Brehon B. Somervell

Brehon Burke Somervell (9 May 1892 – 13 February 1955) was a general in the United States Army and Commanding General of the Army Service Forces in World War II. As such he was responsible for the U.S. Army's logistics. Following his death, The Washington Post lauded him as "one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced".

Somervell graduated near the top of his United States Military Academy class of 1914 and was commissioned in the United States Army Corps of Engineers. During World War I he served with the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico and the American Expeditionary Force in France in logistical posts. He was also decorated for gallantry in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.

After the war he served in various engineering assignments. From 1936 to 1940 Somervell was head of the Works Progress Administration in New York City, where he was responsible for a series of Great Depression relief works, including the construction of LaGuardia Airport.

As head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps in 1941, Somervell took charge of the construction of a series of camps to house the large numbers of draftees who entering into the Army. Once again, Somervell was able to deliver vital projects on time. The most enduring of these projects was the Pentagon, which is today one of the most recognizable buildings in the world. From 1942 to 1945, Somervell commanded the Army Service Forces, the logistical arm of the United States Army.

## Early life

Brehon Burke Somervell was born on 9 May 1892 in Little Rock, Arkansas, the only child of William Taylor Somervell, a physician, and wife Mary née Burke, a schoolteacher. The two of them opened Belcourt Seminary, a girls' finishing school in Washington, D.C., in 1906.

Somervell was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York by Congressman Charles C. Reid of Arkansas. He entered West Point in 1910 and graduated sixth out of the 106 cadets in the class of 1914. Like other high-ranking cadets of the period, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Army Corps of Engineers. Fellow graduates included future general officers such as Carl Spaatz, Frank W. Milburn, Ralph Royce, John B. Anderson, Charles P. Gross, Harold Francis Loomis, Vicente Lim, Jens A. Doe, Orlando Ward, James L. Bradley, Harry C. Ingles, and Harold R. Bull.

## World War I

Somervell traveled to Europe for his two months' graduation leave and was in Paris when World War I broke out. Reporting to the U.S. Embassy in Paris for volunteer duty, he became an assistant to the military attaché. He took charge of refugee funds and dispensed \$1,000,000 to help American citizens to get back home.

On return to the United States, he was posted to an engineer battalion at Washington Barracks, DC. Scoring high marks in his Garrison Officers' School examinations, he was promoted to first lieutenant on 28 February 1915. During the Punitive Expedition into Mexico in 1916, he was for a time depot manager at Columbus, New Mexico, the main logistical base of the expedition. Later, he joined the expedition in Mexico, working on roads and as a supply officer.

Somervell returned to Washington Barracks to attend the Engineer School but his course was interrupted by the declaration of war by the United States on Germany on 6 April 1917. The course was abruptly terminated and Somervell, along with hundreds of other junior officers, was ordered to appear before an examination board that would determine his fitness for promotion. Following a favorable report from the board, Somervell was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917. He helped organize the 15th Engineers, a rail transport unit, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In July 1917 this became the first engineer regiment to be sent overseas, arriving in England in July 1917 and France later that month. The 15th Engineers worked on several construction projects, including a munitions dump at Mehun-sur-Yèvre and an advanced depot and regulating station at Is-sur-Tille. Somervell got his projects completed by working his men around the clock and deploying every available resource regardless of the cost. For his role, Somervell was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal (DSM), the citation for which reads:

> The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Lieutenant Colonel (Corps of Engineers) Brehon Burke Somervell (ASN: 0-3665), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As Adjutant, 15th Engineers, during the period of organization and training, in charge of construction of the Mehun Ammunition Depot, in charge of the construction at Is-sur-Tille Depot, including the Gas Depot at Poinson and the Etain Engine Terminal; Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, and Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, 89th Division from October 1918 until the division returned to the United States, when he was assigned as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, 3d Army. In all these positions Lieutenant Colonel Somervell displayed unusual vision, initiative, sound judgment, and high professional skill, contributing in a conspicuous way to the successful operation of the American forces in France.

He was promoted to major on 15 August 1917 and lieutenant colonel on 1 October 1918. While visiting some friends at the 89th Division, he volunteered his services to its chief of staff, Colonel John C. H. Lee, who accepted him as a temporary replacement for his Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, in charge of operations, who had been captured a few days before. For leading a three-man patrol to inspect damage to a bridge some 600 yards (550 m) in front of American lines, Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The citation for the medal reads:

> The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Lieutenant Colonel (Corps of Engineers) Brehon Burke Somervell (ASN: 0-3665), United States Army, for extraordinary heroism in action while serving with 89th Division, A.E.F., near Pouilly, France, November 5 - 6, 1918. Voluntarily serving on the staff of the 89th Division, Lieutenant Colonel Somervell conducted the first engineering reconnaissance of the damaged bridges at Pouilly, advancing more than 500 meters beyond the American outposts, crossing three branches of the Meuse River, and successfully reconnoitering the enemy.

He was one of only nine American officers, including Douglas MacArthur, Barnwell R. Legge, Sereno E. Brett or William J. Donovan, to have been awarded both the DSC and the Army DSM in the First World War. A few days later Lee arranged for Somervell to be permanently assigned to the 89th Division as the G-4 Supply Officer.

## Between the wars

The 89th Division returned to the United States in May 1919 but Somervell remained behind as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, in charge of supply, of the Third Army, and the American Forces in Germany, as it was re-designated on 2 July 1919. There, he met Anna Purnell, the daughter of a Chicago businessman, who was there as a YMCA volunteer. The two were married in August 1919. They had three children together, all daughters. While in Germany, Somervell also met Walker Hines, a prominent New York corporate lawyer, whom he assisted with a survey of shipping and navigation on the Rhine River. Somervell reverted to the permanent rank of major on 1 July 1920.

Returning to the United States in July 1920, Somervell was posted to the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington, D.C.. His war record earned him a place at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, reserved for the Army's best and most promising officers, from August 1922 to June 1923. He once again ranked near the top of his class. After graduation he was posted to the 1st New York Engineer District but soon obtained leave to assist Hines with a special study of navigation on the Rhine and Danube Rivers on behalf of the League of Nations, essentially a continuation of the work that the two men had done in 1920. He then attended the Army War College from 1925 to 1926.

From 1926 to 1930 he was District Engineer, Washington, D.C. Engineer District. As such he became involved in a conflict between proponents of the development of hydroelectric power through damming the Great Falls of the Potomac River and the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission. Despite his advocacy, the falls remain undammed to this day. On 1 September 1930, Somervell was transferred to the Lower Mississippi Valley Division as Assistant Chief Engineer. The next year he became assistant to, and then the District Engineer of the Memphis District. In 1933, he teamed up with Hines again, for an economic survey of Turkey, which culminated in a seven-volume report. Named as District Engineer for Ocala, Florida, Somervell got behind a project to build the Cross Florida Barge Canal. Somervell was chosen to head the project but although President Franklin D. Roosevelt allocated emergency funds for the canal in 1935, opponents of the canal protested that it would cause seawater to seep into the groundwater, and work was stopped a year later. In the meantime, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935.

In 1935, Somervell was appointed as head of the Works Progress Administration in New York City. Over the next three and a half years he spent \$10,000,000 a month on Great Depression relief works. The biggest project was the construction of what became LaGuardia Airport. Somervell established a reputation as a man who could handle projects involving hundreds of thousands of people and hundreds of millions of dollars. Early in his administration he worked to repair relations with labor unions and left-wing groups that had suffered under his strongly anti-Communist predecessor Victor F. Ridder. He stated he had no objection to picketing of WPA headquarters. He also downplayed talk of a “Red menace” in the New York WPA, once declaring that "I wouldn't know a Red if I saw one, and wouldn't do anything about it if I did." Somervell's relations with WPA's arts program were particularly difficult. When Congress in 1940 required all WPA workers to sign a loyalty oath an increasingly anti-Communist Somervell ordered a deeper investigation of even those arts project workers who had signed the oath. He also began a program of censoring the content of WPA-financed murals and other art, giving instructions to “guard against anything in which the main idea is social content, rather than artistic value, and eliminate anything that may savor of propaganda, and to see that the project devotes itself to art and not politics.” In his most controversial decision, in July 1940 he ordered the burning of three out of four murals on the history of aviation at Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn because of the inclusion of supposed Communist symbols.

## World War II

### Construction Division

In December 1940, Somervell became head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps, and was promoted to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 29 January 1941. His immediate concern was the construction of a series of camps—which were scheduled for completion by April 1941—to house the large numbers of draftees who were then entering the Army. Reasoning that time was more important than money, Somervell pushed the project through to completion. By February, he was responsible for a workforce of 485,000 people employed on military construction projects. The job was completed on time but over \$100 million over budget. He was also responsible for constructing new facilities to hold stores and munitions, for which \$700 million was allocated by December 1940. By December 1941, 375 projects had been completed and 320 were still under way, with a total value of \$1.8 billion. He accepted promotion to brigadier general in the Army of the United States on February 14, 1941 with the date of rank of January 29, 1941.

The best known of these projects was the Pentagon, an enormous office complex to house the War Department's 40,000-person staff together in one building. On the afternoon of Thursday, 17 July 1941, Somervell summoned George Bergstrom and Major Hugh Casey. Bergstrom was a former president of the American Institute of Architects; Casey a Corps of Engineers officer seconded to the Construction Division. The two had previously worked together closely on the design of cantonments. Somervell gave them until 9 a.m. on Monday morning to design the building, which he envisaged as a modern, four-story structure with no elevators on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport. Over that "very busy weekend", Casey, Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four-story, five-sided structure with a floor area of 5,100,000 square feet (470,000 m2)—twice that of the Empire State Building. The estimated cost was \$35 million. President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building, over Somervell's objections, in order to prevent it being constructed in front of Arlington National Cemetery.

Somervell still pursued his own designs, making important changes, including the addition of a fifth story. The outbreak of war led to a new urgency, and by May 1942, some 13,000 workers were working around the clock on the building, which was completed in early 1943 at a cost of \$63 million, the overrun being caused by the emphasis on speed and the addition of the extra floor. For his work with the Construction Division, Somervell was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal.

Somervell hoped to become Chief of Engineers but was "not really in the running", being too junior in rank. Instead, the job went to Brigadier General Eugene Reybold, the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4 on the War Department General Staff. Somervell's post was abolished on the transfer of the Construction Division to the Corps of Engineers. Reybold, who considered Somervell "a firecracker but ruthless" who "didn't care who he hit", selected Brigadier General Thomas M. Robins to head the new Corps of Engineers Construction Division.

Somervell instead received Reybold's former assignment, with promotion to the temporary rank of major general on January 28, 1942 and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on March 9, 1942. The posting was unusual because Somervell had never previously served on War Department General Staff. As Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, Somervell pressed for the adoption of a comprehensive Army Supply Program that would set targets and priorities for all Army production. Such a program could be used as the basis for requests for appropriations, for expenditures, and for allocating scarce materials.

### Army Service Forces

Within weeks the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George C. Marshall, implemented sweeping changes to the War Department designed to reduce the number of people reporting to him so as to free his time for planning and conducting a global war. Three huge new commands were created by Executive Order Number 9082 of 28 February 1942, "Reorganizing the Army and the War Department": the Army Air Forces under Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold, the Army Ground Forces under Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair and the Services of Supply, under Somervell. As such, he was not only promoted to the rank of lieutenant general over the heads of many more senior officers, but some of them, including Reybold, now found themselves his subordinates. He was answerable to two men: Marshall, and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson. Somervell built up a good working relationship with both. Senator Harry S. Truman of the Truman Committee disapproved of Somervell's cost overruns, declaring: "I will say this for General Somervell, he will get the stuff, but it is going to be hell on the taxpayer. He has a WPA attitude on the expenditure of money."

The Services of Supply was renamed the Army Service Forces in March 1943, as the term "supply" was felt to be too narrow a description of the broad range of logistic activities carried out by the organization. As head of Army Service Forces, Somervell became responsible for the implementation of the Army Supply Program. Somervell was on the cover of the June 15, 1942 issue of Time and also of Life in an article written by Charles J. V. Murphy titled "Somervell of the S.O.S", in the 8 May 1943 issue. According to military historian John D. Millett, who served on Somervell's Army Service Forces staff, Somervell was "impatient, tense, and decisive". Some saw him as an "empire-builder". Millett noted the opinion of an observer that:

> In the jurisdictional wrangles that developed there was one argument ad hominem that was constantly used, to wit: that the A.S.F. and its dynamic Commanding General were constantly seeking as "Empire Builders" to enlarge their job by encroaching on that of others. By dint of repetition it got considerable acceptance inside the Department and out. There was something in the drive of the Commanding General of the A.S.F., his quickness on the mental trigger, his adroitness and his evident ambition to tackle tough jobs that in itself lent some support to this feeling of impending encroachment among those of a more deliberate pace. I should be surprised if the Chief of Staff ever had any such feeling though he must have been well aware of the feelings of others in his organization in this respect.

A 1943 attempt by Somervell to abolish the Technical Services failed amid the furor and panic created by false rumors that he was being considered for the post of chief of staff if Marshall was sent to Europe to command the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. Somervell sometimes pushed extravagant white elephant projects, such as the Canol Road, which he continued long after the strategic imperative behind it had faded.

When Somervell's retirement was announced in December 1945, Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson issued a press release that read:

> In organizing and directing the worldwide supply lines on which our troops depended for their offensive power, General Somervell performed a service without parallel in military history. He was completely dedicated to the task of winning the war in the shortest possible time and with the smallest cost in America lives, and the energy and ability he applied to his task contributed in great measure to the force of our attack and the speed of our victory.

## Later life and legacy

Somervell retired from the Army on 30 April 1946 and moved to Ocala, Florida. His wife Anna had died in January 1942, and he had married Mrs. Louise Hampton Wartmann, a former student at Belcourt, in March 1943. Somervell accepted an offer to become president of Koppers, a Pittsburgh-based company that mined coal and manufactured and sold coal-based products. Applying the same managerial techniques that he had employed in the Army, he thoroughly reorganized the company, and doubled revenues and tripled profits over the next five years.

Somervell suffered a series of health problems in the 1950s. He had an appendectomy in 1953 and a hernia operation in 1954. He suffered a severe heart attack in September 1954 and returned to his home Ocala to recuperate. In early 1955 he decided to resign as president and withdraw from day-to-day operations. He had a second, fatal heart attack at his home on 13 February 1955. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, not far from his "brain child", the Pentagon. His other great creation, the Army Service Forces, did not survive, being abolished in May 1946. The Washington Post lauded him as "one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced". The , a US Army Reserve logistics support vessel that can carry up to 2,000 short tons (1,800 t) of cargo, is named in his honor.

## Orders, decorations and medals

Below is the ribbon bar of General Brehon B. Somervell:

## Dates of rank

Source:

## General and cited references

United States Army general (1892–1955)

Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire

Military personnel from Little Rock, Arkansas

Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)

Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)

Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)

United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni

United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel

United States Army generals of World War II

United States Army personnel of World War I


Sairat

Sairat () is a 2016 Indian Marathi-language romantic tragedy film directed by Nagraj Manjule and produced by Manjule himself under his banner Aatpat Production along with Nittin Keni and Nikhil Sane under Essel Vision Productions and Zee Studios. Starring Rinku Rajguru and Akash Thosar in their debuts, it tells the story of two young college students from different castes who fall in love, sparking conflict between their families.

Manjule conceived the story in 2009, basing it on his experiences of caste discrimination, but scrapped it when he decided that it was boring. After making Fandry (2013), he revisited the story and completed its script the following year. The screenplay was written by Manjule, and his brother Bharat penned the dialogues. The film was shot in Manjule's village, Jeur in Karmala Taluka of Solapur district in Maharashtra. Sudhakar Reddy Yakkanti was the director of photography, and Kutub Inamdar edited the film.

Sairat premiered at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival, where it received a standing ovation. It was released on 29 April 2016 in Maharashtra and several other locations in India, receiving positive reviews from critics. The film was a box-office success, and became the highest-grossing Marathi film of all time. Rajguru received the National Film Award – Special Mention at the 63rd National Film Awards. Sairat received 11 awards at the 2017 Filmfare Marathi Awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Manjule), Best Actress (Rajguru) and Best Music Album. Rajguru and Thosar won in the Best Debut female and male categories. The film was remade in several languages: Manasu Mallige (2017) in Kannada, Channa Mereya (2017) in Punjabi, Laila O Laila (2017) in Odia, Noor Jahaan (2018) in Bengali and Dhadak (2018) in Hindi.

## Plot

Prashant "Parshya" Kale is a low-caste young boy whose father is a fisherman. He does well in school, and is captain of the local cricket team. Archana "Archi" Patil is the daughter of a wealthy, upper-caste landlord and politician. Headstrong and also academically proficient, she enjoys driving a tractor and motorcycle. As they study in college, they fall in love and find ways to spend time with each other.

At a birthday celebration for Archi's younger brother, Prince, they meet in the backyard and are discovered by Archi's family. Her father, Tatya, beats Parshya and his friends. Realising that there is no way out, Archi and Parshya try to elope; they are discovered by the police, and are taken into custody. Tatya forces the police to register a false complaint that Archi was gang-raped by Parshya and his friends. Archi destroys the complaint, insisting that Parshya and his friends be released. Soon afterwards, Tatya's goons beat Parshya and his friends. Archi grabs a pistol from them, threatening to shoot unless Parshya and his friends are released. She and Parshya jump on a moving train and escape the confines of their small town to Hyderabad.

In the city, Archi and Parshya are broke and desperate. Surviving with what little they have, they are turned away from a lodge. The lovers sleep at the railway station, contemplating their next move. One night, several men awaken them and insist that they come to the police station. On the way, the men beat Parshya and one tries to rape Archi. A woman from a nearby slum, Suman Akka who lives with her young son, intervenes and saves Archi and Parshya from certain tragedy.

Akka offers Parshya and Archi a spare shack to live in, and helps Archi find employment in a bottling factory; Parshya begins working as a cook at Akka's dosa stall. Archi slowly learns Telugu with the help of her coworker, Pooja. She begins to feel homesick, and is uncomfortable living in the slums. Archi and Parshya earn a meager living, trying to make the most of their situation with love, but begin to argue. After a heated argument Archi decides to return home and Parshya almost hangs himself before Archi changes her mind and returns to him. They marry at the registrar's office, and Archi becomes pregnant.

Several years later, Parshya and Archi are better off financially and living in a better place. Archi phones her mother and hands the phone to her young son, Aakash. After the phone call, Prince and his relatives arrive with gifts from her mother in an apparent reconciliation. Aakash visits a neighbour; Archi and Parshya invite Prince and the other visitors into their flat, and serve them tea. Aakash returns with the neighbour who leaves him at his doorstep and sees his parents on the floor, bloody and hacked to death.

## Cast

- Rinku Rajguru as Archana "Archi" Patil
- Akash Thosar as Prashant "Parshya" Kale
- Tanaji Galgunde as Pradeep Bansode (Langdya/Balya)
- Arbaz Shaikh as Salim Shaikh (Salya)
- Suresh Vishwakarma as Tatya, Archi's father
- Geeta Chavan as Archi's mother
- Jyoti Subhash as Saguna Aatya
- Chhaya Kadam as Suman Akka
- Anuja Muley as Annie
- Rubina Inamdar as Sapna
- Dhananjay Nanavare as Mangesh (Mangya)
- Suraj Pawar as Prince, Archi's younger brother
- Sambhaji Tangde as Parshya's father
- Vaibhavi Pardeshi as Parshya's mother
- Nagraj Manjule as a cricket commentator
- Bhushan Manjule as Shahi

## Production

### Development

Writer-director Nagraj Manjule wrote Sairat as a "classic love story" and a "story of impossible love", based on his own experiences of caste discrimination. He chose his own village, Jeur in Karmala Taluka of Solapur district, Maharashtra as the setting. Over two years, Manjule worked on 50 drafts of the screenplay before "intuition took over as the muse". Manjule said that the film is about "the challenges of an inter-caste romance, but in a mainstream format." He had begun working on the story of Sairat in 2009, but left it after he found it "boring". After writing the script, he read it to his family and friends and saw how it "moved people". Manjule finished the script in December 2014. The dialogue was written by his brother, Bharat.

Manjule then directed Fandry (2013), which was also based on caste discrimination. While editing it, he came across the story of Sairat after he realised that many people did not watch Fandry because of its lack of songs, and decided to make a more commercial film. He said that he wrote the script after much deliberation: "I will tell my story, but I will tell it your way and then you will watch it." Manjule decided to tell the story from a woman's perspective, since he was "fed up of the male-dominated culture and the films" with a "muscular hero saving the damsel in distress". He added "colour" to the character, making her strong because he also wanted to address gender bias in society. Manjule made Archi do what men do, and made Parshya "sensible and capable", "imbibing good qualities of women in men." Several scenes, such as Parshya jumping into a well, were drawn from Manjule's life. He called the film's title self-explanatory that might imply "freedom of thought, liberation and progressive ideas" for some and "sheer wildness and recklessness" for others. According to Manjule, the film's "takeaway" is that "lovers shouldn't be subjected to violence."

### Casting

Manjule chose students with no acting background for the lead roles. 15 year old Rinku Rajguru went with her mother to see Manjule shoot a film in Akluj, her village in Solapur district. Her mother knew him, since he is from Solapur. Rajguru was introduced to Manjule, and was asked to audition. She auditioned with dialogue and dancing, and was selected as the female lead. Manjule gave her a year to work on her personality. She played the role of Archana Patil, an upper-caste girl who is the daughter of a wealthy village politician. Twenty-year-old graduate student Akash Thosar was cast as Prashant Kale after he met Bharat Manjule at a railway station and showed him some of his photos. It was shown to Nagraj; Thosar was summoned for auditions and eventually selected for the role of a lower-caste fisherman's son. Tanaji Galgunde and Arbaz Shaikh played supporting roles in the film, and Manjule made a cameo appearance as a cricket commentator.

### Filming

Filming began in February 2014, and ended in May 2015; several portions were shot in Hyderabad. It took nearly 70 days for the entire shoot, usually long for a Marathi film. Manjule cited the reasons being a "lot of locations, a huge number of characters and many complicated crowd scenes" in the film. Thosar had difficulty crying on cue during the audition, and was tense filming the crying scene. Rajguru and Thosar lived with Manjule at his home in Pune for two to three months before filming, where they would discuss the script and rehearse scenes daily. Manjule said that they did not use glycerine, and actually cried while filming the emotional scenes; he made them understand the "layers in their characters".

Manjule occasionally asked the actors what they would say they in a similar situation, prompting improvisation. The director of photography was Sudhakar Reddy Yakkanti and Kutub Inamdar served as the editor. Sairat was produced by Nagraj Manjule's AatPat Productions and Zee Studios. Rajguru, in grade 10, left school for the duration of filming. About the film's ending, Manjule said that he used silence to demonstrate that "two people who are in love and happy can die suddenly." He shot the ending without dialogue or background score, because he wanted "the violence in the scene to hit the audience." Thosar was a bodybuilder, and had to lose weight for the role. Rajguru lost 13 kilograms (29 lb), and worked on her voice for the role. Thosar said that he was like the character of Prashant. Rajguru admired Archana, and said that she was "inspired to be as dashing as Archie."

## Soundtrack

Sairat's songs and background score were composed by the Ajay–Atul duo, who had worked with Manjule on Fandry in 2013. The soundtrack includes Western classical music recorded at Sony Scoring Stage in Hollywood, California, a first for an Indian film. The four-song album featured vocals by Ajay Gogavale, Shreya Ghoshal and Chinmayi, with lyrics by Ajay–Atul and Manjule. It was released on 1 April 2016 on the Zee Music Company label. The 66-person orchestra – including a 45-piece string section, six-piece woodwind section, 13-piece brass section, six-piece horn section and a harp – was conducted by Mark Graham.

Manjule described the lyrics as "rustic", with a "rural lingo". He said that the language and songs in the film differ from other films where characters inexplicably become poets. Mihir Bhanage of The Times of India called the film's music a "rarity" and "addictive": "It makes you fall in love with the songs from the word go." Sankhyana Ghosh of The Hindu also gave the album a positive review: "With joyous melodies and stirring orchestral touches, Sairat is an example of old-fashioned film music done right." Lalitha Suhasini of The Indian Express wrote that the score was "audacious" and "makes you laugh, cry and want to fall in love."

The entirety of "Yad Lagla" and "Zingaat" was sampled by the duo in "Pehli Baar" and "Zingaat", which were songs from the film's Hindi remake Dhadak.

## Release

Sairat premiered at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival as a part of the Generation 14plus section, where it received a standing ovation. The jury was composed of teenagers. The film was released domestically on 29 April 2016 in about 200 screens. It was released with English subtitles in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Kolkata, Bhilai, Raipur, Bhiwadi, Karnataka, and Telangana. The film screened at more than 450 theatres, over 50 of which were outside Maharashtra. Due to Sairat's popularity, additional shows at midnight and 3:00 am were introduced at a theatre in Rahimatpur in Satara district. The film was also screened at the India Habitat Centre Film Festival, the Brahmaputra Valley Film Festival, the International Film Festival of India and the Indian Film Festival in The Hague post its theatrical release. It was the first Marathi film released in the United Arab Emirates and South Korea.

In April, Manjule filed a complaint with the Mumbai Police after the film was leaked online two days before its theatrical release. The film had a watermark indicating that it was a censor copy, intended for censorship-board officials to review before release. In May 2016, a mobile-shop owner in Pune was arrested for piracy. Cybercrime police arrested a Byculla (Mumbai)-based cable operator for broadcasting the pirated version of Sairat on his network. The film was released on DVD on 1 September 2016, and is also available on Netflix.

## Reception

### Critical response

Sairat received critical acclaim, with particular praise for Rajguru's performance. Meenakshi Shedde of Forbes India called the film "one of the great triumphs of Indian cinema this year", and a rare example of an "Indian director addressing caste issues from first-hand, lived experience, as distinct from that of a privileged, if empathetic, director." Pratik Ghosh of Daily News and Analysis called it a "gem" which "enriched Marathi cinema". He praised Rajguru: "Sairat's remarkable find is the dusky Rinku Rajguru who is sterling as the fearless Archi." Mihir Bhanage gave a positive review: "The film can be divided into two parts; the first one, a dream and the second one, reality and both strike a chord. But the masterstroke of Manjule the story-teller and director, is the climax."

Harish Wankhede in his review in Tehelka called the film 'a radical entry in the populist-fantasy ‘love story’ genre. However he argues that from the very beginning of the film, the female character takes a dynamic lead and gives the story a feminist-heroic tilt. Archi's courage and power is more male-like, vocal and aggressive than Parshya and his two friends. Her heroic posturing and confident outlook make her the lead hero of the film while pushing others to the periphery as dependent characters. The director allows Archie's character to break the stereotypes of a village girl but on the other hand asserts the power of her feudal-upper caste lineage. However, similar considerations are partially applied to her counterpart Dalit characters.

Ganesh Matkari of Pune Mirror described the film as "significant", and not easy to "make or to grasp". Matkari expressed reservations about its length. Divya Unny from OPEN wrote: "The three-hour-long film draws the audience in with plenty of songs and slow-mos, emotion and drama, and then serves us reality right when we aren’t expecting it." Suprateek Chatterjee of HuffPost described it as "soaring" and "gut-wrenching", defying convention "even while sticking to established tropes". J. Hurtado of ScreenAnarchy called the film a "singular, astonishing, breathtaking achievement": "You owe it to yourself to experience the beauty, exhaltation, and pain that Sairat has to offer". Sowmya Rajendran of The News Minute cited it as a "brave film that gets to the root of the matter": "It could have been just another film made on the subject of forbidden teenage love but the maturity with which Nagraj Manjule has crafted his characters and narrative is breath-taking." Uday Bhatia of Mint compared the film to Michael Haneke's Funny Games; "both derive their sting from the way they play with audience expectations—raising hopes, dashing them, then raising them again."

Shweta Parande of India.com called Rajguru's performance "impressive". Rochona Majumdar of The Indian Express wrote a positive review: "To describe it as a story of inter-caste love that ends brutally would be to do grave injustice to Manjule’s portrayal of a slice of contemporary India." Suhas Bhasme of The Wire noted that Sairat positions the issues of "caste discrimination and caste-based violence centre stage, which have often been denied or overlooked by mainstream Marathi movies." Baradwaj Rangan called the film a master class in "how to make the audience laugh, cry, swoon, eat out of your hand": "Sairat talks not just about the realities of caste and class, but of gender too." According to Ranjib Mazumdar of The Quint, the film refreshingly changes gender roles with its strong female character: "[Archie] is like a body of free water, unaware of limits and customs, flowing with a convinced passion we rarely see in our heroines." S. Shivakumar of The Hindu gave the film a positive review, praising Rajguru's performance and Manjule's direction: "Nagraj excels in making the dramatic scenes look realistic, effortlessly manipulating your emotions."

### Box office

Sairat earned ₹3.60 crore (US\$450,000) on its opening day at the box office. It earned ₹3.95 crore (US\$490,000) on its second day and ₹4.55 crore (US\$570,000) on its third day, with a total of ₹12.10 crore (US\$1.5 million) on its opening weekend. The film earned ₹25.50 crore (US\$3.2 million) in its first week. Its screen count was increased from 400 to 450 in the second week, earning an additional ₹15.61 crore (US\$2.0 million). It earned a total of in its second weekend. The film earned more than ₹65 crore (US\$8.1 million) in three weeks, and entered its fourth week at more than 525 screens. In addition to Maharashtra, it was released with subtitles in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Delhi and Goa. Sairat also did well on the overseas market. It earned a total of ₹14.58 lakh (US\$18,000) at the US box office in four weeks. The film earned ₹82.95 crore (US\$10 million) in Maharashtra. Made on a budget of ₹4 crore (US\$500,000), Sairat earned a total of ₹110 crore (US\$14 million) at the end of its theatrical run and is the highest-grossing Marathi film to date.

### Ratings

## Awards

Rinku Rajguru received the Special Mention at the 63rd National Film Awards for her "effective portrayal of a lively girl who defies societal norms but ultimately has to face the wrath of her family". Ajay–Atul received six awards at the Mirchi Music Awards Marathi 2017: Album of the Year, Song of the Year, Male Vocalist of the Year, Programmer and Arranger of the Year (for "Yad Lagala"), Composer of the Year and Song Recording and Mixing of the Year (for "Sairat Zala Ji"). The film received 11 awards at the 2017 Filmfare Marathi Awards: Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor (Female), Best Music Album, Best Lyrics, Best Playback Singer (Female), Best Playback Singer (Male), Best Debut Actress, Best Debut Male, Best Dialogue and Best Background Score.

## Remakes

After Sairat's success, the film was remade in several Indian languages. Its first remake was the Punjabi film Channa Mereya (2017), directed by Pankaj Batra. It received mixed reviews from critics. Rinku Rajguru reprised her role in the Kannada version, entitled Manasu Mallige (2017). The Odia version, Laila O Laila (2017) was directed by Susant Mani. The film was also remade in Bengali (an Bangladesh-India joint venture) as Noor Jahaan (2018), directed by Abhimanyu Mukherjee. The Hindi remake, Dhadak (directed by Shashank Khaitan and produced by Karan Johar), was released on 20 July 2018. As of July 2016, Rockline Venkatesh held the remake rights for Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam-language films.

## Impact

According to Smitha Verma of The Financial Express, Sairat was a turning point for the Marathi film industry which restored faith in distributors of regional cinema. Its lead actors, Rinku Rajguru and Akash Thosar, became overnight celebrities; in January 2017, the Election Commission of India made them brand ambassadors for National Voters' Day to encourage citizens to vote. Karmala, where the film was shot, was visited by nearly 20,000 tourists within three weeks of its release. Three family reconciliations were reported in Mumbai after the film's release, including that of Sachin Lokhande (who was married to a Muslim girl and waited 12 years for both families to agree). His parents approved his marriage after watching Sairat. Several fans of the film formed the Sairat Marriage Group, an organisation with nearly 100 volunteers across Maharashtra, to help runaway couples.

2016 film directed by Nagraj Manjule


Fat Man

"Fat Man" (also known as Mark III) was the codename for the type of nuclear bomb the United States detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history. It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, and was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bockscar piloted by Major Charles Sweeney.

The name Fat Man refers to the early design of the bomb because it had a wide, round shape. Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core. The first of that type to be detonated was the Gadget in the Trinity nuclear test less than a month earlier on 16 July at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in New Mexico. Two more were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, and some 120 were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Fat Man was retired in 1950.

## Early decisions

Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June 1942, prior to the Army taking over wartime atomic research, and in Berkeley, California, in July, at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues. They chose a gun-type design in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target". Richard C. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon, but the proposal attracted little interest.

The feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942. Wallace Akers, the director of the British "Tube Alloys" project, told James Bryant Conant on 14 November that James Chadwick had "concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities". Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago, respectively, knew about the problem, but they could offer no ready solution. Conant informed Manhattan Project director Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine the issue. The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity.

Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943 and gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion as a hedge against the threat of pre-detonation. Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely. Nonetheless, it was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it.

## Naming

The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed "Thin Man" and "Fat Man", respectively. These code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimer's who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man was a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel The Thin Man and series of movies. The Fat Man was round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet's character in Hammett's The Maltese Falcon. Little Boy came last as a variation of Thin Man. The Little Boy uranium gun-type design came later and was named only to contrast with the Thin Man. Los Alamos's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a Pullman car for use by President Franklin Roosevelt (Thin Man) and United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill (Fat Man) on a secret tour of the United States. Air Forces personnel used the code names over the phone to make it sound as though they were modifying a plane for Roosevelt and Churchill.

## Development

Neddermeyer discarded Serber and Tolman's initial concept of implosion as assembling a series of pieces in favor of one in which a hollow sphere was imploded by an explosive shell. He was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner, Charles Critchfield, and John Streib. L. T. E. Thompson was brought in as a consultant, and discussed the problem with Neddermeyer in June 1943. Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. Oppenheimer arranged for Neddermeyer and Edwin McMillan to visit the National Defense Research Committee's Explosives Research Laboratory near the laboratories of the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton, Pennsylvania (a Pittsburgh suburb), where they spoke to George Kistiakowsky and his team. But Neddermeyer's efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks. Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive.

Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September 1943 to take a fresh look at implosion. After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with Edward Teller, von Neumann suggested the use of high explosives in shaped charges to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required, because of the resulting higher density. The idea that, under such pressures, the plutonium metal itself would be compressed came from Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his pre-war theoretical studies of the Earth's core with George Gamow. The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe, but they decided that an expert on explosives would be required. Kistiakowsky's name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943.

The implosion project remained a backup until April 1944, when experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the B Reactor at the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium-240. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than plutonium-239. The cyclotron-produced isotopes, on which the original measurements had been made, held much lower traces of plutonium-240. Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable. This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass. The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber. The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was therefore implosion.

The impracticability of a gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on 17 July 1944. All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was re-directed towards the Little Boy, enriched-uranium gun design, and the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized, with almost all of the research focused on the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb. The idea of using shaped charges as three-dimensional explosive lenses came from James L. Tuck, and was developed by von Neumann. A key component needed for the success of the bomb was for there to be absolute precision in all of the plates moving inward at the same time. To overcome the difficulty of synchronizing multiple detonations, Luis Alvarez and Lawrence Johnston invented exploding-bridgewire detonators to replace the less precise primacord detonation system. Robert Christy is credited with doing the calculations that showed how a solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state, greatly simplifying the task, since earlier efforts had attempted the more-difficult compression of a hollow spherical shell. After Christy's report, the solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the "Christy Gadget".

The task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300–450 °C (570–840 °F) range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium–gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.

The size of the bomb was constrained by the available aircraft, which were investigated for suitability by Norman Foster Ramsey. The only Allied aircraft considered capable of carrying the Fat Man without major modification were the British Avro Lancaster and the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress. At the time, the B-29 represented the epitome of bomber technology with significant advantages in Maximum takeoff weight, range, speed, flight ceiling, and survivability. Without the availability of the B-29, dropping the bomb would likely have been impossible. However, this still constrained the bomb to a maximum length of 11 feet (3.4 m), width of 5 feet (1.5 m) and weight of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Removing the bomb rails allowed a maximum width of 5.5 feet (1.7 m).

Drop tests began in March 1944, and resulted in modifications to the Silverplate aircraft due to the weight of the bomb. High-speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure, resulting in an erratic descent. Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed a "California Parachute" was approved, a cubical open-rear tail box outer surface with eight radial fins inside of it, four angled at 45 degrees and four perpendicular to the line of fall holding the outer square-fin box to the bomb's rear end. In drop tests in early weeks, the Fat Man missed its target by an average of 1,857 feet (566 m), but this was halved by June as the bombardiers became more proficient with it.

The early Y-1222 model Fat Man was assembled with some 1,500 bolts. This was superseded by the Y-1291 design in December 1944. This redesign work was substantial, and only the Y-1222 tail design was retained. Later versions included the Y-1560, which had 72 detonators; the Y-1561, which had 32; and the Y-1562, which had 132. There were also the Y-1563 and Y-1564, which were practice bombs with no detonators at all. The final wartime Y-1561 design was assembled with just 90 bolts. On 16 July 1945, a Y-1561 model Fat Man, known as the Gadget, was detonated in a test explosion at a remote site in New Mexico, known as the "Trinity" test. It gave a yield of about 25 kilotonnes (100 TJ). Some minor changes were made to the design as a result of the Trinity test. Philip Morrison recalled that "There were some changes of importance... The fundamental thing was, of course, very much the same."

## Interior

The bomb was 128.375 inches (3.2607 m) long and 60.25 inches (153.0 cm) in diameter. It weighed 10,265 pounds (4,656 kg).

## Assembly

The plutonium pit was 3.62 inches (92 mm) in diameter and contained an "Urchin" modulated neutron initiator that was 0.8 inches (20 mm) in diameter. The depleted uranium tamper was an 8.75-inch-diameter (222 mm) sphere, surrounded by a 0.125-inch-thick (3.2 mm) shell of boron-impregnated plastic. The plastic shell had a 5-inch-diameter (130 mm) cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple, in order to allow insertion of the pit as late as possible. The missing tamper cylinder containing the pit could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding 18.5-inch-diameter (470 mm) aluminum pusher. The pit was warm to the touch, emitting 2.4 W/kg-Pu, about 15 W for the 6.19-kilogram (13.6 lb) core.

The explosion symmetrically compressed the plutonium to twice its normal density before the "Urchin" added free neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction.

The result was the fission of about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of the 6.19 kilograms (13.6 lb) of plutonium in the pit, i.e. of about 16% of the fissile material present. The detonation released the energy equivalent to the detonation of 21 kilotons of TNT or 88 terajoules. About 30% of the yield came from fission of the uranium tamper.

## Bombing of Nagasaki

### Bomb assembly

The first plutonium core was transported with its polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. It left Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July and arrived at North Field on Tinian on 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies (designated F31, F32, and F33) were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s: Luke the Spook and Laggin' Dragon from the 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron, and another from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit. The cores were transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August, when F31 was partly disassembled in order to check all its components. F33 was expended near Tinian during a final rehearsal on 8 August. F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal.

On 7 August, the day after the bombing of Hiroshima, Rear Admiral William R. Purnell, Commodore William S. Parsons, Tibbets, General Carl Spaatz and Major General Curtis LeMay met on Guam to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with their orders and drop another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm and asked if the bomb could be made ready by 9 August. Parsons agreed to try to do so.

Fat Man F31 was assembled on Tinian by Project Alberta personnel, and the physics package was fully assembled and wired. It was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell and wheeled out, where it was signed by nearly 60 people, including Purnell, Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell, and Parsons. It was then wheeled to the bomb bay of the B-29 Superfortress named Bockscar after the plane's command pilot Captain Frederick C. Bock, who flew The Great Artiste with his crew on the mission. Bockscar was flown by Major Charles W. Sweeney and his crew, with Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Project Alberta as the weaponeer in charge of the bomb.

### Bombing of Nagasaki

Bockscar lifted off at 03:47 on the morning of 9 August 1945, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The weapon was already armed, but with the green electrical safety plugs still engaged. Ashworth changed them to red after ten minutes so that Sweeney could climb to 17,000 feet (5,200 m) in order to get above storm clouds. During the pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 L) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Colonel Paul Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.

The target for the bomb was the city of Kokura, but it was found to be obscured by clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. This covered 70% of the area over Kokura, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and repeatedly exposing the aircraft to the heavy defenses of Yahata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese anti-aircraft fire was getting close; Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser was monitoring Japanese communications, and he reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.

Sweeney then proceeded to the alternative target of Nagasaki. It was obscured by clouds, as well, and Ashworth ordered Sweeney to make a radar approach. At the last minute, however, bombardier Captain Kermit K. Beahan found a hole in the clouds. The Fat Man was dropped and exploded at 11:02 local time, following a 43-second free-fall, at an altitude of about 1,650 feet (500 m). There was poor visibility due to cloud cover and the bomb missed its intended detonation point by almost two miles, so the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in Hiroshima.

An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers.

Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was also severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steelworks would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works, which manufactured the Type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor, was destroyed in the blast.

## Post-war development

After the war, two Y-1561 Fat Man bombs were used in the Operation "Crossroads" nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. The first was known as Gilda after Rita Hayworth's character in the 1946 movie Gilda, and it was dropped by the B-29 Dave's Dream; it missed its aim point by 710 yards (650 m). The second bomb was nicknamed Helen of Bikini and was placed without its tail fin assembly in a steel caisson made from a submarine's conning tower; it was detonated 90 feet (27 m) beneath the landing craft USS LSM-60. The two weapons yielded about 23 kilotonnes (96 TJ) each.

The Los Alamos Laboratory and the Army Air Forces had already commenced work on improving the design. The North American B-45 Tornado, Convair XB-46, Martin XB-48, and Boeing B-47 Stratojet bombers had bomb bays sized to carry the Grand Slam, which was much longer but not as wide as the Fat Man. The only American bombers that could carry the Fat Man were the B-29 and the Convair B-36. In November 1945, the Army Air Forces asked Los Alamos for 200 Fat Man bombs, but there were only two sets of plutonium cores and high-explosive assemblies at the time. The Army Air Forces wanted improvements to the design to make it easier to manufacture, assemble, handle, transport, and stockpile. The wartime Project W-47 was continued, and drop tests resumed in January 1946.

The Mark III Mod 0 Fat Man was ordered into production in mid-1946. High explosives were manufactured by the Salt Wells Pilot Plant, which had been established by the Manhattan Project as part of Project Camel, and a new plant was established at the Iowa Army Ammunition Plant. Mechanical components were made or procured by the Rock Island Arsenal; electrical and mechanical components for about 50 bombs were stockpiled at Kirtland Army Air Field by August 1946, but only nine plutonium cores were available. Production of the Mod 0 ended in December 1948, by which time there were still only 53 cores available. It was replaced by improved versions known as Mods 1 and 2 which contained a number of minor changes, the most important of which was that they did not charge the X-Unit firing system's capacitors until released from the aircraft. The Mod 0s were withdrawn from service between March and July 1949, and by October they had all been rebuilt as Mods 1 and 2. Some 120 Mark III Fat Man units were added to the stockpile between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Mark III Fat Man was retired in 1950.

A nuclear strike would have been a formidable undertaking in the post-war 1940s due to the limitations of the Mark III Fat Man. The lead-acid batteries which powered the fuzing system remained charged for only 36 hours, after which they needed to be recharged. To do this meant disassembling the bomb, and recharging took 72 hours. The batteries had to be removed in any case after nine days or they corroded. The plutonium core could not be left in for much longer, because its heat damaged the high explosives. Replacing the core also required the bomb to be completely disassembled and reassembled. This required about 40 to 50 men and took between 56 and 72 hours, depending on the skill of the bomb assembly team, and the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project had only three teams in June 1948. The only aircraft capable of carrying the bomb were Silverplate B-29s, and the only group equipped with them was the 509th Bombardment Group at Walker Air Force Base in Roswell, New Mexico. They would first have to fly to Sandia Base to collect the bombs, and then to an overseas base from which a strike could be mounted. In March 1948, during the Berlin Blockade, all the assembly teams were in Eniwetok for the Operation Sandstone test, and the military teams were not yet qualified to assemble atomic weapons.

In June 1948, General Omar Bradley, Major General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe visited Sandia and Los Alamos to show them the "special requirements" of atomic weapons. Gruenther asked Brigadier General Kenneth Nichols: "When are you going to show us the real thing? Surely this laboratory monstrosity is not the only type of atomic bomb we have in stockpile?" Nichols told him that better weapons would soon become available. After the "astonishingly good" results of Operation Sandstone were available, stockpiling of improved weapons began.

The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon was based closely on Fat Man's design thanks to spies Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass, who provided them with secret information concerning the Manhattan Project and Fat Man. It was detonated on 29 August 1949 as part of Operation "First Lightning".

U.S. atomic bomb type used at Nagasaki, 1945

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Cold War aerial bombs of the United States

Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945

World War II aerial bombs of the United States

World War II weapons of the United States


4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé

4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé was the second concert residency by American recording artist Beyoncé. Held during four non-consecutive nights in August 2011 at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City, the concerts were part of Beyoncé's campaign in support of her fourth studio album 4 (2011). All the songs on the standard version of the album, excluding "Start Over", were performed by her to a standing room-only audience of 3,200. Beyoncé also sang some of her previous hits from her three prior studio albums as well as songs she recorded with former girl group Destiny's Child in the 1990s and early 2000s. Wearing a linky gold sparkling mini-dress, she was backed by four female dancers and a 20-piece female band including a horn and orchestra section.

Tickets to the four concerts sold out in one minute. The first show, on August 14, 2011, received critical acclaim; Beyoncé's ability to perform under the circumstances of a smaller stage and a larger band was commended by contemporary music critics. A DVD of the show titled Live at Roseland: Elements of 4, which features performances from the concert, and never before seen personal footage from Beyoncé, including her times with Destiny's Child, traveling and partying with family, Beyoncé's rehearsal of "1+1" backstage at American Idol, other live performances and a sneak peek at her wedding dress, was released on November 21, 2011.

## Background

On August 5, 2011, Beyoncé's official website announced that she would be performing at New York City's Roseland Ballroom for four nights in the third week of August. The set on each night would be the entire collection of her fourth studio album, 4. Tickets for all four shows were available on August 10 on Ticketmaster. The first date went on sale to the general public at 1 p.m. EST, followed by the second show at 2 p.m. EST, third at 3 p.m. EST, and the final concert at 4 p.m. EST. Citi card-members were able to order tickets early with a pre-sale beginning at noon EST on August 10, 2011 through the Citi Private Pass Program. When tickets went on sale to the general public on August 10, 2011 for the first show of 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé on August 14, 2011, the date sold out in 22 seconds. Within the minute following the first sold out date, Columbia Records reported via Twitter that all four shows had sold out, stating "It's official @Beyonce's 4th & final show at Roseland Ballroom is SOLD OUT! Thats a total of 4 sold out shows next week!".

In a radio interview with Philadelphia's Power 99FM, Beyoncé's husband Jay-Z spoke in depth about the upcoming intimate shows and compared her to Michael Jackson stating, "I know that's blasphemy to compare the two because Mike was such an innovator, but I think she's like the second coming. You know, the hard work and dedication that she puts into her shows. It just makes you want to work harder at your own craft. She's like a machine."

## Development

On August 19, 2011, the first part of a concert's behind the scenes video was released. In the behind the scenes special, lead guitarist Bibi stated "She's listening to her inner voice right now and doing what she wants to do. I think she took risks. I think she's being more authentic and doing what she wants to do instead of doing what people expect, which is good." Kim, the show's musical director described the idea of the intimate concert, "This project is the most mature project for Beyoncé, because to be able to be in an intimate setting like this like the Roseland, which is a historic place, it's an amazing thing. I think the challenge of it is to be able to present your whole album as its own concept, as its own piece and it's a great way to educate the people about what this album means to her; It's for her, it's for the fans, it's for anybody."

The second part to the show's behind the scenes look was released on August 30, 2011. In the second part of the behind the scenes special, Beyoncé is shown calling the shots and rehearsing with her band, leading up to the sold-out shows and clips of fans waiting in line show appreciation and dedication for Beyoncé. The third part to the behind the scenes look was revealed on September 10, 2011. The behind the scenes third part showed the orchestra and back up dancers preparing for the performance as the instrumental to "I Was Here" plays in the background. Before Beyoncé takes to the stage, a clip of her praying with everyone involved in the concert is shown. On her way to the stage, Beyoncé describes in depth what she hopes to achieve during these 4 Intimate Nights stating, "I just want to give them everything I have. I'm so excited about performing the album, and it's just such a beautiful vibe inside people are just ready to dance and enjoy the music. —It's all good." The third part to the behind the scenes look ends with Beyoncé taking to the stage addressing the crowd with "Hello Roseland!" The fourth, and final, behind the scenes look into the intimate show was released exclusively through Citibank's Facebook page on September 14, 2011. The final part of the behind the scenes look was the commercial for the concerts' DVD release.

## About the show

### Fashion and stage

During the show, Beyoncé performed in a gold lamé mini-dress courtesy of her mother, Tina, and shoes by Stuart Weitzman. She wore the slinky gold sparkling mini-dress throughout the entire show. Beyoncé was assisted on stage by four female dancers clad in shimmering black leotards. Georgette Cline of AOL's The Boombox stated that the metallic dress showed off her curves during the concert.

While on stage, Beyoncé was backed by a 20-piece all-female band and orchestra. The band consisted of a drummer, keyboarder, and guitarist and for the first time in Beyoncé's touring history, a horn section and an orchestra. The band additionally included, among others, two saxophonists, a guitar player, a seven-piece string section, a pianist and a conductor. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times noted that the all-female band plays an important spectacle to Beyoncé's performance, as she is both a part and in charge of the "army". Usually known for performing in arenas that hold 20,000 or more people, Beyoncé performed in standing-room-only Roseland, which holds a maximum capacity of 3,200 people.

During a behind the scenes look into the show, lighting designer Nick stated that the big moments of the album will be accompanied by big lighting from behind Beyoncé for the "epic big scenes", as opposed to performances such as "1+1", where Beyoncé is bathed in a single spotlight above a piano. In the second part of a behind the scenes look of 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé, it is revealed that Beyoncé was in charge of the orchestra's design and stage set-up, stating that a three level stage would be needed, allowing the back-up singers to be at the top and the orchestra to be on the same level as Beyoncé herself, as to allow viewers to see them.

### Concert synopsis

The show begins with Beyoncé taking the stage stating "This is going to be a little different, y'all. It'll be more intimate" before she begins revealing multiple stories from her musical history including before—auditions with Destiny's Child starting at age nine, her father's early and frequent involvement managing his daughter's career and getting dropped by Elektra. After delving into her musical history, Beyoncé states "I just want to have a good time with y'all" before she begins the concert with her rendition of Michael Jackson's "I Wanna Be Where You Are". Following her rendition of "I Wanna Be Where You Are", Beyoncé begins a medley of past Destiny's Child songs, stopping each track to discuss her life and mindset during each stage of her career. During her performance of "Independent Women", she reveals how her father, Mathew Knowles, submitted the track to the Charlie's Angels (2000) soundtrack without permission, reveals that she wants to write a song "that celebrates a woman's curves" inspired by Stevie Nicks' guitar riff in "Edge of Seventeen" (1982) for "Bootylicious" and states "With a lot of success comes a lot of negativity...they were being nasty but it inspired me" before performing "Survivor".

After "'03 Bonnie & Clyde", the final song in the medley, Beyoncé began to tell the story of how her first album came to be, stating "[The label] told me I didn't have one hit song on my album. I guess they were kinda right. I had five!". Beyoncé then continued with a slowed-down, jazzier version of "Crazy in Love" allowing the orchestra to augment rather than transform the tracks. During the Ne-Yo penned "Irreplaceable", Beyoncé has the crowd assist her in her performance. After stating "On April 4, 2008, somebody put a ring on it," Beyoncé has the audience, which contained both men and women fliping their hands to "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)".

Beyoncé than begins to perform virtually all of 4, beginning with "1+1", where she is found kneeling atop a piano wrapped up in smoke and red hued lights, reminiscent to her performance on the American Idol finale. Beyoncé then continues down the original track listing of 4, following "1+1" with a rendition of "I Care" where she whipped her hair to the "brooding" brass and "ominous" beat of the song, while "bringing the song to life with an immaculate vocals". "I Miss You" begins with Beyoncé performing while seated, only to later be brought to her feet while altering the song's ending with additional vocals and instrumentation. "Best Thing I Never Had" follows afterwards, with a slight alteration in its melody. Beyoncé then sang "Party" as the crowd swayed their arms back and forth and stretched out the "y" to every other verse. Beyoncé than began harmonizing with the back-up singers for "Rather Die Young", before performing an up-tempo version of "Love On Top". Beyoncé would begin the countdown of "Countdown" later allowing the audience to finish the countdown from nine-to-one. "End of Time" and "Run the World (Girls)" had Beyoncé utilizing flamboyant light displays bringing elaborate routines to a smaller stage. The show ends with the last song — the self-empowering ballad "I Was Here" — with Beyoncé rephrasing the song's final chorus to say "Roseland, we were here."

## Critical response

Jason Newman of Rap-Up began his review, "For a singer long accustomed to stadiums, Sunday's show was the most intimate performance most fans would see from the ubiquitous superstar." He highlighted how she "split the difference between hushed torch singer and stadium belter", and favored her ability to display both "stamina and vigor, which make for a stadium-perfect show". Newman concluded, "The medley combined the quick blasts of a Las Vegas revue with the emotional candor of a singer-songwriter performing to a near-empty room. It was an odd, yet effective juxtaposition; a global superstar who could effortlessly shuffle between slick, bombastic R&B and awkwardly honest confessions of a tumultuous career. By the end of the set though, humility, as one expects from a singer with 16 Grammy awards and more than 75 million records sold worldwide, turned to sly confidence." Jon Caramanica of The New York Times was impressed by the show, complimenting Beyoncé's performances of "underdog tracks" such as "Party" and "Love on Top". He wrote:

> In her performance it's always clear that a finely tuned engine is at work, but what was refreshing here was that it was in service of a surprisingly casual manner. She made funny, exaggerated faces; twirled her hair (when it was not floating); and spoke to the crowd like a knowing buddy. She was working off a teleprompter for her between-song patter, but improvising frequently, and for the better ... Beyoncé persevere[s], with a voice that skips up octaves and still gains power, with words that are as compelling as they are straightforward, with legs that treat the stage floor like an enemy in need of a thorough stomping. Even in moments of uncertainty, these are her constants. They survive her missteps.

Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine wrote, "There aren't many artists in the world that can pull off a 90-minute set in Stuart Weitzman heels and leave a beyond packed audience satisfied to the point of not needing an encore. But that's Beyoncé." Nekesa Mumbi Moody of ABC News wrote that though Beyoncé has nothing to prove at this point in her career, "even queens need to show what it means to be royalty", making reference to her performances on 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé. He added that the show was a "dazzling rebuttal" to all negative chatter revolving 4. Moody concluded, "She put her track record up for display along with her new material with a subtle but undeniable message that she is not to be doubted, or counted against." Mike Wass of Idolator began his review by writing that "Beyonce never fails to amaze." He continued to praise her for "raising the bar for live entertainment with a flawless display", further writing, "The worldly pop icon's ability to bring new depth and texture to quality material is almost as impressive as her uncanny knack for connecting with the audience on an emotional level". Wass finished his review by making reference to Beyoncé performance of "I Was Here" – which lyrically revolves around leaving a mark on the world – by writing, "But the pop veteran can sleep easy. Mission well and truly accomplished."

Entertainment Weekly's Brad Wete wrote that the concerts proved that "Beyoncé's bigger than any ballroom." He continued, "[Beyoncé's] excellence is undeniable. Her quaking vocals beat her contemporaries and competes with legends', as does her dancing", and concluded, "I'm looking forward to seeing her in a bigger venue, where there's more space for her voice to soar, elbow room for her band to play, and room for her wild-child fans to dance." Dan Aquilante of the New York Post stated that after the Beyoncé's performances of the songs on 4 at the concerts, the album was to be rated a 10 out of 10. He further wrote, "Where tunes felt lackluster and flabby on the recording, Beyoncé injected a vibrancy in the new songs that boosted the material to be almost the equal to some of her best and biggest radio hits." Yolanda Sangweni of Essence magazine viewed the concert as a chance for Beyoncé to remind people that her "vocal chops" are what got her where she stands today as an artist, and concluded that Michael Jackson and Diana Ross would be very proud of Beyoncé's accomplishments and performances on 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé.

Jocelyn Vena of MTV News praised Beyoncé for her "never-miss-a-note voice" and "razzle-dazzle dance moves", and for matching the crowd's energy with her enthusiasm during live performances. Jozen Cummings of The Wall Street Journal described the show as Beyoncé's "most intimate work to date", adding that it was an intimate night between "Beyoncé and her fans, one in which there need not be a specific stand-out moment". Gavin DeGraw of VH1 noted that "there's no doubting Beyoncé's talent as a performer; her undeniable vocal ability, show(wo)manship, and charm" which infused the room the entire evening." By contrast, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the show a mixed review, writing "a Beyoncé concert is a big, blowsy affair, a bit like a Las Vegas floor show crossed with a typhoon. 'Intimate' is not the adjective that leaps to mind". However, he described Beyoncé as "a woman who can make a club feel like a coliseum". Rosen coined the live performance of "I Was Here" as "a hollow exercise in self-mythologizing". Maura Johnston of The Village Voice placed 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé on her list of The 10 Best Live Shows of 2011. In a review of the show, she commented "The serenity at her core is borne from a supreme amount of confidence; that it comes off as something generously given is a testament to her prodigious talents as a performer on every level. Plus, I mean, have you heard her sing? Nobody has pipes like her right now. Not a single person out there. At the very least, we can all learn breath control from her."

## Broadcasts and recordings

To promote the show, photographer Myrna Suarez photographed Beyoncé on stage during the first and second nights of the concert. The photos were then published and used in reviews by Rap-Up, The Wall Street Journal, Entertainment Weekly, Rolling Stone, and Billboard magazine.

A DVD of the show titled, Live at Roseland, was released exclusively to Walmart in the United States on November 21, 2011, and a two-disc DVD deluxe package re-titled, Live at Roseland: Elements Of 4, was released worldwide on November 29, 2011 worldwide. The collection features the full concert, bonus offstage personal footage by Beyoncé, a 20-page booklet and a video anthology that includes seven music videos from 4. The DVD was directed by Beyoncé, Ed Burke and Anthony Green, and was executively produced by Beyoncé. It features performances from the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé concert. The album was commercially successful, debuting at number two on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart in the US on November 27, 2011 which also became its peak position. The standard edition of the album was certified gold while the deluxe edition was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It became the second best-selling DVD of 2011 in the US. It was also the second best-selling DVD worldwide in 2011.

In September 2011, Beyoncé posted several previews of the behind-the-scenes footage of the concert online. The live performances for "End of Time" and "I Was Here", which were added on the DVD, premiered online on November 16, 2011. The performances for "I Miss You" and "Independent Women", premiered online the next day via BET.com. The complete concert film premiered exclusively on Vevo on November 20 at 5:00 p.m. The live performance of "I Care" from the DVD was posted online on December 21, 2011. As part of the promotion, the concert was also aired on network televisions, being broadcast on December 25, 2011 on British television channel 4Music and on December 30 on Channel 4. The video for "Love on Top" premiered online in January 2012 and was released on the iTunes Store on January 11, 2012.

## Set list

1. "I Wanna Be Where You Are"
2. "No, No, No" / "Bills, Bills, Bills" / "Say My Name"
3. "Jumpin', Jumpin'"
4. "Independent Women"
5. "Bootylicious" / "Survivor"
6. "'03 Bonnie & Clyde"
7. "Crazy in Love"
8. "Dreamgirls"
9. "Irreplaceable"
10. "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)"
11. "1+1"
12. "I Care"
13. "I Miss You"
14. "Best Thing I Never Had"
15. "Party"
16. "Rather Die Young"
17. "Love On Top"
18. "Countdown"
19. "End of Time"
20. "Run the World (Girls)"

Encore

1. <li value=21>

    "I Was Here"

Source:

Additional notes

- "Bug a Boo" was added to the "Destiny's Child Medley" after the second concert on August 16.

Second concert residency by Beyoncé