematode (flatworm) Microphallus turgidus, present in brackish water marshes in the southeastern United States. Its first intermediate host is a snail and the second, a glass shrimp. The final host is the waterfowl or mammal that consumes the shrimp.

## Extreme habitat types

Although the vast majority of life on Earth lives in mesophyllic (moderate) environments, a few organisms, most of them microbes, have managed to colonise extreme environments that are unsuitable for more complex life forms. There are bacteria, for example, living in Lake Whillans, half a mile below the ice of Antarctica; in the absence of sunlight, they must rely on organic material from elsewhere, perhaps decaying matter from glacier melt water or minerals from the underlying rock. Other bacteria can be found in abundance in the Mariana Trench, the deepest place in the ocean and on Earth; marine snow drifts down from the surface layers of the sea and accumulates in this undersea valley, providing nourishment for an extensive community of bacteria.

Other microbes live in environemts lacking in oxygen, and are dependent on chemical reactions other than photosynthesis. Boreholes drilled 300 m (1,000 ft) into the rocky seabed have found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks. These communities have not been studied much, but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle. Rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock. These metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light, an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life.

The intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitat types. However the vast bulk of the ocean is inhospitable to air-breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m (160 ft) or so. The lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m (330 to 660 ft) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen (in some places), scarce food resources and extreme cold. This habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little-studied, it is vast, with 79% of the Earth's biosphere being at depths greater than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). With no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. Some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid-ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. Their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. A number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. In general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure-resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells known as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. There are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures.

Hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977. They result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed. The under-water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 °C (640 °F) and support unique communities of organisms in their immediate vicinity. The basis for this teeming life is chemosynthesis, a process by which microbes convert such substances as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia into organic molecules. These bacteria and Archaea are the primary producers in these ecosystems and support a diverse array of life. About 350 species of organism, dominated by molluscs, polychaete worms and crustaceans, had been discovered around hydrothermal vents by the end of the twentieth century, most of them being new to science and endemic to these habitat types.

Besides providing locomotion opportunities for winged animals and a conduit for the dispersal of pollen grains, spores and seeds, the atmosphere can be considered to be a habitat-type in its own right. There are metabolically active microbes present that actively reproduce and spend their whole existence airborne, with hundreds of thousands of individual organisms estimated to be present in a cubic meter of air. The airborne microbial community may be as diverse as that found in soil or other terrestrial environments, however, these organisms are not evenly distributed, their densities varying spatially with altitude and environmental conditions. Aerobiology has not been studied much, but there is evidence of nitrogen fixation in clouds, and less clear evidence of carbon cycling, both facilitated by microbial activity.

There are other examples of extreme habitat types where specially adapted lifeforms exist; tar pits teeming with microbial life; naturally occurring crude oil pools inhabited by the larvae of the petroleum fly; hot springs where the temperature may be as high as 71 °C (160 °F) and cyanobacteria create microbial mats; cold seeps where the methane and hydrogen sulfide issue from the ocean floor and support microbes and higher animals such as mussels which form symbiotic associations with these anaerobic organisms; salt pans that harbour salt-tolerant bacteria, archaea and also fungi such as the black yeast Hortaea werneckii and basidiomycete Wallemia ichthyophaga; ice sheets in Antarctica which support fungi Thelebolus spp., glacial ice with a variety of bacteria and fungi; and snowfields on which algae grow.

## Habitat change

Whether from natural processes or the activities of man, landscapes and their associated habitat types change over time. There are the slow geomorphological changes associated with the geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and the more rapid changes associated with earthquakes, landslides, storms, flooding, wildfires, coastal erosion, deforestation and changes in land use. Then there are the changes in habitat types brought on by alterations in farming practices, tourism, pollution, fragmentation and climate change.

Loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to any species. If an island on which an endemic organism lives becomes uninhabitable for some reason, the species will become extinct. Any type of habitat surrounded by a different habitat is in a similar situation to an island. If a forest is divided into parts by logging, with strips of cleared land separating woodland blocks, and the distances between the remaining fragments exceeds the distance an individual animal is able to travel, that species becomes especially vulnerable. Small populations generally lack genetic diversity and may be threatened by increased predation, increased competition, disease and unexpected catastrophe. At the edge of each forest fragment, increased light encourages secondary growth of fast-growing species and old growth trees are more vulnerable to logging as access is improved. The birds that nest in their crevices, the epiphytes that hang from their branches and the invertebrates in the leaf litter are all adversely affected and biodiversity is reduced. Habitat fragmentation can be ameliorated to some extent by the provision of wildlife corridors connecting the fragments. These can be a river, ditch, strip of trees, hedgerow or even an underpass to a highway. Without the corridors, seeds cannot disperse and animals, especially small ones, cannot travel through the hostile territory, putting populations at greater risk of local extinction.

Habitat disturbance can have long-lasting effects on the environment. Bromus tectorum is a vigorous grass from Europe which has been introduced to the United States where it has become invasive. It is highly adapted to fire, producing large amounts of flammable detritus and increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires. In areas where it has become established, it has altered the local fire regimen to such an extant that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become even more dominant. A marine example is when sea urchin populations "explode" in coastal waters and destroy all the macroalgae present. What was previously a kelp forest becomes an urchin barren that may last for years and this can have a profound effect on the food chain. Removal of the sea urchins, by disease for example, can result in the seaweed returning, with an over-abundance of fast-growing kelp.

### Fragmentation

### Destruction

## Habitat protection

The protection of habitat types is a necessary step in the maintenance of biodiversity because if habitat destruction occurs, the animals and plants reliant on that habitat suffer. Many countries have enacted legislation to protect their wildlife. This may take the form of the setting up of national parks, forest reserves and wildlife reserves, or it may restrict the activities of humans with the objective of benefiting wildlife. The laws may be designed to protect a particular species or group of species, or the legislation may prohibit such activities as the collecting of bird eggs, the hunting of animals or the removal of plants. A general law on the protection of habitat types may be more difficult to implement than a site specific requirement. A concept introduced in the United States in 1973 involves protecting the critical habitat of endangered species, and a similar concept has been incorporated into some Australian legislation.

International treaties may be necessary for such objectives as the setting up of marine reserves. Another international agreement, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, protects animals that migrate across the globe and need protection in more than one country. Even where legislation protects the environment, a lack of enforcement often prevents effective protection. However, the protection of habitat types needs to take into account the needs of the local residents for food, fuel and other resources. Faced with hunger and destitution, a farmer is likely to plough up a level patch of ground despite it being the last suitable habitat for an endangered species such as the San Quintin kangaroo rat, and even kill the animal as a pest. In the interests of ecotourism it is desirable that local communities are educated on the uniqueness of their flora and fauna.

## Monotypic habitat

A monotypic habitat-type is a concept sometimes used in conservation biology, in which a single species of animal or plant is the only species of its type to be found in a specific habitat and forms a monoculture. Even though it might seem such a habitat-type is impoverished in biodiversity as compared with polytypic habitat types, this is not necessarily the case. Monocultures of the exotic plant Hydrilla support a similarly rich fauna of invertebrates as a more varied habitat. The monotypic habitat occurs in both botanical and zoological contexts. Some invasive species may create monocultural stands that prevent other species from growing there. A dominant colonization can occur from retardant chemicals exuded, nutrient monopolization, or from lack of natural controls such as herbivores or climate, that keep them in balance with their native habitat types. The yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis, is a botanical monotypic habitat example of this, currently dominating over 15,000,000 acres (61,000 km<sup>2</sup>) in California alone. The non-native freshwater zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, that colonizes areas of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed, is a zoological monotypic habitat example; the predators or parasites that control it in its home-range in Russia are absent.

## See also

- : the loss of habitat

Type of environment in which an organism lives


1988 San Diego Chargers season

The 1988 San Diego Chargers season was the franchise's 19th season in the National Football League, its 29th overall and the second and final full season under head coach Al Saunders.

This was the first season after the retirement of Dan Fouts, who had been the Chargers' starting quarterback for the majority of games over the past 15 seasons. The new-look passing attack struggled in his absence, ranking 26th out of 28 teams. San Diego team failed to improve on their 8–7 record in 1987 and finished 6-10: following a 2-2 start, they lost six straight games to drop out of the playoff race.

Saunders was fired the day after the season finale, amid rumours of friction between the head coach and Director of Football Operations Steve Ortmayer.

## Offseason

### Departures

The San Diego offense saw three major departures: Dan Fouts had retired shortly after the 1987 season, Wes Chandler was traded to San Francisco in the off-season, while Kellen Winslow had a dispute with management over his fitness to play, and officially retired early in the 1988 season. Each of the trio are in the Chargers Hall of Fame; Fouts and Winslow are both in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Fouts had his number retired on November 27, at halftime of a game against the San Francisco 49ers.

Other departures also affected the passing game: Fouts' backup of the past three seasons, Mark Herrmann, also departed, traded to the Colts, while tight end Pete Holohan moved on to the Los Angeles Rams after seven seasons in San Diego. Pro Bowl left tackle Jim Lachey expressed discontentment in San Diego, and was traded to the Raiders for second-year lineman John Clay and a pair of draft picks. On defense, cornerback Danny Walters was released after being charged with DUI and the possession of cocaine, and linebacker Thomas Benson was traded to New England.

### Arrivals

San Diego looked to the free agent market for their replacement at quarterback, acquiring eight-year veteran Mark Malone from Pittsburgh on April 12, in exchange for an eight-round draft pick. They later added journeyman Babe Laufenberg, who had previously been with four different teams (including San Diego in 1985) without throwing a pass. Another offensive acquisition was blocking tight end Arthur Cox, who would start every game in 1988.

On defense, linebacker Keith Browner and defensive back Roy Bennett were both added via free agency; Bennett had led the CFL in interceptions the previous year. Also in the defensive backfield, Leonard Coleman was acquired from the Colts in exchange for a 12th round draft pick, and two weeks into the season, Sam Seale was brought in from the LA Raiders after to replace an injured Pat Miller. Later in the season, kicker Vince Abbott was injured, and free agent Steve DeLine replaced him for the final five games.

### NFL Draft

San Diego made 10 selections in the 1988 draft. They addressed their need at wide receiver by choosing Anthony Miller and Quinn Early with their first two selections. Both were seen as speedsters - Miller was timed at 4.33 seconds in the 40-yard dash, with Early at 4.36. Al Saunders had considered trading up to ensure the team could draft Miller, but the Chargers were able to secure their target with the 15th overall selection. Both receivers signed contracts in July.

In total, San Diego signed six of their ten selections. Miller (15 starts) and Early (11 starts) both saw extensive action as rookies, as did fourth-round pick David Richards, who started every game at right tackle.

## Personnel

### Staff

### Roster

## Preseason

Going into preseason, the Chargers' starting quarterback job was up for grabs, with Babe Laufenberg, Mark Malone and Mark Vlasic each given substantial playing time. In the first game, Laufenberg enhanced his case by leading a 4th quarter comeback against Dallas. The Cowboys took a 21–0 lead in the 3rd quarter, and were still up 21–3 when Laufenberg entered the game with 12:40 to play. He led three consecutive touchdown drives to put San Diego ahead, passing to Darren Flutie and Lionel James for scores, either side of a Tim Spencer touchdown run. The victory was confirmed when rookie wide receiver Michael Irvin lost a fumble in the Charger red zone with a minute to play.

Laufenberg struggled the following week, being on the receiving end of four of the seven sacks San Diego gave up in a one-sided loss to the Rams. Both he and Vlasic threw interceptions, while Malone completed 5 of 12 for 45 yards, and was credited by head coach Al Saunders with having shown the most poise. The passing attack improved the following week against San Francisco, as the Chargers built a 27–10 lead before conceding 24 unanswered points to lose. Laufenberg threw a pair of touchdown passes to Quinn Early, and Malone added a third, to Jamie Holland; Holland had 3 catches for 118 yards while rookie Anthony Miller added 5 for 96.

On August 23, Saunders named Laufenberg the probable starter for the opening weekend of the regular season. San Diego then finished their preseason schedule with a second defeat to the Rams, falling behind 31–0 at halftime before recovering to lose by just seven points. Laufenberg played the bulk of the game, finding Flutie for two touchdown passes in the 3rd quarter, and completing 15 of 25 passes for 214 yards.

## Regular season

### Overview

In the absence of Fouts, Winslow and Chandler, the once-mighty Charger passing attack collapsed completely, ranking 26th in the league with 2,388 yards. Only three seasons earlier, San Diego had topped the league with over double the yardage.

Saunders tried three different quarterbacks during the season: Babe Laufenberg, Mark Malone, and second-year pro Mark Vlasic. Each of the trio finished with a passer rating in the 50s - the league average for 1988 was 72.9, and Fouts had posted a rating of at least 70.0 in each of his last 12 seasons in San Diego. The receiving corps lacked experience - Jamie Holland, in his second year, led the team with 536 yards, while rookies Quinn Early and Anthony Miller caught the most touchdowns, with four and three respectively. Darren Flutie, another rookie, caught a pair of touchdowns - thirteen years later, his elder brother Doug would join the Chargers as their starting quarterback.

The running game fared considerably better, thanks in large part to the form of Gary Anderson. After gaining most of his yardage as a receiver out of the backfield during his first three years in San Diego, Anderson was used as a more conventional running back to good effect. Despite missing two games due to injury, his total of 1,119 yards ranked sixth in the league, and his average of 5.0 yards-per-carry was better than any of the five backs above him. Anderson had five 100-yard games, each of which the Chargers won, and rushed for 387 yards in the final two games alone.

On defense, San Diego had a mediocre campaign, ranking 18th for points allowed and 21st for yardage. Linebacker Chip Banks, who had started every non-strike game in 1987, was a holdout. Lee Williams led the team in sacks for the fourth consecutive year, with eleven; Leslie O'Neal saw limited action after missing the previous season through injury, and picked up four sacks in nine games. Linebacker Gary Plummer was credited with a team-leading 118 tackles. Gill Byrd, who had gone without an interception the previous season, rebounded to snag seven - nearly half the team's total of sixteen. Ralf Mojsiejenko's average of 44.1 yards per kick ranked second in the league. Holland and Miller ranked second and third respectively for kickoff return average; they each scored a touchdown return, making San Diego the only team with two such touchdowns.

Before the season, the Chargers made modifications to their uniforms, changing the color of the helmet and jersey from royal blue to a darker navy blue. They also switched the colors on the lightning bolt: it went from a yellow bolt with a white outline to a white bolt with a yellow outline. The team's facemasks also changed from yellow to navy blue. They would keep this helmet and uniform through the 2006 season.

### Schedule

Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.

### Game summaries

All game reports use the Pro Football Researchers' gamebook archive as a source.

#### Week 1: at Los Angeles Raiders

The post-Fouts era began with Babe Laufenberg at quarterback. The journeyman failed to lead his offense past midfield on their first five drives, which resulted in four punts and an interception. In the early stages, San Diego's defense held the Raiders at bay, with Lee Williams forcing a fumble in Charger territory; following Laufenberg's error, Los Angeles drove 52 yards and Marcus Allen opened the scoring. Laufenberg then completed passes of 31 and 34 yards to rookies Quinn Early and Anthony Miller, setting up a Vince Abbott field goal. NFL debutant and future Hall of Famer Tim Brown sliced through the Charger coverage on the ensuing kickoff, for a 97-yard touchdown and 14–3 Raider lead at the intermission.

San Diego trimmed the deficit with another Abbott kick after halftime, then drove to a 1st and 10 on the Raider 17, courtesy of Early's 37-yard reverse and Laufenberg's fourth down sneak. From there, the Chargers committed a penalty before losing yardage on three consecutive plays and punting on 4th and 44. After a Raider field goal, San Diego started out on their own 22-yard line with seven minutes to play. Lionel James had receptions of 13 and 31 yards on the next two plays, and Jamie Holland finished the drive with catches of 15 and 24 yards, the latter in the back of the end zone on 4th and 10. Los Angeles picked up one first down in response, before punting to pin the Chargers at their own 11 with 1:31 to play and only one timeout. The offense went backwards from there, with Laufenberg eventually throwing incomplete on 4th and 20 from his own 1-yard line. Allen added an insurance touchdown two plays later.

#### Week 2: at Denver Broncos

Babe Laufenberg was chased from the game as Denver thrashed the Chargers. After punting on their first possession, Denver scored 17 points on their next three, which proved to be more than enough to win. Laufenberg completed 2 of 8 passes for just 5 yards, and was replaced by Mark Malone after a 2nd quarter interception. Malone led the Chargers to an Abbott field goal on his first possession, but Denver came straight back with a Tony Dorsett touchdown run to lead 24–3. Lionel James had three receptions for 44 yards on the next drive, but was stopped a yard short when San Diego attempted to convert a 4th and 4 at the Denver 5-yard line. The best Charger chances after halftime were foiled by another failed fourth down try and a Malone interception.

James rushed 4 times for 29 yards, caught 5 passes for 51 yards, and returned 2 punts a total of 31 yards.

#### Week 3: vs. Seattle Seahawks

Two interceptions each by Keith Browner and Gill Byrd sparked the Chargers to their first win of the year. Dave Krieg led his team into Charger territory on the game's first possession, before an onrushing Tyrone Keys batted a pass in the air for Browner to intercept behind the line of scrimmage - the linebacker returned the ball 55 yards for a touchdown. Seattle drove right back into Charger territory, but Krieg was picked off by Byrd in the end zone. After forcing a Charger punt, Seattle again threatened, but Vencie Glenn's third down sack forced a 43-yard field goal try by Norm Johnson, which fell short. Abbott made a kick from 48 yards, before Johnson pulled it back to 10–3 at the break.

Laufenberg was intercepted early in the third quarter, but Browning's second interception cancelled out the error two plays later. Abbott missed a field goal on the ensuing drive, and Johnson's second successful kick trimmed the lead to four points with 9:27 to play in the final quarter. San Diego then put together a crucial 9-play, 76-yard touchdown drive, with Laufenberg producing two third downs completions and Gary Anderson rushing four times for 49 yards; Anderson faked a reverse and scored on a 25-yard sweep with 4:05 to play. Byrd's goal line interception ensured there would be no late scare.

Anderson finished with 19 carries for 120 yards and a touchdown, and the Chargers won despite producing only 78 net passing yards.

#### Week 4: at Kansas City Chiefs

A fast start and thrilling finish saw the Chargers level their record at 2–2. San Diego forced the Chiefs to punt on their first two possessions, while the offense came to life with touchdown drives of 80 and 60 yards. Laufenberg went deep over the middle to Quinn Early for the first score, before Anderson, who rushed six times for 70 yards across the two drives, veered outside right end and raced past the Kansas City defense for a 30-yard touchdown.

The Chiefs dominated the second and third quarters. Three plays after Anderson scored, Steve DeBerg found Paul Palmer behind the secondary for a 72-yard touchdown on 3rd and 1. A Laufenberg interception was turned into another DeBerg touchdown pass and a halftime tie. In the 3rd quarter, Palmer caught a deflected pass for another score, capping a 13-play, 80-yard drive. The Kansas City run reached 23 unanswered points with a safety after Laufenberg was ruled "in the grasp" in the end zone, and they were threatening more when they reached a 2nd and 4 at the Charger 10. Chuck Faucette's interception kept San Diego in the game heading into the final quarter.

Martin Bayless sacked DeBerg with 11 minutes to play, forcing a Chiefs punt, and Abbott made a 47-yard field goal shortly afterwards. After Kansas City went three-and-out, the Chargers began the game-winning drive at their own 39 with 6:42 on the clock. Following a sack, Laufenberg faced a 3rd and 18 but converted it with a 19-yard completion to Lionel James over the middle. He scrambled for 13 more yards on the next play, then converted a 4th and 6 with a throw on the run to Anthony Miller, good for 14 yards. Three runs netted ten more yards, and a 1st and goal at the 9. Laufenberg then threw an interception under pressure from Tim Cofield, but Cofield drove the quarterback to the ground and was penalised for roughing the passer, negating the turnover. Two plays later, the Chargers took advantage of the second chance. James caught a short pass near the left sideline and dove over the goal line just inside the pylon with 52 seconds to play. This stood as the winning score after Kansas City went backwards on their final drive.

Anderson rushed 23 times, for 131 yards and a touchdown. He was the first Charger to post consecutive 100-yard rushing games since Chuck Muncie in the final two games of 1982.

#### Week 5: vs. Denver Broncos

Denver shut down Anderson (10 carries for 16 yards), and with him the Charger offense. San Diego failed to pass midfield on their first five drives of the game, though Denver also struggled, managing only two Rich Karlis field goals from three attempts. Gill Byrd intercepted John Elway late in the half, and San Diego reached the Denver 17 before Abbott had a field goal blocked (Denver also blocked a punt in the second half).

The Broncos attempted field goals on each of their first three-second half drives, with Karlis again converting two of them. Mark Malone then entered the game, completing four of his first five passes to reach a 2nd and 4 at the Denver 40, before being intercepted by Mike Harden. After Karlis missed his seventh field goal try of the game, the Chargers had one final chance - this time, they got as far as the Denver 14 before Malone threw four straight incompletions, the last with 39 seconds to play.

San Diego mustered 190 yards on offense, with just 20 on the ground - both would stand as season lows. The defense had four sacks, including three by Lee Williams. Fourteen-year veteran center Don Macek sustained a season-ending shoulder injury during the game, and was replaced by Dan Rosado. It was the 150th start of Macek's career, and would prove to be the last.

#### Week 6: vs. New Orleans Saints

A fast start came to nothing as New Orleans reeled in the Chargers. San Diego's opening drive seemed to have stalled, but the Saints were offsides on a punt, giving the Chargers a new set of downs. Two plays later, Laufenberg connected with Miller for a 47-yard touchdown - the receiver caught the ball in stride on a slanting pattern from left to right, easily outrunning the defense for his first career score. In reply, New Orleans went three-and-out; when they attempted to punt, Vencie Glenn burst untouched through the middle of the line to block the kick, with Roy Bennett recovering in the end zone.

In reply, New Orleans drove all the way from their own 8 to the Charger 3, but on the 17th play of the drive Lee Williams hit Bobby Hebert from behind, causing the ball to pop right into the hands of Tyrone Keys. The Saints kept pressing, and scored with field goals on their next two drives, either side of a Laufenberg interception. Curtis Adams, who saw increased playing time in this game due to an injury to Anderson, fumbled on the next play from scrimmage, and Hebert's touchdowns pass made it a one-point game at halftime.

Hebert threw for another score on the first drive of the 3rd quarter. In response, Laufenberg converted a 3rd and 19 with a 20-yard completion to Miller, leading to an Abbott field goal. Laufenberg again converted a 3rd and 19 on the next Charger drive, this time with a 23-yard scramble into Saints territory, but the quarterback was sacked two plays later and the Chargers had to punt. They went three-and-out on their next possession, and New Orleans added a field goal. With time running out, Mark Malone was given a chance, but the Chargers could muster only eight yards before punting again. New Orleans then converted a pair of 3rd and 1 situations, and ran out the final 4:19 of the game.

Laufenberg was 7 of 20 for 120 yards, with a touchdown and an interception - this would be the last game he started in San Diego. Miller finished with 3 receptions for 81 yards and a touchdown, which would prove to be the most yards a Charger receiver managed in any game in the 1988 season.

#### Week 7: at Miami Dolphins

San Diego's best offensive output of the season came to nothing as Miami overcame an 11-point deficit in the final quarter. Mark Malone went 5 for 5 in his first drive as the new starting quarterback, finishing with a 32-yard completion to Jamie Holland and a 15-yard touchdown to Early. Dan Marino led drives of 80 and 82 yards, resulting in a touchdown and a field goal. Down 7–10, Malone responded by converting third downs with both his legs and his arm before capping a 13-play, 81-yard drive by jumping and reaching the ball over the goal line on 3rd and goal from inside the one. That score came with 76 seconds to play in the half, but there was time for more Charger points, Leonard Coleman recovering a fumble and Malone finding Darren Flutie over the middle for a 21-yard touchdown.

James fumbled early in the second half, setting up a Miami touchdown, before Malone's 33-yard completion to Early led to Curtis Adams' short-range score in response. The Chargers threatened more points on their next possession, but had to punt after Malone was sacked. Nine Marino completions accounted for all but the final yard of an 85-yard touchdown drive and, following another James fumble, Marino's 51-yard completion to Mark Duper came two plays before Troy Stradford gave Miami the lead; two Dolphins' touchdowns had come only 3:26 apart. There were still over 11 minutes to play, but no more points followed. San Diego's best chance ended with Malone being intercepted on 1st and 10 from the Miami 44, and the quarterback's final desperation pass was picked off inside the Dolphin five as time expired.

Malone was 25 of 38 for 294 yards, two touchdowns and two interceptions, the highest yardage total by a Charger quarterback all season. Marino, 26 of 45 for 329 yards and a touchdown, was the only opposing quarterback to pass for over 300 yards on the Charger defense in 1988.

#### Week 8: vs. Indianapolis Colts

An inability to finish drives saw the Chargers shut out for the second time in four games. San Diego picked up at least one first down on eight of their nine drives, and had possession in Colt territory on seven of them, but repeatedly wound up punting from close to midfield. Indianapolis had their own offensive troubles - after an early 97-yard field goal drive, quarterback Chris Chandler was intercepted on three consecutive possessions. These included two by Leonard Coleman in the end zone (Vencie Glenn had the other).

With San Diego unable to reach scoring range, the Colts padded their lead with two field further field goals and, after Malone threw incomplete on 4th and 3 from the Indianapolis 49, drove the other way for the clinching touchdown with 3:43 to play. San Diego had their best penetration of the game on their final possession, but Malone threw four consecutive incompletions from the Colt 25, and the shutout was completed.

Anderson returned from a two-game absence, and gained 70 yards on 14 carries; he was overshadowed by Eric Dickerson, whose 169 yards on 30 carries represented the highest total a Charger opponent had gained for four years. The Colts enjoyed a 453–239 advantage in total yardage.

#### Week 9: at Seattle Seahawks

San Diego's offensive struggles continued as they lost a key divisional game to the Seahawks. Despite coming into the game with a 2–6 record, the Chargers could have drawn to within a game of the AFC West summit with a win. Their best chance of the opening three-quarters was a 49-yard field goal, missed by Abbott. Seattle capitalised on a fumbled exchange between Malone and Anderson to score a field goal, and added a touchdown shortly before halftime. Trailing 0–10 with 15 minutes to play, San Diego had gone eight complete quarters without scoring a point.

They broke their drought with 13 minutes to play. Tim Spencer carried four times for 52 yards on an 80-yard drive, which finished when Malone beat the blitz to find Miller on a quick slant in the front of the end zone. A Williams sack saw the Seahawks go three-and-out, and the Chargers reached a 2nd and 7 at the Seattle 42. Malone then fumbled the snap and Seattle recovered; they drove 58 yards the other way, scoring a crucial touchdown when John L. Williams narrowly broke the plane of the end zone on 3rd and goal. Taking over with 3:32 to play, Malone passed on every play of an 84-yard touchdown drive, completing 9 of 12 and finding Miller for another touchdown. Steve Largent recovered the ensuing onside kick, and Seattle ran out the remaining 53 seconds.

San Diego outgained the Seahawks 299–235, but committed all three of the game's turnovers.

#### Week 10: vs. Los Angeles Raiders

Another weak offensive performance saw the Chargers drop their sixth straight game. Malone started well, his 42-yard completion to Holland setting up Abbott's field goal 11 minutes into the game. Billy Ray Smith's end zone interception on the next drive temporarily preserved the lead, but the offense didn't cross the Raider 40 again all game. Los Angeles also found points hard to come by, but levelled the score in the 2nd quarter, and eventually went ahead through a Steve Beuerlein touchdown pass 12:24 from the end of the game. San Diego gained a first down at the Raider 47 in response, but Malone threw his second interception, and the Raiders added a field goal.

San Diego tried Laufenberg at quarterback for their final drive; he made a pair of first down passes, but was sacked twice and eventually threw incomplete on 4th and 33. Malone finished up 12 of 25 for 147 yards and two interceptions - he temporarily lost the starting job after this performance.

#### Week 11: at Atlanta Falcons

Newly-promoted Mark Vlasic won his first start, though the defense earned most of the credit. Both kickers missed field goals in the first half, before James' 14-yard punt return set the Chargers up at the Atlanta 26, and they drove close enough for Abbott to hit a chip shot 23-yarder. A fumble recovery by Glenn soon gave them a chance to extend the lead, taking over at the Atlanta 24. On the next three plays, Vlasic threw incomplete, was sacked and then finally intercepted, and the score remained 3-0 at halftime. The 3rd quarter produced no further points, with Keys blocking an Atlanta field goal try.

The lone Charger touchdown drive began at their own 27 with 7:03 remaining in the game. After a 2-yard run by Anderson, Rod Bernstine took a short pass over the middle, shrugged off two tacklers close to midfield, and broke up the right sideline before being corralled at the Falcon 14, a gain of 57 yards. Three plays later, Barry Redden scored on a 5-yard run up the middle with 4:32 to play. Atlanta broke the shutout shortly after the two-minute warning, but Holland recovered the ensuing onside kick, and Anderson broke off a 26-yard run as San Diego ran the clock out.

Vlasic was 16 of 32 for 190 yards, with two interceptions, while Anderson carried 24 times for 145 yards.

#### Week 12: at Los Angeles Rams

Several big plays sparked San Diego to a creditable road win over the 7-4 Rams. On the first Charger drive, Anderson broke off a 19-yard run to the three-yard line, leading to Quinn Early's touchdown catch on 3rd and goal. Rams returner Ron Brown then broke off a 72-yard return, and the Rams were level shortly afterwards. Miller did even better, returning the ensuing kickoff 93 yards for a touchdown - he started out towards the left side of the field, weaved inside several tacklers, and broke to the right sideline, where he beat the last defender for pace. Anderson had three double-digit gains on the next Charger drive, which went 60 yards and culminated in a Steve DeLine field goal (DeLine was in for Abbott, who had sustained a career-ending knee injury against Atlanta). Williams appeared to have recovered a fumble in Rams territory soon afterwards, but the takeaway was overruled on replay review, and Los Angeles went on to score a touchdown from that drive. At halftime, it was 17–14 to San Diego.

Leslie O'Neal tipped a Jim Everett pass early in the third quarter, and Elvis Patterson intercepted at the Ram 44. The Chargers did nothing with that opportunity, but took full advantage of their next takeaway. On a 1st and 10 from the San Diego 30, Charles White fumbled, and Keith Browner plucked the ball out of the air. As he was being tackled on the return, he flipped the ball to Sam Seale, who took it the final 50 yards to the end zone. The Browner-to-Seale pass appeared to have gone forwards, but the score stood. On the next Charger possession, Vlasic injured a knee while being knocked down after a pass attempt; Malone entered the game, but was immediately intercepted, leading to a Rams field goal.

Malone redeemed himself with a 49-yard bomb to Miller, leading to a one-yard Redden touchdown. Everett came back with three straight completions, the last a touchdown that pulled the deficit back down to seven points, with over eight minutes still to play. Facing a 3rd and 6 soon afterwards, Malone connected with Bernstine on a 59-yard completion to the Rams one yard line, from where Redden scored again on the next play. The Chargers saw out the final 5:26 without difficulty.

Anderson finished with 53 rushing yards and 42 receiving yards. It was the only Charger win all year in which he did not post a 100-yard rushing game, but his 95 yards from scrimmage did lead the team. Aside from his brace of 1-yard touchdowns, Redden lost two yards on his only carry, leaving him with zero yards but two touchdowns on the day. Lee Williams had three of the Chargers' five sacks.

#### Week 13: vs. San Francisco 49ers

San Diego were brought back down to earth by the eventual Super Bowl champions. The Chargers missed an early scoring chance when Anderson fumbled in the 49er red zone. Later in the opening quarter, Jerry Rice caught a 96-yard touchdown from Joe Montana, and San Francisco were ahead to stay. Malone, reinstated in the starting line-up, was intercepted by Ronnie Lott to set up the second 49er touchdown. San Diego mustered some resistance then: Anderson broke off a 26-yard run, and Malone swept 36 yards for a touchdown on a QB keeper. This remains the longest run by a quarterback in franchise history.

The 49ers quashed any thoughts of a comeback with a 75-yard touchdown drive; though San Diego had sporadic threats after that, they could muster only three more points, while San Francisco steadily pulled away. Rice added a 41-yard touchdown in the 3rd quarter, and finished with 6 receptions for 171 yards.

At one point Malone was intercepted by Tim McKyer on two consecutive snaps (the first was wiped out by a roughing the passer penalty). Bernstine had nine catches for 80 yards - no other Charger caught more than six passes in a game all year. The 38-point defeat was the worst for San Diego since the 1973 season.

#### Week 14: at Cincinnati Bengals

For the second consecutive week, the Chargers were easily handled by an eventual Super Bowl participant. San Diego had a dream start when Patterson recovered a Stanford Jennings fumble on the opening kickoff, though they could only manage a DeLine field goal from the opening. Cincinnati responded by driving 80 yards in only four plays, with Seale committing a 37-yard pass interference penalty before Ickey Woods scored from the four. A 48-yard kickoff return by Miller was wasted when Malone threw an interception; the Bengals converted the takeaway into a Boomer Esiason touchdown pass, and took control from there. Woods scored again in the 2nd quarter, and another Malone interception led to Esiason's second touchdown pass shortly after halftime.

With the score at 27–3, Leslie O'Neal sacked Esiason, forcing a fumble that Williams recovered near midfield. The Chargers converted that opening into Early's 9-yard touchdown reception, but Deline missed a field goal on their next drive, and they came no closer.

Malone struggled throughout, completing only 14 of 37 passes, for 138 yards, one touchdown and three interceptions.

#### Week 15: vs. Pittsburgh Steelers

Gill Byrd and Gary Anderson carried San Diego to victory over the Steelers. Redden was stuffed for no gain on fourth down late in the opening quarter, but the Chargers scored touchdowns on their next two possessions. The first scoring drive covered 85 yards in just seven plays. Anderson broke off a 36-yard run up the middle, Malone found Holland for 45 yards on 3rd and 13, and Darren Flutie caught a six-yard touchdown pass. Malone was 4 of 4 for 32 yards on the next drive, and scored himself on 3rd and goal from the one. Pittsburgh drove inside the Charger 10 shortly before halftime, but a trick play backfired when wide receiver Louis Lipps attempted a pass that Byrd intercepted in the end zone.

The Steelers also breeched Charger territory on their first two drives of the 3rd quarter, but were stopped by Byrd's second interception and Glenn's fumble recovery. Anderson's 24-yard carry helped set up a DeLine field goal on the opening play of the final quarter, before Pittsburgh responded with back to back touchdown drives, Bubby Brister passing for one score and rushing for the other. Another DeLine kick made it 20–14 with 62 seconds to play. Brister led his team as far as the Charger 49, from where his final pass was knocked away by Byrd as time expired.

Anderson had 26 carries for 170 yards, and San Diego committed no turnovers for the only time in 1988.

#### Week 16: vs. Kansas City Chiefs

Gary Anderson set a club record for rushing yards in a single game, and San Diego closed out their season with a fourth win in six games. The Chiefs began the game on the front foot, taking the opening kickoff and going 80 yards for a touchdown in four plays, aided when Seale was flagged for a 40-yard pass interference penalty. Anderson carried on seven out of eight plays in the Chargers' reply, gaining 48 yards total and running through a massive hole off right guard for a 9-yard touchdown. Kansas City came right back with a 75-yard touchdown drive, but they would be shut out the rest of the way. San Diego scored on their next two possession through DeLine's 45-yard field goal and Malone's five-yard run, and led 17–13 at the break.

Jamie Holland produced the game's final score by returning the second half kickoff 94 yards for a touchdown, sweeping right and coming very close to stepping out of bounds near midfield (the score stood up under replay review). After that, both kickers missed field goals, Steve DeBerg was intercepted by Roy Bennett, and Malone lost a fumble. After stopping the Chiefs on downs with 1:44 to play, the Chargers took over with Anderson standing on 198 rushing yards for the day. He had carries of 17 and 2 yards before Malone kneeled twice to end the season.

Malone only attempted 10 passes all day, completing 6 for 91 yards. Anderson finished with 34 carries for 217 yards and a touchdown, setting a new club record. The attendance of 26,339 was the smallest for a Chargers home game since 1975.

## Standings

NFL team season

1988 National Football League season by team