American Lion (book)

American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House is a 2008 biography of Andrew Jackson, the seventh President of the United States, written by Jon Meacham. It won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Biography, with the prize jury describing it as "an unflinching portrait of a not always admirable democrat but a pivotal president, written with an agile prose that brings the Jackson saga to life".

Meacham wrote American Lion drawing in part on previously unavailable documents, including letters, diaries, memorabilia, and accounts from Jackson's intimate circle that had been largely privately owned for 175 years. Much of the correspondence was found in archives at the Hermitage, Jackson's estate in Nashville, Tennessee. American Lion is not a full-scale account of Jackson's entire life or political career, but rather focuses on his presidency and his domestic arrangements in the White House.

American Lion focuses a great deal on the Bank War, the federal tariff on imports, and the Petticoat affair, during which Meacham claimed "the future of the American presidency was at stake". Meacham believed Jackson represented the best and worst of American character, citing his simultaneous capacity for kindness and cruelty. Of all the early U.S. presidents and Founding Fathers, Meacham believed Jackson was "the most like us", and had the strongest influence on the modern presidency. In writing American Lion, Meacham said he sought not to whitewash Jackson or "all his sins, which are enormous", such as his support of slavery and Indian removal.

American Lion received generally positive reviews. It was included on The New York Times Book Review's list of 100 Notable Books of 2008, and was ranked one of the best books of 2008 by The Washington Post's Book World. Critics praised Meacham's writing, the depth of research, Jackson's riveting story, and the placement of Jackson's legacy in a modern context. Mixed or negative reviews accused Meacham of portraying Jackson too positively or spending too much time on political scandals. The book has reportedly been read by U.S. Presidents George W. Bush and Donald Trump, and praised by such figures as Mike Pence, Mark Zuckerberg, Bill O'Reilly, Jon Stewart, Eric Cantor, and Tim McGraw.

In 2015, HBO announced it was working on a television miniseries adaptation of American Lion starring Sean Penn as Andrew Jackson, but the project stalled after the departure of director Phillip Noyce over reported disagreements with Jackson's depiction.

## Synopsis

American Lion opens just after Andrew Jackson's victory in the 1828 United States presidential election. Author Jon Meacham writes about the viciousness of the election and the death of Rachel Jackson immediately afterward, which Jackson blames on his attacks by his political enemies during the campaign. The book then touches upon Jackson's early life, including his birth in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas and his family life. It briefly covers his marriage to Rachel, legal career, move to Nashville, Tennessee, and his military career, particularly his role in the Battle of New Orleans and the part it played in elevating his reputation. The book then segues into the beginning of his political career, his rivalries with Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, and his loss in the 1824 presidential election despite winning the popular vote, which Jackson regarded as a "corrupt bargain" by his political enemies.

Returning to Jackson's presidency, Meacham defines patronage, the Bank War, the nullification crisis, Indian removal, clerical influence in politics, internal improvements, and respect abroad as the questions that would define Jackson's White House years. Meacham wrote that, to many in established Washington, Jackson's arrival "signaled the destruction of the rule of the nation in an atmosphere of geniality and gentility". By contrast, Meacham wrote that Jackson felt the country was "suffering from a crisis of corruption (in) the marshaling of power and influence by a few institutions and interests that sought to profit at the expense of the whole". According to the book, Jackson felt the President should "use his powers with a firm hand", whereas his foes thought of Congress as the government's center of gravity. Meacham wrote that Jackson's most enduring conviction was that, as President, he was acting selflessly in the interest of the nation and of its mass of citizens, and that his own will was the same as the will of the country. Meacham wrote: "No institution, he argued, should stand between the people and the presidency. ... No president had spoken in such a way before."

Meacham focuses a great deal on Jackson's determination to end the Second Bank of the United States, which was presided over by Nicholas Biddle, and which Jackson believed had been manipulated by Clay to assist with John Quincy Adams's election to the presidency in 1824. Jackson regarded the bank as a fundamentally corrupt institution and "the embodiment of unfair privilege". The book highlights Biddle's challenge to Jackson in pressing for recharter and his attempt to use the influence of the Bank to harm his reelection. It covers Jackson's veto of the charter, attempts by Biddle and Clay to see the veto overridden, and ultimately the decision by the United States House of Representatives in 1834 not to override the veto, ensuring the Bank would not be rechartered.

The book also discusses Jackson's role in the removal of Native Americans to lands west of the Mississippi River. Meacham wrote: "Jackson believed in removal with all his heart, and by refusing to entertain any other scenario, he was as ferocious in inflicting harm on a people as he often was in defending the rights of those he thought of as the people." As the book recounts, Jackson was not compelled by treaties signed and assurances previously provided to Native Americans; he did not believe that they had title to the land, and he would not tolerate what he felt were competing sovereignties within the nation. It details Jackson's support for the successful passage of the Indian Removal Act, which would ultimately lead to the Trail of Tears.

American Lion also highlights Jackson's feelings on what he called the "absurd and wicked doctrines of nullification and secession", and his confrontation with the state of South Carolina regarding the issue of nullification after the state declared the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and therefore void within the state's boundaries. Meacham described the nullification crisis as "perhaps the most delicate mission of his life – how to preserve the Union without appearing so tyrannical and power-hungry that other Southern states might join with South Carolina, precipitating an even graver crisis that could lead to the secession of several states." The book covers Jackson's support of the Force Bill, which authorized the President to use military forces against South Carolina if necessary, as well as the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which ultimately ended the crisis.

Finally, the book focuses on Emily Donelson's role as White House hostess and de facto First Lady of the United States. Meacham wrote: "Family life was crucial to Jackson, who had known so little of it growing up, and Emily ensured that the White House was a sanctuary for him." The book also discusses the Petticoat affair, during which Jackson's Secretary of War John Eaton was socially ostracized due to his wife Peggy Eaton's perceived moral failings and lack of sexual virtue. The scandal generated considerable chaos and controversy during Jackson's administration, during which Jackson felt, according to Meacham, that "to acknowledge the Eatons was to side with Jackson; to snub the Eatons was to oppose Jackson". Meacham wrote that Jackson's interpretation of the Petticoat affair was that he was "acting for the common democratic good", while aristocratic elites were acting against him out of jealousy of his power in Washington. The book highlights how Martin Van Buren endeared himself to Jackson by siding with him during the scandal, and how the Petticoat affair led to resignations from Jackson's cabinet that sparked "a national debate over Jackson's first three years of leadership and whether he should have another term".

Following the conclusion of Jackson's two terms, American Lion ends with a brief synopsis of his post-presidential life, including Emily Donelson's death, and Jackson's own death in 1845.

## Writing and sources

Jon Meacham was the editor of Newsweek magazine at the time that American Lion was released. It was the third book he wrote, following Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship (2003) and American Gospel: God, the Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation (2006). Jonathan Karp, an editor at Random House, was the first to suggest Andrew Jackson as a subject to Meacham. The book took about five years to write, with Meacham drawing in part on previously unavailable documents, including letters from Jackson's intimate circle that had been largely privately owned for 175 years. Meacham said he was "surprised, delightfully so" by the number of new sources that emerged in the course of his research, which he said "provide hitherto unknown details about a lost world that foreshadowed and shaped our own".

Most of the previously unpublished correspondence was found in archives at the Hermitage, Jackson's estate in Nashville, Tennessee. Among them were unpublished letters in the Benjamin and Gertrude Caldwell Collection, which were housed at the Hermitage. Meacham was also given access to a private collection of letters kept by Mrs. John Lawrence Merritt, as well as John Donelson's collection at Nashville's Cleveland Hall. This Cleveland Hall collection included unpublished diaries, and about 60 to 70 previously unreleased letters, including several from Andrew Donelson and Andrew Jackson Jr. Meacham described the Cleveland Hall, Merritt, and Caldwell letters in particular as "critical" to his book.

The Merritt letters included new details about Emily Donelson's role in the life of the White House, as well as the fact that John Henry Eaton considered resigning from Jackson's administration in the spring of 1829. Meacham said this was particularly notable because, had he resigned, it might have preserved John C. Calhoun's viability as a presidential successor to Jackson and changed the course of Jackson's first term. The Merritt and Caldwell letters also shed new light on the central role Emily and Andrew Donelson played in the early lives of Andrew and Rachel Jackson, and included allusions to such important issues during Jackson's presidency as the tariff, nullification, the Bank War, and the efforts by those seeking to succeed Jackson in 1836.

The Donelson letters offered details about the harshness of partisan politics of the 1830s, life in the White House and the Jackson circle in the South, and the extent of slave trading in Jackson's family during the White House years. They also "examine how Jackson's deliberations on the crucial issues of the day played out against this background of weddings, births, and White House frolics". While writing the book Meacham developed a relationship with the Donelson family, which helped gain an immediacy in writing about events of the early 1800s. Meacham said: "My lens was, 'What was it like to walk through those hallways?' This is the first time we've known what it was like to live in the White House in Andrew Jackson's time."

Meacham was also given access to the private collection of letters and memorabilia held by Scott Ward, a descendant of Andrew Jackson Jr. living in Atlanta. Among those letters was the reply of Thomas Marshall to the last letter of Jackson's life. Other sources for American Lion included unpublished letters and diary entries from the papers of John Quincy Adams and his wife Louisa, as well as letters from British, Dutch, and French diplomatic archives, which provided observations on the political and social scenes of Washington, D.C. Among these was a note from Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley discussing the risk of the union's collapse during the crisis of nullification. Meacham also accessed letters from Treasury Secretary Samuel Ingham detailing a near gunfight with John Henry Eaton. Maria Campbell shared with Meacham The Memoirs of Mrs. Eliza Williams Chotard Gould, a private and unpublished account by Campbell's great-great-great-grandmother which included eyewitness accounts of Jackson in New Orleans just before and after his military victory over the British.

Meacham received guidance from several historians during the course of writing American Lion, including Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., the author of The Age of Jackson; Sean Wilentz; and Daniel Feller, editor of The Papers of Andrew Jackson and author of The Public Lands in Jacksonian Politics and The Jacksonian Promise: America, 1815–1840. Meacham also acknowledged the influence Jackson scholars James Parton and Robert V. Remini had over his work on American Lion. First Lady of the United States Laura Bush and Jean Becker, chief of staff to former President George H. W. Bush, allowed Meacham to tour the private quarters of the White House as part of his research, and Meacham also visited the United States Capitol. Meacham said his personal opinion of Jackson had improved by the end of the writing process, saying: "There are two ways to write a biography. One is to be utterly hostile. The other is to be empathetic. I chose to be empathetic."

## Themes

Meacham said he named the book American Lion because he felt lions make both the best allies and the worst enemies, which he felt captured the contradictions at Jackson's core: "If he were on your side, he would do all he could to protect you. If he believed you a foe, then he was a ferocious and merciless predator." Meacham believed Jackson represented the best and worst of American character, citing his simultaneous capacity for kindness and cruelty. Meacham believed of all the early U.S. presidents and Founding Fathers, Jackson was "the most like us", and the duality of Jackson's nature is one shared by America itself. To that end, Meacham believed an understanding of Jackson leads to an understanding of the capacity Americans have for cognitive dissonance, particularly in tolerating inequality and injustice while convincing themselves that they are in fact striving for those virtues.

American Lion is not a full-scale account of Jackson's entire life or political career, but rather focuses on his presidency and his domestic arrangements in the White House. Meacham said he did not seek to write an academic study of Jackson's presidency because he believed that territory had already been covered by multiple biographies and historical accounts, and instead he "attempted to paint a biographical portrait of Jackson and of many of the people who lived and worked with him in his tumultuous years in power". Through his forceful character and aggressive actions in the office, Meacham believes Jackson influenced the modern presidency more than any other chief executive that came before him. In particular, Meacham believed Jackson helped shaped such aspects of modern American politics as popular campaigning techniques, media manipulation, and engaging citizens in the narrative of politics while simultaneously governing. Meacham wrote: "All of these features flowered in the age of Jackson, and they all feel very contemporary." Ann Robinson of The Oregonian wrote that the book illustrates how Jackson has changed the U.S. presidency in ways that continue to resonate in modern times, particularly in his expansive claims for the executive branch's inherent constitutional powers, such as the veto.

Author Robert Roper noted that American Lion largely does not contest the mainstream interpretation of Jackson's story, though journalist and critic Janet Maslin said the book "dispenses with the usual view of Jackson as a Tennessee hothead and instead sees a cannily ambitious figure determined to reshape the power of the presidency during his time in office". According to Maslin, American Lion portrays Jackson as more calculating than he is often considered to be, and describes how Jackson's rivals like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun often misunderstood his true agenda because they could not see past his confrontational style. Likewise, author and historian Douglas Brinkley noted that most historians tend to disregard Jackson's intellectual abilities, but that later chapters of American Lion in particular focus on this aspect of Jackson and "separate Jackson from his rough-and-tumble reputation and to present him in a more multi-dimensional way".

Meacham said he did not want American Lion to whitewash Jackson or "all his sins, which are enormous", such as his support of slavery and Indian removal. Meacham wrote: "In the saga of the Jackson presidency, one marked by both democratic triumphs and racist tragedies, we can see the American character in formation and in action." Meacham believed "the tragedy of Jackson's life is that a man dedicated to freedom failed to see liberty as a universal, not a particular, gift." Conversely, Meacham believed one of the triumphs of Jackson's life was that he held together a country which ultimately – albeit belatedly – extended its protections and promises to all. Meacham felt that progress would not have been possible if Jackson had not thwarted the divisive forces of his day, writing: "By saving the Union, Jackson kept the possibility of progress alive." Author and The Seattle Times book reviewer Steve Weinberg argued American Lion presents Jackson through the great man theory, which believes the character of the ruler determines events more than events wash over the ruler. However, Weinberg also noted that Meacham "wisely dilutes" the great man theory by emphasizing Jackson's chief advisers and family.

American Lion tells what Roper called the "human-interest saga of the Jackson circle", with a heavy focus on the people closest to him during his presidency, such as Andrew Jackson Donelson and Emily Donelson. Through his portrayal of Jackson's reaction to those with whom he disagreed during the Petticoat affair, Maslin said American Lion "convey(s) the stubbornness with which Jackson turned seemingly personal conflicts among the women in his life into matters of public concern". According to The New York Times writer Andrew Cayton, American Lion presents Jackson as a man to whom "personal loyalty was always the supreme law", and as someone who considers his personal enemies to be enemies of the nation itself. In the book, Meacham argued that because Jackson was orphaned, and never had any biological children himself, he spent much of his life forming substitute families that he would protect like a father: first with the soldiers who served under him, and then later with his surrogate son Andrew Jackson Donelson. American Lion also portrays Jackson as taking a very paternalistic approach to the presidency itself, noting Jackson's words that he looked at his citizens "with the feelings of a father". Maslin wrote: "In Mr. Meacham's view, Jackson's paternalism was sincere: no president may have felt more literally like the father of his country." Jackson's view of himself as a paternal role even extended to his treatment of Native Americans, with him viewing his removal policies as a sensible and proactive step to move them out of harm's way and protect them.

## Publication and sales

Prior to the publication of American Lion, Pulitzer Prize-winning author and historian Daniel Feller read the manuscript and fielded questions from Meacham about the work. Historians Walter Isaacson and Doris Kearns Goodwin also read the manuscript, and different sections of it were reviewed in advance of publication by such historians and scholars as Catherine Allgor, H. W. Brands, Andrew Burstein, Mark Cheathem, Donald B. Cole, William W. Freehling, Richard Latner, John F. Marszalek, and Matthew Warshauer. Meacham's book was published within five years of the release of several books about Andrew Jackson by such authors as Sean Wilentz, Daniel Walker Howe and Andrew Burstein. Robert Roper, an author who reviewed American Lion for the Los Angeles Times, said Meacham's book did not contest the portrayals of Jackson presented in those books, but rather it "selectively enriches that version with graceful new readings of some formerly overlooked primary materials". American Lion debuted at \#2 on The New York Times bestsellers list, and remained on the list for more than six months. According to Publishers Weekly, American Lion sold 463,678 copies domestically in the calendar year 2018. Following the book's publication, Meacham was named to the board of directors of the Hermitage, and was also named a trustee of the Andrew Jackson Foundation. An audiobook version of American Lion, narrated by Richard McGonagle, was released by Random House Audio on November 11, 2008.

## Reception

American Lion received generally positive reviews. It was included on The New York Times Book Review's list of 100 Notable Books of 2008, and was ranked one of the best books of 2008 by The Washington Post's Book World. The Post's blog The Fix also included it on its list of best presidential biographies. American Lion was featured on The New York Times' list of "17 Great Books About American Presidents", and on Amazon's list (compiled by various book editors) of "100 Biographies and Memoirs to Read in a Lifetime".

Author and historian Douglas Brinkley called it "the most readable single-volume biography ever written of our seventh president". The New York Times literary critic Janet Maslin called it a "carefully analytical biography (which) looks past the theatrics and posturing to the essential elements of Jackson's many showdowns". Andrew Cayton, also of The New York Times, called the book "enormously entertaining, especially in the deft descriptions of Jackson's personality and domestic life in his White House", but felt Meacham has missed an opportunity to reflect on the nature of American populism as personified by Jackson. Presidential biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin called American Lion "a beautifully written, absolutely riveting story", describing Meacham as "a master storyteller (who) interweaves the lives of Jackson and the members of his inner circle to create a highly original work". Historian Michael Beschloss called it "a spellbinding, brilliant and irresistible journey (that) shows us how the old hero transformed both the American presidency and the nation he led." Journalist and author Allen Barra called American Lion probably the "fullest and most balanced biography" of Andrew Jackson. In a review for Los Angeles Times, Robert Roper called it an engaging book that enriches the story of Andrew Jackson, and "comes most startlingly alive when he tells the old, amazing story of the ill-educated rube who invented modern politics". Deirdre Donahue of USA Today called it "marvelously readable", and said Meacham "displays his gift for illustrating how personal bonds and personal experience influence history". In a review for Rocky Mountain News, Dan Danbom called American Lion a readable account of an interesting and colorful historical figure, and while he felt Meacham could have provided more historical context in parts, he believes the parallels between Jackson's time and contemporary politics made it recommended reading.

The Washington Post reporter Justin Wm. Moyer identified American Lion as the definitive Jackson biography. Steve Weinberg of The Seattle Times said Meacham "deserves credit for modernizing Jackson so that a new generation of readers might discover him". Erik J. Chaput of The Providence Journal called American Lion an "engaging and oftentimes brilliant study" of Jackson, and felt it was at its best during its analysis and discussion of the Petticoat Affair. He added: "No book published on Jackson in recent memory is more illuminating about his life, his family, his political ideology, and his religious beliefs". The Journal writer Trevor Seigler said the book should go a long way toward correcting misconceptions about Jackson, writing: "You'll certainly never see the \$20 bill the same way again." In a review for New York Journal of Books, author and poet J. W. Nicklaus called American Lion a skillfully rendered biography that reads like a novel rather than a dry historical account, and he complimented Meacham for collating such a vast volume of information into an accessible biography. Dean Poling of The Valdosta Daily Times called it an excellent biography "in prose that reads like a novel". In a review for The Manhattan Mercury, Ed Horne called American Lion impressive in scope and "of textbook quality, but still a lively read of a crucial era of American history". St. Louis Post-Dispatch book reviewer Myron A. Marty called American Lion an "elegantly written, thoroughly researched book", as well as "a paean to Jackson", writing that Meacham "makes no attempt to conceal his boundless admiration for the man and his accomplishments". He felt Meacham spent too much time on the scandals and political infighting from Jackson's administration, but felt this imbalance was "countered by Meacham's sensitive portrayal of Jackson's interactions with members of his family".

Other reviews were more mixed. Jill Lepore of The New Yorker called American Lion "engrossing" but felt it was too admiring of Jackson, arguing it did not assign Jackson enough blame for the Panic of 1837 that ensued nine weeks after his Presidency. Ann Robinson of The Oregonian reviewed the book positively, but said Meacham examines the Petticoat affair "in somewhat tedious detail", and felt Meacham's attempts to humanize Jackson "with tales of his visits to orphans or of his fondness for children and his enduring love for his wife" were of limited success. Joe Pompeo of The New York Observer felt the second half of the book was the more interesting because of the focus on the Eaton affair and because the issues Jackson tackled in his second term were themselves more interesting. However, he expressed surprise that the book so rarely turns to life outside Washington: "The people, for all their centrality to Jackson's administration, are also the most notable omission in Mr. Meacham's account." Adera Causey of Chattanooga Times Free Press called Meacham a "solid writer (who) seamlessly explicates complicated political issues", and presents Jackson's story in an approachable format. However, she said he spent too much time on the Eaton affair and could have devoted more attention to such issues as the handling of Native American land rights, slavery, and the unique roles of church and state. The Washington Post columnist Michael Gerson called the book "brilliant in everything except its reverence for its subject". Alex Beam, columnist for The Boston Globe, was very critical of American Lion, saying he attempted to portray Jackson too positively, and "trafficks in treacly legends", and calling the book "laughable" and "piffle". Beam wrote: "Meacham is a smooth writer and I can't fault him for seeking the shortest possible path to the bank, penning triumphalist, jingoistic hogwash". An AudioFile review of the American Lion audiobook complimented Richard McGonagle's vocal delivery, which it said improved upon the "sometimes chatty and unabashedly pro-Jackson history" presented in the narrative itself.

American Lion was read by U.S. President George W. Bush, according to his advisor Karl Rove. U.S. President Donald Trump, who maintains that he does not read many books, claimed to have read American Lion. Others who have voiced enjoyment of the book include U.S. Vice President Mike Pence, Facebook co-founder Mark Zuckerberg, former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor, former The Daily Show host Jon Stewart, and former White House Deputy Press Secretary Raj Shah. Political commentator Bill O'Reilly complimented the book, calling it a "fair assessment" of Jackson and saying it deserved the Pulitzer Prize. Nashville Mayor John Cooper has called it his favorite book, and country music singer Tim McGraw has called it one of his favorites. Tim Walch, a historian and former director of the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum in West Branch, Iowa, included American Lion in his 2015 list of books that all the U.S. presidential candidates should read, and it was the Buffalo News Book Club selection of February 2010. Actor Benjamin Walker read American Lion as part of his preparation to play Andrew Jackson in the rock musical Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson; he called it a "great book". When Meacham first sought to write Destiny and Power (2015), a biography of President George H. W. Bush, Bush said he was intimidated because he felt he was a very different figure than Andrew Jackson as portrayed in the book, saying: "It is a little overwhelming to think that I would be following a lion."

## Awards and honors

American Lion received the Pulitzer Prize for Biography. When the Pulitzer Prize jury awarded the book in 2009, the judges described it as "an unflinching portrait of a not always admirable democrat but a pivotal president, written with an agile prose that brings the Jackson saga to life". American Lion was also nominated for a 2008 Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Best Biography, losing to Ida: A Sword Among Lions, the Paula Giddings biography of African American investigative journalist Ida B. Wells.

## Adaptations

In December 2015, HBO announced it was working on a six-hour television miniseries based upon the book, also to be called American Lion, starring Sean Penn as Andrew Jackson. It would have been Penn's first major television role. The project was developed by Lionsgate Television, with the script written by Doug Miro and Carlo Bernard, who later co-created of the television series Narcos. Miro and Bernard were to serve as executive producers along with Penn and Matt Jacobson, Head of Market Development for Facebook, which would have been his first producing credit. Jacobson optioned the rights for American Lion after reading the book in 2012: "I saw a lot of analogies with what is happening now and felt the story needed to be told." The Jackson biography by historian Robert V. Remini was to provide additional source material. It was the first series order at HBO for Lionsgate Television.

Director Phillip Noyce became attached to the project, and it was scheduled to go into production the summer of 2016, with a planned release in 2017. But Noyce left the project in May 2016, reportedly over disagreements with how to depict some of the more controversial aspects of Jackson's presidency, though The Hollywood Reporter quoted a source who claimed Noyce was let go for not providing a production end date. The project stalled after that and few details have emerged since.

2008 book by Jon Meacham

Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography-winning works


Europium

Europium is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. Europium is a silvery-white metal of the lanthanide series that reacts readily with air to form a dark oxide coating. It is the most chemically reactive, least dense, and softest of the lanthanide elements. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife. Europium was isolated in 1901 and named after the continent of Europe. Europium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, like other members of the lanthanide series, but compounds having oxidation state +2 are also common. All europium compounds with oxidation state +2 are slightly reducing. Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds. Europium is one of the rarest of the rare-earth elements on Earth.

## Characteristics

### Physical properties

Europium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead. It crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half-filled electron shell. Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides.

Europium has been claimed to become a superconductor when it is cooled below 1.8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa. However the experimental evidence on which this claim is based has been challenged, and the paper reporting superconductivity has been subsequently retracted. If it becomes a superconductor this is believed to occur because europium is divalent in the metallic state, and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure. In the divalent state, the strong local magnetic moment (arising from total electronic angular momentum J = 7/2) suppresses the superconductivity, which is induced by eliminating this local moment (J = 0 in Eu3+).

### Chemical properties

Europium is the most reactive rare-earth element. It rapidly oxidizes in air, so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter-sized sample occurs within several days. Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium, and the reaction is

2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu(OH)3 + 3 H2

Because of the high reactivity, samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil. Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide:

4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3

Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of [Eu(H2O)9]3+:

2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [Eu(H2O)9]3+ + 3 SO2−
4 + 3 H2

#### Eu(II) vs. Eu(III)

Although usually trivalent, europium readily forms divalent compounds. This behavior is unusual for most lanthanides, which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of +3. The +2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half-filled f-shell provides more stability. In terms of size and coordination number, europium(II) and barium(II) are similar. The sulfates of both barium and europium(II) are also highly insoluble in water. Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent, oxidizing in air to form Eu(III) compounds. In anaerobic, and particularly geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths. This ion-exchange process is the basis of the "negative europium anomaly", the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite, and hence is the major source of europium today. The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other (trivalent) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration, as it usually is.

### Isotopes

Naturally occurring europium is composed of two isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, which occur in almost equal proportions; 153Eu is slightly more abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was found to be unstable to alpha decay with a half-life of 5+11
−3×1018 years in 2007, giving about one alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium. This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions. Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 12.2 seconds; the known isotopes of europium range from 130Eu to 170Eu. This element also has 17 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (t1/2=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (t1/2=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (t1/2=96 minutes).

The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture, and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd).

#### Europium as a nuclear fission product

Europium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.

As with other lanthanides, many isotopes of europium, especially those that have odd mass numbers or are neutron-poor like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons.

151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm.

152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (half-life 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non-radioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived "shielded" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions. A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non-radioactive 153Eu; however, much of this is further converted to 155Eu.

155Eu (half-life 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million (ppm) for uranium-235 and thermal neutrons; most of it is transmuted to non-radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium-156 by the end of fuel burnup.

Overall, europium is overshadowed by caesium-137 and strontium-90 as a radiation hazard, and by samarium and others as a neutron poison.

### Occurrence

Europium is not found in nature as a free element. Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime and loparite-(Ce). No europium-dominant minerals are known yet, despite a single find of a tiny possible Eu–O or Eu–O–C system phase in the Moon's regolith.

Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare-earth elements is known as the europium anomaly. Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava). The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks. The average crustal abundance of europium is 2–2.2 ppm.

Divalent europium (Eu2+) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (CaF2). The reduction from Eu3+ to Eu2+ is induced by irradiation with energetic particles. The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852, although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause.

In astrophysics, the signature of europium in stellar spectra can be used to classify stars and inform theories of how or where a particular star was born. For instance, astronomers in 2019 identified higher-than-expected levels of europium within the star J1124+4535, hypothesizing that this star originated in a dwarf galaxy that collided with the Milky Way billions of years ago.

## Production

Europium is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them. Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing. Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities. Bastnäsite is a group of related fluorocarbonates, Ln(CO3)(F,OH). Monazite is a group of related of orthophosphate minerals LnPO
4 (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), loparite-(Ce) is an oxide, and xenotime is an orthophosphate (Y,Yb,Er,...)PO4. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive. For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides, several methods have been developed. The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate. Roasting the ore, followed by acidic and basic leaching, is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides. If cerium is the dominant lanthanide, then it is converted from cerium(III) to cerium(IV) and then precipitated. Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium. This fraction is reduced with zinc, zinc/amalgam, electrolysis or other methods converting the europium(III) to europium(II). Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co-precipitated with barium sulfate. Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas.

A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production. The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit in Inner Mongolia contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is, with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare-earth element oxides, the largest known deposit. The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare-earth elements in the 1990s. Only 0.2% of the rare-earth element content is europium. The second large source for rare-earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California. The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare-earth elements (La-Gd, Sc, and Y) and contains only 0.1% of europium. Another large source for rare-earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula. It contains besides niobium, tantalum and titanium up to 30% rare-earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia.

## Compounds

Europium compounds tend to exist in a trivalent oxidation state under most conditions. Commonly these compounds feature Eu(III) bound by 6–9 oxygenic ligands. The Eu(III) sulfates, nitrates and chlorides are soluble in water or polar organic solvents. Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate-like ligands, such as EuFOD.

### Halides

Europium metal reacts with all the halogens:

2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colorless europium(III) iodide (EuI3). Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides: yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colorless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2) (although it has a bright blue fluorescence under UV light), colorless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).

### Chalcogenides and pnictides

Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens, but the heavier chalcogens (S, Se, and Te) stabilize the lower oxidation state. Three oxides are known: europium(II) oxide (EuO), europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3), and the mixed-valence oxide Eu3O4, consisting of both Eu(II) and Eu(III). Otherwise, the main chalcogenides are europium(II) sulfide (EuS), europium(II) selenide (EuSe) and europium(II) telluride (EuTe): all three of these are black solids. Europium(II) sulfide is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3:

Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S

The main nitride of europium is europium(III) nitride (EuN).

## History

Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements, due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated. William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements including those eventually assigned to europium.

Europium was first found in 1892 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who obtained basic fractions from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium. However, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901; he then named it europium.

When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors, as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0.05%. However, the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors. Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even "richer" europium content of 0.2%.

Frank Spedding, celebrated for his development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare-earth industry in the mid-1950s, once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s, when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy, who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry.

## Applications

Relative to most other elements, commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized. Almost invariably, its phosphorescence is exploited, either in the +2 or +3 oxidation state.

It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices. Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Color TV screens contain between 0.5 and 1 g of europium oxide. Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends strongly on the composition of the host structure. UV to deep red luminescence can be achieved. The two classes of europium-based phosphor (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give "white" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens, but as an additive, it can be particularly effective in improving the intensity of red phosphor. Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass, increasing the general efficiency of fluorescent lamps. One of the more common persistent after-glow phosphors besides copper-doped zinc sulfide is europium-doped strontium aluminate. Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes.

An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes, such as Eu(fod)3, as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy. Chiral shift reagents, such as Eu(hfc)3, are still used to determine enantiomeric purity.

## Precautions

There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals. Europium chloride, nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity: europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg/kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg/kg. Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg/kg, while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg/kg. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard.

Chemical elements with body-centered cubic structure


Hikari (Hikaru Utada song)

"Hikari" (Japanese: 光, "light") is a song recorded by Japanese–American recording artist Hikaru Utada for her fourth studio and third Japanese language album, Deep River (2002). It premiered on March 20, 2002, as the third single from the album in Japan. It was written and composed by Utada, whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada, her father Teruzane Utada, and long-time collaborator Miyake Akira. The single, and a remix by Russell McNamara (under the alias PlanitB), was used as the official Japanese theme song for the 2002 action role-playing video game Kingdom Hearts, and appeared on its original soundtrack respectively. Musically, "Hikari" is a pop folk song. Lyrically, it is about mysteries in life and human activities.

Upon its release, the track garnered positive reviews from music critics. Many critics highlighted the track as one of Utada's best singles, and commended her vocal abilities and songwriting. It was also successful in Japan, peaking at number one both on the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System's (TBS) Count Down TV singles chart. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for physical shipments of 800,000 units. An accompanying music video was shot by her then-husband, Kazuaki Kiriya; it features Utada washing dishes and drinking water. It was performed on some of her concert tours, including the Utada United and Wild Life tour.

To promote the international formats of Kingdom Hearts, Utada re-recorded an English language version entitled "Simple & Clean". Both the original edit and remix version by PlanitB served as international theme songs. It did not appear on Utada's English studio album Exodus (2004), but the original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One. It was later released as an A-side 12-inch single with Utada's single "Colors" in 2003, and received positive reviews from most music critics.

## Background and release

In February 2000, Japanese video game artist Tetsuya Nomura announced the development of an action role-playing video game named Kingdom Hearts. According to Nomura, he only had Utada in mind to create the theme song for the video game, so he had contacted them to collaborate; as a result, she accepted his offer. In a brief interview with IGN, Nomura further stated; "Her music has moved millions of fans, and I was absolutely thrilled when she agreed to contribute to this project. I see her as an icon for young artists and she also proves that music transcends national and language barriers."

"Hikari" was written and composed by Utada, whilst production was handled by Utada, her father Teruzane Utada, and long-time collaborator Miyake Akira. The song's instrumentation consists of keyboards and programming handled by Kawano Kei, synthesizers from Tsunemi Kazuhide, and an acoustic guitar from Akiyama Hironori. The song was recorded by Ugajin Masaaki and mixed by Goh Hotoda in 2001 at Bunkamura Studio, Shibuya, Tokyo. It was released as the third single from her fourth studio and third Japanese language album, Deep River (2002). Since then, the song has been remastered and re-released twice; the first on April 1, 2004, and the second time on December 9, 2014, for Utada's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 1 (2003).

It was available on a CD single, released in Japan and Taiwan. Both formats included the original track, a remix each by Russell McNamara (under the alias PlanitB) and Alex Richbough (under the alias Godson), plus the instrumental version. The artwork for the CD single's were photographed by Takimoto Mikiya. It has a long-distance shot of Utada in a greyish living room. A promotional 12" vinyl was released by EastWorld Records in 2002, and included both the remixed tracks.

## Composition

Musically, "Hikari" is a pop folk song, as described by staff members from Japanese music magazine CD Journal. Square Enix Music's Neo Locke described the song's composition and melody in an extended review: "The acoustic guitar combined with the synth in the background creates a pleasant and gentle harmony that helps bring out Utada's voice." A reviewer from OngakuDB.com noted the acoustic guitar as one of the composition's key elements, and described its sound as "melancholy" and a big "impact". Similarly, Yeah! J-Pop! editor Hiromi Yonemoto noted that the acoustic instrumentation was an "unusual" change in Utada's normal pop musical style. Shinko Music's Hiroshi Shinito described "Hikari" as a mid-tempo ballad.

According to Kano, the editor in chief of Rockin'On Japan, he stated that the lyrical content discusses themes of mystery and daily life actions; he furthered believed that the song's lyrics is an open interpretation, due to its lack of major characteristics and identified philosophy and religion as examples.

## Critical response

"Hikari" received positive reviews from most music critics. Neo Locke from Square Enix Music was positive in his review, saying "'Hikari' has always impressed me for having a very recognizable and easy to manipulate melody despite the fact that the vocals are the only melodic line in the piece — partially due once again to Hikaru Utada's strong and versatile voice." He awarded the single seven out of ten points. In another positive, staff members from CD Journal complimented Utada's "simple" and "distinctive" vocals, and her songwriting. Similarly, a reviewer from OngakuDB.com praised Utada's vocals and expressed happiness for the song's nostalgic vibe. Yeah! J-Pop! editor Hiromi Yonemoto believed that "Hikari" demonstrated some of Utada's best vocals to date, and labeled them and the song's melody as "synergistic". In a similar review, Shinko Music's Hiroshi Shinito praised the songwriting and the chorus. Although describing the song in a positive manner, Sharon G. from KpopBreaks.com compared the song to many other of Utada's music, and felt "Hikari" didn't come close to her "true sound". Despite Daniel Kalabakov from Soundtrack Central disliking pop songs, he complimented Utada's singing and the track's instrumentation.

## Commercial performance

Commercially, "Hikari" was a success in Japan. It became her seventh single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart, with sales of 270,370 units. It stayed at number one for a sole week, and spent a total of 13 weeks on that chart. By the end of 2002, the single was ranked at number 10 on Oricon's Annual 2002 chart with sales of 598,130 units. This made "Hikari" her third single to reach inside the top ten of the yearly Oricon chart; the other two singles being "Sakura Drops" at number six, and "Traveling" at number two. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for physical shipments of 500,000 units. The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System's (TBS) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of March 30, 2002, her eighth non-consecutive single to do so. It stayed at the top spot for three consecutive weeks. The single stayed in the chart for 13 weeks, and was ranked at number eight on the 2002 Annual Chart. Despite it not charting on any digital record charts in Japan, it was certified gold by the RIAJ for 100,000 full-length cell phone downloads. According to the Oricon Style database, it is Utada's 11th highest selling single.

The remix EP Hikari -Ray Of Hope Mix- achieved the \#1 in Japan iTunes.

## Music video

An accompanying music video was filmed by her then-husband, Kazuaki Kiriya. Utada intended to have "Hikari" directed by Kiriya, but the original idea was more complex and intricate. However, he was unable to submit her ideas and portray them into the video due to scheduling and work conflicts. Then, in a blog post, Utada revealed that the music video would feature them washing dishes because she found it enjoyable. She further explained; "Actually we were to shoot the music video of 'Hikari' with him (Kazuaki Kiriya) but it didn't come true due to his scheduling conflicts at the last moment and that's why we requested Kiriya urgently to shoot that dish-washing video." The entire four minute and 22 second video has Utada washing dishes in her kitchen; during some portions of the video, Utada drinks water, stops washing the dishes, and walks away from the camera. According to Utada, no further editing was needed, and was completed in one take.

The music video received positive reviews from critics. According to Naomi Gingfold, writing for The Global Post, she commended the departure of Utada's general "beautiful and intricate music videos", stating "The camera did not move once. Occasionally she lip-synced along; occasionally she just washed dishes." Daniel Montesinos-Donaghy from Noisey Vice noted and complimented Utada's abilities in adapting to different roles through her music videos, specifically highlighting the "mundane" activity of washing dishes. A reviewer from OngakuDB.com noted a contrast between the song and the video, stating that the video had shown them "lonely" and the song more "gracious".

## Live performances and promotion

The song has been performed on some of Utada's concert tours. Despite Utada's plans to promote the song between 2002 and 2003, she halted all promotional activities due to her diagnosis of a benign ovarian tumor, which was surgically removed that same year. Its first performance was in 2004, during her Bokuhan concert tour; it was included as the first song performed. It appeared on the live DVD, which was released on July 28, 2004. It was included on Utada's debut English concert tour named Utada United. Featured as the closing number, it was later included on the live DVD, released on December 20, 2006. "Hikari" was performed during Utada's two date concert series Wild Life in December 2010. Since the track's release, it has appeared on three compilation releases: Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol. 1 (2003), it's 2014 remastered version, and a special bundle of the compilation and the vol. 2 collection on a USB. In 2014, Love Psychedelico recorded the song for Utada Hikaru no Uta, a tribute album celebrating 15 years since Utada's debut.

## "Simple & Clean"

To promote the international formats of Kingdom Hearts, Utada recorded an English version of "Hikari", named "Simple & Clean". Both the original edit and remix version by PlanitB served as the international theme songs. It did not appear on Utada's English studio album Exodus (2004), but the original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One. The version was also included on the English release of Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack. It was released as an B-side 12-inch single with Utada's single "Colors" in 2003, and received positive reviews from most music critics. It has been performed on two of Utada's concerts, these being Utada United in 2006 and In The Flesh 2010.

### Background and composition

Much of the song's production is similar to the Japanese version, except the chorus was interpolated from the 9th track of her 2002 album Deep River, Uso Mitai na I Love You (嘘みたいな I Love You); was written and composed by Utada, whilst production was handled by Utada, her father Teruzane Utada, and Miyake Akira. The song included live instrumentation by Kawano Kei (keyboards and programming), Tsunemi Kazuhide (synthesizers), and Akiyama Hironori (acoustic guitar), whilst it was arranged by Utada and Kawano Kei. The song was recorded by Ugajin Masaaki and mixed by Goh Hotoda in 2001 at Bunkamura Studio, Shibuya, Tokyo. The song was also remixed by Russell McNamara (under the alias PlanitB). Like the Japanese version, Utada felt the writing process was difficult. Musically, "Simple & Clean" is a pop folk song, as described by staff members from Japanese music magazine CD Journal. Utada explained the song process in a detailed interview with Jetanny Magazine:

> "... [T]hat was so hard, it's just, and it felt strained, and as a result, I'm happy that I worked hard to do those, because those English versions are really good and "Simple and Clean," I think, is a really good song, and people—most of the people that know me here, they know me for that—but it's not ideal for me as a writer, to—because, actually, I changed the melodies for "Simple and Clean" and "Hikari," because when you change the language you're singing in, the same melodies don't work—and as a writer, it's just very frustrating to have, like—I wrote these melodies for Japanese words, and to have to write in English for that, it's just not right. And then, so, for this, uh, this contract with Island Def Jam, in the beginning I separated it to this English language album, and I don't do Japanese translations. I just, my integrity as an artist just would not take that, could not take that."

According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, the song is written in the key of B♭ major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 84 beats per minute. Utada's vocal range spans between the notes G3 to G5, specifically between the chorus lyrics: "When you walk away / You don't hear me say / Please oh baby don't go / Simple and clean is the way that you're making me feel tonight / It's hard to let it go".

### Release and reception

The original edit and PlanitB remix of "Simple & Clean" first appeared on Utada's single "Colors" as a B-side, which was released on January 29, 2003. It was also available on the Taiwanese versions of "Colors", released in mid-2003. Near the end of 2003, "Simple & Clean" was released as an A-side 12-inch single with "Colors" in Japan; it included the original and PlanitB remix. The original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One.

Upon its release, "Simple & Clean" received positive reviews from most music critics. Benjamin Turner from GameSpy was impressed by the translation of "Hikari" into English, and felt Utada's vocals were a good addition to the opening and ending segments of the game. Michael Pascua from BlogCritics.org was generally positive, stating in a detail review; "Utada made a smart decision with the physical release of the CD: she included the songs "Simple and Clean" and "Sanctuary" from the Kingdom Hearts series. Both songs showcase a strong musical style that isn't necessarily in the R&B flare that This is the One provides. They also help connect any video game player who hasn't necessarily listened to any of her Japanese albums or even knew that she had another English album." He also labelled the song and "Sanctuary" "happy additions" to This Is The One.

### Live performances and promotions

The song has been performed on some of Utada's concert tours. Its first performance was at a special event that celebrated Utada's 20th birthday in Japan on January 19, 2003; she sang "Simple & Clean" as the encore track. Throughout the song, she performed the acoustic guitar. When Kingdom Hearts was released in North America, Utada performed the song; this was one of Utada's first performances outside of Japan. Despite Utada's plans to promote the song between 2002 and 2003, she halted all promotional activities due to her diagnosis of a benign ovarian tumor, which was surgically removed that same year. The song was included on her Utada: In the Flesh 2010 concert tour in North America and the United Kingdom. The most recent live performance of the song was during the 2022 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.

### Commercial performance

The remix EP Simple and Clean -Ray Of Hope Remix-, released on January 11, 2017, debuted at \#1 iTunes Store in 9 countries and charted in 26 different stores in the top 100, peaking at the \#2 in the US iTunes Store, making it the biggest peak by a Japanese artist in the North American iTunes store. On February 2, 2019, Simple and Clean charted at \#21 in World Digital Song Sales of US Billboard.

## Legacy

When the single was released and promoted through Kingdom Hearts, "Hikari" and "Simple & Clean" were widely considered a "hot topic" around the world of music, as described by a staff member at OngakuDB.com. Her inclusion in the video game's respective international versions was successful, as Kingdom Hearts sold over 4.78 million units worldwide, subsequently earning the rank of being the tenth best selling PlayStation 2 video game. Both songs were then included on the spin-off titles: Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories (2004), Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep (2010), and the remix versions Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix (2013) and Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix (2014). The first two games, alongside the original release, sold over 5.9 million units worldwide together. Both the original and remix versions of "Hikari" (alongside an orchestral instrumental by Kingdom Hearts composer Yoko Shimomura) were included on the first soundtrack, and the HD 1.5 Remix soundtrack. Due to the success of the songs, Utada was invited to record another track for the original video game's sequel, Kingdom Hearts II (2005). This track was the Japanese written "Passion", which was re-written to "Sanctuary" as part of the international releases. Jeff Chuang from Japanator.com believed that "Simple & Clean" is what Utada is "best known for" by her fans outside of Japan. Similarly, Emily Goodman from Axs.com believed that "Simple & Clean" was her most successful work outside of Japan.

"Hikari" and "Simple & Clean" are often cited as "one of the best video game songs in recent history", as described by Dannii C. from Celebmix.com. Alex Hanavan from The Young Folks listed the orchestral version of "Hikari", which also appeared during the credits section of Kingdom Hearts, at number two on the "Top Ten Video Game Theme Songs". He stated his reason through his extended review; "Kingdom Hearts has several 'theme songs' but the orchestrated version of 'Hikari' takes the cake with all the makings of a grand adventure. It resonates with the many themes of the games: friendship, teamwork, and adventure. 'Hikari' undoubtedly brings back wealth of memories for any fan of the franchise." GameFAQs's editor Pierce Sparrow listed both "Simple & Clean" and "Sanctuary" at number two on the "Top Ten Lyrical Songs for a Video Game". Sparrow stated: "It was a little too difficult for me to choose just one of the songs, seeing as they have very similar qualities... I doubt that anyone will disagree that these are two of the greatest theme songs ever produced."

"Hikari" brought Utada a number of accolades and award nominations. In 2008, the Guinness World Records listed the track as the best-selling video game single in Japan, and was included on the 2008 Gamer's Edition book; this is Utada's first, and current, induction into this. At the 17th Japan Gold Disc Awards in 2003, Utada won the Song of the Year award; she had also won two awards with the same name that year for her singles "Sakura Drops" and "Colors". Similarly, she also received the Silver Award for Foreign Production recognition at the 2003 Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers Awards (JASRAC). In December 2015, in honor of Utada's comeback into the music business, Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions; the poll was held in only twenty-four hours, and thousands submitted their votes. As a result, "Hikari" was ranked at number three with 97 votes in total.

## Accolades

## Track listings and formats

- CD single

1. "Hikari" (光, "light") – 5:02
2. "Hikari" (光, "light") (PlanitB Remix) – 5:46
3. "Hikari" (光, "light") (Godson Remix) – 4:39
4. "Hikari" (光, "light") (Instrumental) – 5:02

- 12" inch vinyl

1. "Hikari" (光, "light") (PlanitB Remix) – 5:46
2. "Hikari" (光, "light") (Godson Remix) – 4:39

- Japanese digital EP

1. "Hikari" (光, "light") – 5:02
2. "Hikari" (光, "light") (PlanitB Remix) – 5:46
3. "Hikari" (光, "light") (Godson Remix) – 4:39
4. "Hikari" (光, "light") (Instrumental) – 5:02

- "Colors" / "Simple & Clean" 12" inch vinyl

1. "Colors" – 4:00
2. "Colors" (Instrumental) – 4:00
3. "Simple & Clean" – 5:02
4. "Simple & Clean" (PlanitB Remix) – 5:46

- "Simple & Clean (Ray Of Hope Mix) - EP"

1. "Simple & Clean" (Ray Of Hope Mix) - 5:33
2. "Hikari" (Ray Of Hope Mix) - 5:33
3. "Simple & Clean" (P's Club Mix) - 4:02
4. "Hikari" (P's Club Mix) - 4:02

## Credits and personnel

Credits and personnel adapted by the CD liner notes of "Hikari" and "Colors".

- Hikaru Utada – vocals, background vocals, songwriting, production, composing, arranging
- Teruzane Utada – production, arranging
- Miyake Akira – production, arranging
- Kawano Kei – arrangement, keyboards, programming
- Tsunemi Kazuhide – synthesizers
- Akiyama Hironori – acoustic guitar

- Ugajin Masaaki – recording
- Goh Hotoda – mixing, programming
- Russell McNamara (under the alias PlanitB; stylized PLANITb) – remixing, production
- Alex Richbough (under the alias Godson) – remixing, production
- Takimoto Mikiya – photography
- Kazuaki Kiriya – director

## Chart and certifications

### Weekly and daily charts

### Monthly charts

### Yearly charts

## Certifications

## Release history

## See also

- List of Oricon number-one singles in 2002
- Colors – corresponding article to "Simple & Clean".
- Music of Kingdom Hearts
- Kingdom Hearts video game.

2002 single by Hikaru Utada


Work (Iggy Azalea song)

"Work" is the debut single recorded by Australian rapper Iggy Azalea for her debut studio album, The New Classic (2014). It was released as the album's lead single on 17 March 2013. The track was written by Azalea, Trocon Markous Roberts, Natalie Sims, and The Invisible Men who produced it with 1st Down of FKi. Hailed by Azalea as her most personal song, "Work" was developed with motivational and inspirational intentions to portray her life story; specifically dealing with her struggle as an up-and-coming rapper, and her relocation from Mullumbimby, New South Wales to Miami, Florida at age 16. In sequence with its lyrical story, the snap and trap track begins with a sad-stringed verse segment before significantly increasing in tempo at its drum and synth-heavy

A number of music critics consider the song to be among Azalea's best output, namely praising her flow and the depth of the lyrical content. Commercially, "Work" became a sleeper hit; it peaked at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart and number 54 on the US Billboard Hot 100, but was certified silver and platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), respectively. "Work" became one of the lowest peaking songs to receive a sales certification in Australia where it reached number 79 and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).

An accompanying music video was directed by Jonas & François and released on 13 March 2013. Inspired by several films, it features Azalea performing twerking sequences and a recreation of Vanessa Ferlito's lap dancing in the 2007 film, Death Proof. The video earned Azalea a nomination for Artist to Watch at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, and was praised by critics for its fashion, and portrayal of the song's lyrics. Among her live performance staples, Azalea promoted the single with live renditions on Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model and Nikki & Sara Live. It was also included in the set list for her The New Classic Tour (2014). A number of remixes were commissioned for the single's release, including an official remix featuring American rapper Wale.

## Background

During December 2012 and January 2013, "Work" was developed by Iggy Azalea as one of the first three songs for her debut studio album, The New Classic. The song was written in Wales during a period of heavy rain which inspired her to create a track that was "sad, but in a weird way, like happy or calming or sort of peaceful". With the track, she wanted to give as much information as she could about herself to detract her listeners from being influenced by criticism and tabloid journalism about her; she disliked the idea of revisiting her past, but felt that it was necessary for her listeners to relate with. Being her first autobiographical song, Azalea encountered difficulty during its writing because of the personal subject matter which she felt she could not fit into a song on its own.

Azalea wrote the song with The Invisible Men, Trocon Markous Roberts and Natalie Sims. Sims stated that she, FKi, and Azalea had initially met back in 2008, but lost touch when Azalea moved to Los Angeles. The track specifically drew inspiration from a period when Azalea suffered from depression, and dropped out of high school to become a domestic worker with her mother. Azalea saved money for a flight ticket to Miami and left Mullumbimby, New South Wales before she turned 16—an event referenced in the song's lyric "No money / No family / 16 in the middle of Miami" which Azalea felt "said it all". For this reason, she chose to write and record "Work" in isolation in Rockfield, Monmouthshire, with no phone reception, visitors or interruptions. She felt as a location it would help her recall the personal struggles she wanted to write about on the song. Azalea also believed that her best output was produced when in an environment outside her comfort zone. Her vocals were recorded at Rockfield Studios and Monnow Valley Studios. Sims, who abandoned four tour dates in order to fly over to Britain to join Azalea, commented on her own involvement in the song that "Fresh out of a breakup and depressed I spent a month in London in a small 10×10 studio somedays writing and writing and writing... Regardless of whether or not you like the content the song told Iggy's true story of struggle sacrifice and hard work as an artist."

Musically, Azalea found inspiration for the composition in the chord progression featured in Outkast's "B.O.B" (2000). "Work" was produced by The Invisible Men and 1st Down of FKi. Azalea stated that the producers "found a middle ground" on the song, with 1st Down being responsible for its "cool alternative sound", and The Invisible Men creating its "more commercialised, cleaner [and] sleeker sound". Anthony Kilhoffer completed the mixing process, with the assistance of Kyle Ross, at The Mix Spot in Los Angeles. Following the song's completion, Azalea felt that it achieved the goal she set for its parent album, and denoted it as the record's most important and vulnerable moment. She has also cited it as her most personal song and the song she is most proud of.

## Composition

"Work" is a snap and trap song which incorporates elements of EDM. Nina Long of Respect. describes it as the "polar opposite" of Azalea's previous material. The track opens with Azalea challenging "Walk a mile in these Louboutins", upon a sweeping keyboard introduction and balladic beat. It then leads into a similarly sad, string-laden first verse segment containing plaintive melodies. According to Gregory Adams of Exclaim!, the song "starts off smooth and ballady, with Azalea running through lines about her background, but soon drops into club-minded claps and screeching synths". A prominent synth, bass and drum-heavy production drop formula then occurs at the song's refrain, in which Azalea repeats the hook, "I been work work work work, workin' on my shit". The production drop casts Azalea's rapping against a combination of a Roland TR-808-heavy, minimal trap beat and EDM clapping effects. Using divisive Southern American English pronunciation, Azalea employs a defiant and rattling, staccato delivery in double-time. Her rapping pace varies from fast, intricate rhymes to slow, stretched-out singular words. While in the verses, her delivery is expletively riddled.

The lyrics are autobiographical and portray Azalea's fame-seeking relocation from Mullumbimby to Miami at the age of 16, and deal with subjects of work ethic and dedication to craft. It specifically accounts for the events of Azalea growing up in Mullumbimby, juggling multiple occupations to save an income to independently start anew in Miami. The lyrics also serve as a celebration of Azalea's progression from being a struggling rapper as a rags to riches story and an underdog anthem. The line "Who don't know shit 'bout where I was made / Or how many floors that I had to scrub," was suggested to be directed at her "haters". While the couplet, "Two feet in the red dirt, school skirt, sugar cane, back lanes" is eloquent for Azalea's origin.

According to Jessie Schiewe of Respect., the lyrics also imply that Azalea "was swindled and take advantage of in her first record deal", and that it provides insight into events that have toughened Azalea up. While Cristina Jaleru of The Associated Press deduced that the lyrics "First deal changed me, robbed blind, basically raped me / Studied the Carters till a deal was offered, slept cold on the floor recording," are rapped "not as a complaint but as a badge of honor". Nick Aveling of Time Out writes that Azalea is depicted as a "hustler" and a "woman with immense ambition" in the song. In a NPR publication, Ann Powers viewed the lyrics to be of "unremitting toil", as well as detailing a story of Azalea "staying up night after night to master her flow". John Lucas of The Georgia Straight compared the lyrical content to that of Drake's "Started from the Bottom" (2013). According to Matt Jost of RapReviews.com, "Work" is similar to the works of 2 Live Crew and is a "nod to Miami's music history".

## Release

"Work" served as Azalea's debut single as a lead artist, and the lead single from The New Classic. Following its premiere on BBC Radio 1Xtra on 11 February 2013, Azalea tweeted, "Thanks for supporting me and I'm happy to have a first single about my story and not something meaningless i hope it inspires and motivates". Her label later announced that an extended play (EP) for the single would be released on 8 April 2013. Azalea posted a timed preview of "Work" on SoundCloud on 24 February 2013. The following day, Azalea announced on Twitter that the song would be digitally released within the first week of March 2013.

"Work" was released as a digital download on 17 March 2013 in the United Kingdom. A digital EP—which included remixes by Jacob Plant and Burns—was then made available on 7 April 2013. In the United States, the song impacted rhythmic contemporary radio on 25 June 2013. An official remix featuring American rapper Wale was premiered by Samsung on 28 June 2013. In the remix, Wale performs a 16-bar rap in place of Azalea's second verse in the song. The remix was well received by reviewers from Idolator, Rap-Up, The Line of Best Fit, and XXL. A 13-track remix bundle and the Wale remix was then released in the United States on 16 and 23 July 2013 respectively.

## Critical reception

"Work" received universal acclaim from music critics. In a Billboard publication, Robert Christgau called the song "excellent" and "something [Azalea] wants us to remember", and commented: "You want authentic? Iggy Azalea has all the lineaments of a risk-taking young rebel without a well-off family to back her up." Christgau went on to praise the track's hooks, and explained: "The hooks, of course, are one reason hard die-hards put her down—in the truimpant Dirty South manner, her hip-hop is radio-friendly as a matter of principle. The cumulative weight of the long-player they never think about." Monica Herrera of Rolling Stone called the song "a bombshell-next-door move that demands attention". Matt Orkine of Triple J listed it as the year's ninth best single, and viewed it as a "straight-up banger" and his "guiltiest music pleasure of 2013". Kellan Miller of XXL deemed it "the song that made the world fall in love with Iggy all over again". Justin Monroe of Complex called it the album's "infectious and decidedly less weird first single", and complimented its ability to provide listeners with a sense of Azalea's background. While Sam Weiss of the same publication described the song "as wild and eccentric as anything she's done so far".

Slant Magazine's Joe Sweeney felt that "Work" was the album's standout track and believed that it portrayed a real sense of Azalea's potential as a storyteller, and commended her delivery, "You can hear every inch of how far she's come". Sweeney's view was shared by Andy Gill from The Independent who also named "Work" the highlight on The New Classic, and said Azalea's double-time delivery was best-employed on the song. HipHopDX's Marcus Dowling wrote that "Work" was "an extraordinarily well-rounded listen" and the "honest and intriguing greatness" of The New Classic. Dowling commented that the line, "No money, no family, 16 in the middle of Miami", provided an "ocean of depth [...] that makes the rest of the album feel like swimming in a kiddie pool". Matt Jost of RapReviews.com concurred, and called the song "the sure winner" and "lyrically most ambitious offering" of the album. Jost opined that the track was "memorable" and its production "cleverly subverts expectations", and explained, "It's when she keeps it simple and relies on her indeed present swagger that the Iggy Azalea character works best". Similarly, Alex Scordelis of Paper described the track as "the cornerstone" of the album and complimented its "insanely catchy chorus". Scordelis believed it marked a heightened evolution in Azalea's growth as a rapper, and stated, "['Work' is] a song you can easily imagine Azalea performing for years to come".

"Work" was positively reviewed by writers of Entertainment Weekly; Kyle Anderson opined that the track was "a thoroughbred entry in the song of summer race", while Ray Rahman called it a "bulletproof party banger". Devone Jones of PopMatters viewed Azalea's "sombre thought-processing" as "well-executed", and appreciated her for "picking gritty gangsta-pop [sic] beats over EDM and dance music as well as deciding to rap about her life before her new-found fame as opposed to her fame". Likewise, Craig Mathieson of The Sydney Morning Herald explained that the song highlighted Azalea's "ability to meld the club music sounds that are permeating American hip-hop and pop into something unexpected and affecting". In an October 2013 publication, Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that "Work" was "ear-catching", and contained Azalea's "best-known zing"; "Valley girls giving blowjobs for Louboutins / What do you call that? / Head over heels?". In 2014, Nolan Feeney of Time said "Work" was "by far the best thing she's done", and highlighted Azalea's conviction and "rapid-fire" delivery, while Digital Spy's Lewis Corner felt the song "remains one of [Azalea's] finest moments". In 2015, NME ranked "Work" third in their list of Azalea's best songs, behind "Fancy" and "1 800 Bone".

## Commercial performance

Commercially, "Work" was a sleeper hit and Azalea's breakthrough into mainstream success. In Australia, the song bowed at number 88 on the ARIA Singles Chart issued for 23 April 2013, but re-entered more than a year later to peak at number 79 for the chart dated 9 June 2014. The track was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for selling 35,000 copies; it became one of the lowest peaking songs to receive a sales certification in the country. The track debuted at number 98 on the Irish Singles Chart dated 4 April 2013, and reached a peak of number 42. On the UK Singles Chart, the song entered at number 55 and peaked at number 17 in its sixth week. The song spent a total of 13 weeks on the chart. It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling over 200,000 units.

In the United States, "Work" first charted at number seven on the Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart issued for 20 July 2013. Following a 156% sales resurgence spurred by Azalea's appearance and nomination at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, the song debuted at number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. On 13 August 2013, Billboard reported that the track percolated below the Rhythmic chart. It was more successful on the Dance Club Songs chart where it peaked at number five for the week-ending 5 October 2013. In May 2014, the song received a second sales resurgence following the release of The New Classic and the success of Azalea's 2014 singles "Fancy" and "Problem". It went on to peak at number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 where it accumulated a total of 20 weeks on the chart. The sales resurgence also saw the single attain a new peak of number 14 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, where it initially bowed at number 35 in September 2013. In September 2014, the track was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over 1 million units. In January 2015, Billboard named it one of the biggest hits to have peaked at number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100. In Canada, "Work" debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 98 for the week-ending 27 September 2014, and reached a peak of number 87. It was certified gold by Music Canada (MC) for selling more than 40,000 copies.

## Music video

### Background and development

The accompanying music video for "Work" was directed by Jonas & François and filmed in Hollywood and Lancaster, California in February 2013. A budget of about \$100,000 was used for the production. Initially, Azalea wanted to provide a literal representation of the song, and planned to shoot the clip in Australia, but time constraints prevented her from travelling to the country. Accordingly, a desert location was chosen to emulate Azalea's hometown, Mullumbimby. Prior to the video's filming, Azalea felt she grasped the concept of what made a good music video and what viewers wanted to see in the clip for "Work". In turn, she combined several different ideas into the visual because she feared that a music video budget of the same calibre would not arise in future.

One of Azalea's ideas was to pay homage to the Australian film The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994), as its theme of discrimination was one she identified with as a rejected and struggling rapper. Two scenes in the music video drew reference from the film: the fire swing segment emulated the film's bonfire scene, and the convertible segment represented the film's bus. Washed colour elements were also implemented into the convertible scene which was inspired by the 1998 film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Another idea Azalea incorporated into the clip was the large-scale neon qualities featured in Outkast's music video for "B.O.B". Azalea stated that the featured lap dancing originated from Vanessa Ferlito's "infamous" scene of the same action in the 2007 film Death Proof. She found Ferlito's lap dance appealing, but was convinced to recreate it for "Work" after she noticed its popularity through remakes of it on YouTube.

Controversy arose during the music video's development when Azalea intended to wear a red, high-waisted leotard encrusted in rhinestone flames, to emulate the showgirl fashion featured in The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert. The leotard, however, was deemed "too-vaginary" by one of the workers at the label Azalea was signed to, ultimately leading to the worker being dismissed from the project and the leotard being scrapped altogether. Azalea's final wardrobe consisted of creations by Christian Louboutin, Jeremy Scott and the 2013 Spring/Summer Collection by Dolce & Gabbana. Her stylist, Alejandra Hernandez incorporated several pairs of Louboutins into the music video because of their significance to Azalea when she was a struggling rapper who achieved her first sense of accomplishment after buying her first pair.

### Synopsis

The music video's storyline depicts Azalea's biographical journey from life on the streets to Hollywood. According to Natasha Stagg of American magazine V, the plot involves Azalea rising from "trailer park standby to high-class Hollywood-ite in a matter of minutes". The music video opens with Azalea confidently walking on a deserted highway situated in a desert environment. Azalea's costume includes dark red lipstick, red-soled vertiginous Louboutins, a powder blue Givenchy bag, a tropical print brassiere and shorts. The scene is intercepted with visuals of burning shoes and wheels. Azalea then walks through a trailer park community where several locals stare at her as she passes by. Upon the beginning of the song's chorus, the video transcends into a playground scene where Azalea dances in an evening setting, with a fire-lit swing as her backdrop. In this segment, she wears a grey crop top and red slim-fit pants, with her hair styled in a bun. The next scene involves Azalea performing in a dance-off with her two female friends in front of a Freightliner Truck. Azalea sports a plum-coloured fur coat over a white mesh swimsuit. In the segment, the three engage in twerking and hair flicking actions.

The visual then returns to the trailer park setting, where Azalea rides a lowrider bicycle through the area. She wears a perforated yellow visor, black brassiere, spiked yellow Louboutins and ethnic slim-fit pants. The video then enters a new scene where Azalea arrives at a dive bar and switches a jukebox on. At the bar, Azalea's two friends from the Freightliner Truck scene are seated at a table, and a long-haired man wearing dark sunglasses awaits her on a chair in the centre of building. Azalea, dressed in a palm tree bikini and yellow neon shorts, performs a lap dance for the man. She then steals his car keys and runs off with her friends, who drive the man's convertible out into the desert. Azalea is seen standing in the car, waving a thin piece of material in the wind. They drive through a day and night period before arriving in Hollywood in the morning. Azalea's friends then drop her off at a sidewalk, where the video ends with her walking in the city. She wears dark sunglasses, striped black-and-white shorts and a custom-made dalmatian-print blazer in the final scene.

### Release and reception

On 4 March 2013, Azalea posted a set of images from the clip on Instagram. The music video was initially scheduled for release on 11 March 2013, though it premiered two days later on Vevo on 13 March 2013. A behind-the-scenes segment was released on 3 April 2013. An alternate video directed by Colin Solal Cardo for an unreleased Adidas commercial surfaced online on 12 April 2014.

Upon release, the music video was tagged with the warning "not suitable for work". It received praise from critics and was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist at the 2013 ceremony, but lost to Austin Mahone's "What About Love". The visual also received three nominations at the 2013 UK Music Video Awards, in the categories for Best Styling in a Video, Vevo Best New Artist and Best Urban Video. Slant Magazine ranked the video at number 21 in their list of The 25 Best Music Videos of 2013; writer Sal Cinquemani stated that Azalea's swing set conjured that of Madonna's "Like a Prayer" (1989) and George Michael's "Freedom! '90".

Shardae Jobson of The Source deemed Azalea's fashion "stylish" and "rustic". A writer for MuchMusic described the clip as "a total and complete visual trip jam-packed with Iggy's rad dance moves". Natasha Stagg of V called it a "desert dream" and appreciated Azalea's "killer outfit options". British magazine Fact wrote that the visual was "flashy" and "trailer park elegance", and compared it to M.I.A.'s "Bad Girls" (2012). Julian Rifkin of Oyster viewed it as "a high class production" and felt it emulated the song's lyric "Valley girls giving blow jobs for Louboutins". He likened the clip's dancing to that of Beyoncé, and Grimes' "Genesis" (2012). Rifkin considered the production's Mid West theme to recall Lana Del Rey's "Born to Die" (2011). Contactmusic.com said the music video told an inspiring story of Azalea working her way up from the bottom. Jessie Peterson of MTV News called Azalea's wardrobe "subtly savvy". Eric Diep of XXL stated that the clip was worth the wait, and described Azalea's "sexy poses and lap dances" as "just the tip of the iceberg". Diep praised Azalea's story interpretation, and mentioned, "Pledge allegiance to the struggle, this girl knows how to work it". Jessie Schiewe of Respect. complimented the video for revolving around Azalea and paying homage to the song's lyrical story, and praised the rapper's lap dancing scene. Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly felt the video evoked the 1991 film Thelma & Louise and commended Azalea's "full run of frame-grab-worthy outfits". The music video has received over 280 million views on YouTube as of November 2017.

## Live performances and usage in media

Azalea first performed "Work" during the Manchester-stop of Rita Ora's Radioactive Tour on 29 January 2013. She reprised the song until the tour's final date in mid-February, before performing it again during the European leg of the Nas' Life Is Good Tour. Azalea went on to perform the song for her sets at The Great Escape Festival and Radio 1's Big Weekend in May 2013, and at Gucci's Chime for Change Concert, The Parklife Weekender and the Glastonbury Festival in June 2013. The song was then performed at the Wireless Festival, and London nightclubs G-A-Y and Fabric in July 2013. Azalea gave her first live televised rendition of "Work" on 8 August 2013 on Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model. As part of the single's promotion in the United States, Azalea performed "Work" on Nikki & Sara Live on 28 August 2013, and for KIIS FM on 14 September 2013. The song was also included in Azalea's set list at the 2013 iTunes Festival, where she was a supporting act for Katy Perry. In October 2013, Azalea performed the track as part of her sets during Beyoncé's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour. At the 2013 MOBO Awards, Azalea performed "Change Your Life" and "Work".

In 2014, "Work" featured in the set list for Azalea's first headlining tour, The New Classic Tour. A number of the tour's renditions of the track featured an interpolation of RuPaul's "Supermodel", and a Miami strip-inspired stage backdrop as a reference to the song's "No money, no family, 16 in the middle of Miami" line. She also performed the song during her set for the 2014 MtvU Woodie Awards at South by Southwest in April. On 15 May 2014, Azalea performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. The rendition was praised by reviewers from Exclaim!, Vibe and Idolator. On 8 August 2014, Azalea performed the song during her set on The Today Show. Jim Farber of the Daily News noted that the rendition "put the emphases on a pre-recorded beat and the star's personality", and that Azalea's "only whiff of pretence" during the set came in "a few lines in 'Work'". Azalea later included the song for her sets during the Jingle Ball Tour 2014. In 2015, Azalea performed "Work" as part of her set lists at the Redfest in February, and the Ottawa Bluesfest and Quebec City Summer Festival in July.

Selena Gomez covered "Work" in a mash-up with her song "B.E.A.T.", during her 2013 Stars Dance Tour. Contestants Bridget Whitman and Emilio Dosal performed a dance to "Work" during an episode of the eleventh American series of So You Think You Can Dance which aired on 9 July 2014.

## Track listings

- Digital download

1. "Work" – 3:43

- Digital download (The Remixes)

1. "Work" (Gregor Salto Radio Edit) – 2:48
2. "Work" (Gregor Salto Remix) – 5:14
3. "Work" (Gregor Salto Instrumental) – 5:14
4. "Work" (Reid Stefan Radio) – 3:56
5. "Work" (Reid Stefan Radio) – 3:53
6. "Work" (Reid Stefan Trap Remix) – 4:50
7. "Work" (Reid Stefan Radio Instrumental) – 3:53
8. "Work" (Reid Stefan Trap Instrumental) – 4:50
9. "Work" (Tom Stephan Radio Mix) – 3:47
10. "Work" (Tom Stephan Mix) – 6:32
11. "Work" (DJ Reflex Remix) – 3:45
12. "Work" (DJ Reflex Remix) – 3:45
13. "Work" (DJ Reflex Remix Instrumental) – 3:45

- Digital download (EP)

1. "Work" – 3:43
2. "Work" (Radio Edit) – 3:42
3. "Work" (Jacob Plant Remix) – 3:16
4. "Work" (Burns Purple Rain Version) – 5:20
5. "Work" (Instrumental) – 3:40

- Digital download (Remix)

1. "Work" (featuring Wale) – 4:10

- signifies a clean version.

## Credits and personnel

- Iggy Azalea – writer, vocals
- The Invisible Men – writers, producers, drums, programming, keyboards
- Trocon Markous Roberts – writer
- Natalie Sims – writer
- 1st Down of FKi – producer, drums, programming, keyboards
- Anthony Kilhoffer – mixing
- Kyle Ross – mixing assistant

Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.

## Charts

### Weekly charts

### Year-end charts

## Certifications

## Radio and release history

2013 single by Iggy Azalea