Seibal

Seibal (), known as El Ceibal in Spanish, is a Classic Period archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala, about 100 km SW of Tikal. It was the largest city in the Pasión River region.

The site was occupied from the Preclassic Period through to the Terminal Classic, with a significant hiatus. The principal phase of occupation dates to the Late Preclassic (400 BC – AD 200), followed by a decline in the Early Classic (AD 200–600). Seibal experienced a significant recovery in the Terminal Classic immediately prior to its complete abandonment, reaching its second peak from about 830 to 890, with a population estimated at 8–10,000 people. The dates on the stelae at Seibal are unusually late, with monuments still being dedicated after the Classic Maya collapse had engulfed most of the Petén region. Many of Seibal's late monuments show artistic influence from central Mexico and from the Gulf Coast of Mexico.

The early history of the site is lost due to the catastrophic defeat of the polity in AD 735 by the nearby Petexbatun kingdom with its capital at Dos Pilas, resulting in the destruction of its earlier sculpted monuments. Seibal was reduced to being a vassal state until the destruction of the Petexbatun kingdom in the late 8th century AD. In AD 830 a new elite installed itself at the site with the arrival of Wat'ul Chatel from Ucanal to the east. This new arrival reinvigorated Seibal and allowed it to last to the dawn of the 10th century, well after the Classic Maya collapse had engulfed most of the region.

## Etymology

Seibal is a corruption of the Spanish word ceibal, meaning "place where many ceiba trees grow". El Ceibal was the name of a lumber camp near the ruins at the time of their discovery. The change in spelling originated with a publication by Teoberto Maler in 1908, which used a German form with initial "s".

## Location

Seibal is located on bluffs about 100 metres (330 ft) above the Pasión River, a major tributary of the Usumacinta River. About 100 kilometres (62 mi) downstream, the Pasión River joins with the Salinas River to form the Usumacinta, which flows northwards to the Gulf of Mexico. The site lies in the Petén department of northern Guatemala, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) east of the modern town of Sayaxché. Seibal lay 27 kilometres (17 mi) east of the Late Classic city of Dos Pilas and 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of Tikal. Lake Petén Itzá lies 60 kilometres (37 mi) to the north of the ruins.

Seibal lies among tropical rainforest on a limestone plain that is intermittently hilly and flat.

## Population

Surveys have revealed an average of 436 structures per square kilometer (1118 per square mile) in the site core, falling to 244 structures/km2 (626/square mile) in the periphery. At its height in the Late Preclassic, the population has been estimated at 1600 in the site core with a further 8000 dispersed through the periphery, to produce an estimated total population of almost ten thousand. In the Early Classic the population suffered a severe decline, population is estimated to have dropped to 34% of peak population. In the Late to Terminal Classic the population increased to 85% of its Late Preclassic level, an expansion that appears to have occurred rapidly and spread to all parts of the site, perhaps as the result of an influx of refugees arriving from other sites around AD 830. This was followed by a population crash to 14% of peak Preclassic population in the Early Postclassic (AD 900–1200) prior to the complete abandonment of the site.

### Social Stratification

The social stratification of Seibal was that of priest-kings, as well as nobility and elites living in the main ceremonial center, with the common people living in the peripheries of the city. During the 1964-68 excavations, 34 of the 45 found burials were from the peripheral zone, showing the distribution of population by class.

## Known rulers

All dates A.D.

## History

The site was occupied by the Middle Preclassic, then declined from the Late Preclassic through to the Early Classic, with a renewed expansion in the Late to Terminal Classic before being completely abandoned.

### Preclassic

Seibal was first settled around 900 BC in the Preclassic Period. It reached its peak population in the Late Preclassic around 200 BC, at the end of the Cantuse ceramic phase (300-200 CE). Ceramics from the deep Middle Preclassic levels at Seibal belong to the little-known Real/Xe phase, found in the western Petén region. A cruciform Olmec-style cache consisting of a bloodletter and jade celts is similar to those found in the Olmec heartland on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, and the artifacts were probably manufactured at La Venta. This cache dates to approximately 900 BC. After the Real/Xe complex, came the Escoba period, dating to approximately 600CE-300CE. The ceramics between these two periods are similar, but Escoba ceramics are more extensive and stratigraphically separated. There is also evidence during this time of the population increase that would peak at the end of the Cantutse period.

The earliest settlement in the Middle Preclassic was mostly confined to Group A. After 300 BC, in the Late Preclassic, settlement expanded to include Group D. During this period, there is evidence of ceremonial structures being built both in Group A and D.

By the end of the Late Preclassic (or Protoclassic), Seibal experienced an unexplained decline in population.

### Early Classic

During the Early Classic, the decline that began in the Late Preclassic continued unabated until the site was all but abandoned around AD 300 for unknown reasons.

### Late Classic

Seibal underwent a revival in the Late Classic with an expansion of occupation linked to the great city of Tikal. About AD 650 new inhabitants moved into the city in order to found a new kingdom. Groups A and D saw new construction, with a particular emphasis on Group D, which became an important part of the ceremonial centre. Any monuments raised by the Late Classic rulers responsible for this renewed occupation were defaced when the city suffered a catastrophic defeat in the 8th century AD. After the defeat of Seibal, foreign influences can be seen from Central Mexico in the art and stelae of the site dating to the Bayal phase (mid-700 CE-post-classic).

The earliest mention of Seibal in hieroglyphic inscriptions is on Stela 15 at Dos Pilas, dated to 13 October 721, and refers to Seibal becoming involved in the long-running war between the great cities of Tikal and Calakmul and their respective allies and vassals. Dos Pilas was a newly founded city in the Petexbatún region, established by Tikal to exert its control over the Pasión River, a strategy that backfired when Calakmul seized control of the fledgling kingdom.

#### Defeat

In AD 735 Ucha'an K'in B'alam, the third king of Dos Pilas, attacked Seibal, capturing Yich'aak B'alam. The captive king was not executed but rather became a vassal of his more powerful neighbour. Ucha'an K'in B'alam raised monuments to his victory over Seibal at Dos Pilas, Aguateca and Seibal itself. Yich'aak B'alam is shown under the feet of Ucha'an K'in B'alam on Aguateca Stela 2. At Seibal a hieroglyphic stairway was built recording the city's new status as a vassal of Dos Pilas. At the same time as he erected these monuments to his victory, Ucha'an K'in B'alam ordered the destruction of the hieroglyphic records on the earlier monuments of Seibal, with inscriptions at Dos Pilas and Aguateca specifically recording the destruction of Seibal's previously recorded history using phrases that translate as "they destroyed the writing" and "they chopped the writing off the statues that were made".

Yich'aak B'alam continued as a vassal under the next king of Dos Pilas, K'awiil Chan K'inich, who presided over rituals at Seibal in 745 and 747.

Seibal regained its independence in the late 8th century with the destruction of the Dos Pilas kingdom. Ajaw B'ot acceded to the throne in AD 771, restoring Seibal as an independent capital. After AD 800 Seibal fell into a thirty-year hiatus during which no new monuments were erected.

### Terminal Classic

With its independence came a new apogee, and for a brief time Seibal became a prominent regional capital located on the important Pasión River trade route. The architecture and ceramics from this period demonstrate connections with the northern Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Seventeen stelae carved between AD 849 and 889 show a mix of Maya and foreign styles, including a lord wearing the beaked mask of Ehecatl, the central Mexican wind god, with a Mexican-style speech scroll emerging from the mouth, carvings of foreign-style foot slippers, and squared cartouches. Some of these stelae have a stylistic affinity with the painted murals at Cacaxtla, a site in the central Mexican state of Tlaxcala. This hybrid style seem to indicate that the new lords of Seibal were Maya lords adapting to changing political conditions by adopting a mix of symbols originating from both lowland Maya and central Mexican sources. Some of the more foreign-looking stelae even bear non-Maya calendrical glyphs. Changes at Seibal at this time are associated with the Chontal-controlled trade flowing along the Pasión River. The Chontal Maya themselves were warrior-merchants originating from the Gulf Coast of Mexico who displayed a mixture of Maya and non-Maya characteristics.

Hieroglyphic texts at Seibal indicate that the city's newly refound vigour was sponsored by a new alliance formed by the cities of Caracol and Ucanal in the east, two sites that had so far survived the spreading Classic Maya collapse. It is likely that they were attempting to reopen the old Pasión-Usumacinta trade route and were drawn to Seibal by its defensible location overlooking the Pasión River. Seibal's refounding took place in AD 830 with the installation of Wat'ul Chatel as a vassal of Chan Ek' Hopet of Ucanal. The new king dedicated a new building and stelae in 849, overseen by Jewel K'awil of Tikal, and Chan Pet, king of Calakmul. Wat'ul Chatel built an innovative new temple-stelae arrangement to the south of the Central Plaza of Group A. Structure A-3 consists of a low radial pyramid with an inventive arrangement of sculpted monuments.

Wat'ul Chatel's last monument was erected in 889. This stela is also the last dated monument raised at Seibal and by 900 the city was all but abandoned, the whole region had been engulfed by the Classic Maya collapse and trade no longer flowed along the Pasión-Usumacinta route. Most Classic Maya capitals had already been abandoned and whatever external support Seibal had received from its overlord had vanished. By 930 AD, the site was completely abandoned. It was left relatively undisturbed until around 1890 when Federico Artes was informed of the city's ruins.

The late stelae at Seibal show a marked reduction in quality over a span of about forty years, with the loss of Classic Period traits, and bearing flatter and cruder representations than earlier stelae. This may reflect the loss of expertise in the Terminal Classic, with craftsmen less able to work monuments and large structures as time progressed.

### Modern history

The ruins of Seibal were probably discovered around 1890 by loggers working for the Hamett Mahogany Company. Federico Arthes, an owner of logging company Arthes and Sons, first reported the existence of the ruins of Saxtanquiqui, the Maya name of the site, in 1892 in a public article for the Guatemala City paper. He resided and did business in the Peten. The Guatemalan government nominated Senor Arthes Comisionado Especial to collect material to be displayed in the Guatemalan exhibit for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He was having very little luck getting satisfactory material at Tikal due to lack of available water for the plaster casting at which point he traveled to Saxtanquiqui with Gorgonio Lopez Toledo, a former assistant to Alfred Maudley. He took molds from some of the stelae and the resulting casts were displayed in the Exposition, bringing the recent discovery of the ruins to the attention of archaeologists for the first time. After the exposition closed, the casts were given to the Peabody Museum. Photographs of the stelae are still catalogued under the name "Sactankiki", the western spelling used by Maler after his expedition but a name he later wrote about with derision.

Two years later, in July 1895, Seibal was explored by Teoberto Maler on behalf of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. He made a site plan and discovered a new stela to add to those already discovered. He returned to the site for further investigations in August 1905 but discovered no new monuments. The Peabody Museum published Maler's work in 1908, including good quality photos of the stelae.

Seibal was next investigated by Sylvanus Morley in 1914 on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Dr Barnum Brown visited the ruins in 1948, and members of the Altar de Sacrificios Expedition of the Peabody Museum made visits in 1961, 1962 and 1963.

In 1964, the Peabody Museum returned to the site with a thorough investigation that continued until 1968, led by Gordon R. Willey as director and A. Ledyard Smith as field director. Further excavations were carried out from May to June in 2006 by the Proyecto Arqueológico Ceibal-Petexbatun (Seibal-Petexbatun Archaeological Project).

## Site description

Seibal is a medium-sized site. The site core is divided into three principal hilltop groups (Groups A, C and D) connected by causeways and covers a little over 1 km2. The causeways were faced with masonry and had parapets in places. Causeway I is the western causeway, Causeway II is the south causeway and Causeway III is the eastern causeway. Group D is a fortress refuge concealed above the river frontage. Group B is a small complex located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the site core. Group A is smaller than Group D but has most of the sculptured monuments. Various small housemound groups lie beyond the site core. They are spaced between 50 and 100 metres (55 and 109 yd) apart, extending for several kilometers to the north, south and west.

Only two structures have been restored at Seibal, the A-3 temple platform and the C-79 circular platform, topped with the Jaguar Altar. Both were restored during the investigations carried out by the Peabody Museum in the 1960s.

Seibal possesses a satellite site located to the north, known as El Anonal. This site has large structures built from clay that date to the Middle Preclassic period.

### Architecture

Group A is in the site core. It features three plazas, the North, South and Central Plazas and lies at the west end of Causeway I. Group A has more than fifty mounds arranged around the three plazas. Monuments dating to the period when Seibal was a vassal of Dos Pilas (AD 735–761) are situated in the Central Plaza of the group. In this group, there is also a ball court that is dated to the Terminal Classic and stylistically resembles that at Uxmal.

Group C lies on Causeway II, which passes through it to end at the circular Structure C-79. Group C has over forty mounds.

Group D is a compact group at the east end of Causeway III, it is perched in an easily defensible position at the edge of the bluffs overlooking the Pasión river. It has more than seventy structures crowded around five plazas. Group D only had one stela, which was a plain monument erected in front of a 20-metre (66 ft) high stepped pyramid.

The East Patio of Group A is part of an acropolis complex located behind Structure A-14. The complex is situated upon a massive platform raised almost 7 metres (23 ft) above the natural surface level. The patio was accessed by a stairway on the south side. It includes Structures A-15 and A-16.

Structure A-3 is a temple platform located in the centre of the south plaza. It has a stairway ascending each of its four sides. Five stelae are associated with this structure, one located at the base of each stairway and a fifth inside the building surmounting the platform. Three large jade cobbles were interred under the central stela. This structure and its associated stelae were dedicated in AD 849 by king Wat'ul Chatel (also known as Aj B'olon Haab'tal). Structure A-3 has the remains of a corbeled vault, the only surviving example at Seibal. The arrangement of the radial pyramid with its associated stelae was highly innovative. The radial temple form was ancient in the Maya region, dating back to the Late Preclassic, but Wat'ul Chatel placed upon it a square shrine with four doors, one opening onto each of the stairways. The temple building contained three vaulted chambers oriented north–south, with doors joining each chamber along an east–west axis. The cornice of the temple supported a brightly coloured stucco frieze. The frieze collapsed with the temple in ancient times. Archaeologists were able to recover portions of the fallen frieze and attempt a reconstruction of how it originally appeared. Each of the four doors was originally topped by a larger-than-life sculpture of king Wat'ul Chatel. Twelve smaller figures were spaced around the cornice, one at each corner with an additional figure positioned half-way between each corner and the central figure of the king. It is not known who these smaller figures represented. The spaces between the figures were occupied by panels with cross-hatch designs and sculpted vegetation and animals. Old gods sat in the centre of each of the sixteen panels, including Itzamna and Pawatun. Structure A-3 was built over an earlier platform structure.

Structure A-10, a 28-metre (92 ft) tall temple-pyramid, is the tallest structure at the site.

Structure A-13 is a radial pyramid. Excavations uncovered a mass burial (Burial 4) with parts of eleven people, including two women and a child. This was not a traditional Classic Maya burial and has been dated to AD 930, very late in the occupation of the site.

Structure A-14 is covered by the forest that has overgrown the northern part of the Central Plaza. It is a range structure running north–south and once had a hieroglyphic stairway detailing Seibal's defeat by Dos Pilas, although the inscriptions have now been removed to the old project camp. The structure was found to contain an elite female burial, labelled as Burial 1.

Structure A-15 is located on the north side of the East Patio of the North Plaza. It is a long, low structure running east–west and closing the patio on the north side. It measures 24 by 8 metres (79 by 26 ft) by 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall. The building contained a long room with a wide entrance opening southwards onto the patio, raised from the patio by a step. The room contained a stone bench built from reused blocks. The structure was superimposed upon two earlier substructures, the earliest of which had a different orientation to the final building. All three periods of construction appear to date to the Terminal Classic, with the last phase perhaps dating to about the time of the fall of the city.

Structure A-16 is located on the northeast side of the East Patio of the North Plaza. It is a rectangular structure measuring 16 by 10 metres (52 by 33 ft), running north–south and facing to the west. The remains of the structure stand 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) high. The western side of the building had been damaged by looters prior to archaeological investigation. The looters' trench measured 5 by 0.8 metres (16.4 by 2.6 ft) by 3.5 metres (11 ft) deep and cut through the structure's floor, bench and rear wall but did not uncover any burials or offerings. Fallen limestone blocks and slabs reveal that the structure once had a corbel-vaulted chamber. Fragments of stucco were also recovered, they once made up a colourful frieze above the front of the building that included modelled human figures. The stucco still had traces of orange, green and yellow paint. The building was a palace-type structure with perhaps six rooms, three on the west side and three on the east, and it was originally roofed in stone. The interior had an L-shaped bench. The structure was built of finely cut limestone blocks and the walls were coated with stucco painted orange and turquoise. It is believed that the building was part of a Terminal Classic royal palace with architectural features similar to those of the temple Structure A-3.

Structure A-19 and Structure C-9 are ballcourts. They have a resemblance to ballcourts at Chichen Itza. Both ballcourts are aligned east–west, an unusual feature in the Maya area, although the topography of the site severely restricted the layout of the city to a principally east–west orientation. Ballcourt A-19 lies on the west side on the north plaza.

Structure C-79 is a circular three-tiered platform built during the Terminal Classic on top of a pre-existing structure dating to the Late Preclassic Period. Circular structures such as this have their origin in central Mexico, where they are typically temples of Ehecatl, the god of wind. However, the structure at Seibal was surmounted by a rectangular building platform, whereas the temple buildings of Ehecatl were also circular. Structure C-79 has two stairways, the larger ascends the west side, the smaller is on the east side. A circular jaguar altar rests on three pedestals before the structure, two of these are crouching figures that originally supported the altar, the third central column is modern and was put in place as an additional support during restoration of the ruins. The altar has the crude representation of a jaguar's head carved onto its edge. Structure C-79 and the associated altar are dated to about AD 870.

### Monuments

The monuments of Seibal include a number of stelae, carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. The monuments at Seibal are fashioned from a hard limestone, accounting for their generally excellent preservation. During excavations in the 1960s, 57 stelae were identified. Of these 22 were sculpted and 35 were plain.

Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 was located on the front of Structure A-14. The stairway was installed by king Ucha'an K'in B'alam of Dos Pilas to record Seibal's status as a vassal after its defeat by that city. The stones are no longer in situ, having been removed to the area of the camp of the old archaeological project.

Stela 1, on the north side of the South Plaza near Structure A-3, names someone called "Knife-Wing", who is also known at distant Chichen Itza. It is dated to AD 869.

Stela 2 is believed to date to around AD 870 although it bears no hieroglyphic text. It depicts the frontal view of a masked figure and is the only monument at Seibal to show a frontal portrayal. It was broken into six or seven pieces and has been restored.

Stela 3 bears a non-Maya calendrical date, one of the glyphs is cipactli, a crocodile head used to represent the first day of the 260-day calendar in central Mexico. This stela once stood next to Stela 2 but was removed to a museum in Guatemala City.

Stela 4 is badly damaged, having been broken into pieces by a falling tree. It was lost for sixty years before being rediscovered. It currently remains buried under a thin covering of soil.

Stela 5 lies to the north of the South Plaza and is badly damaged. The broken middle section of the stela is all that is left, it bears the representation of a ballplayer and dates to about AD 780.

Stela 6 is slightly to the north of Stela 5, bearing hieroglyphic text. This stela was damaged in antiquity when the upper part was broken off and erected by an altar nearby.

Stela 7 stands to the north of stelae 5 and 6. It is in a reasonable state of preservation and bears the image of a ruler dressed as a ballplayer. This monument was probably dedicated in AD 780, although it records the accession of a king of Seibal in AD 771.

Stela 8 is a well-preserved monument on the south side of Structure A-3. Here king Wat'ul Chatel wears jaguar claws on his hands and feet, together with other attributes of the Bearded Jaguar God. In one hand the king holds the head of the god K'awiil. The text describes a visitor named Hakawitzil, an early form of Jacawitz, the name of one of the patron gods of the Postclassic K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj in the Guatemalan Highlands. Schele and Mathews propose that the event depicted on this stela gave rise to the foundation legends of the K'iche' people.

Stela 9 was erected on the west side of Structure A-3. It is badly damaged and one section is missing. The stela depicts Wat'ul Chatel with the attributes of the Maize God and describes him invoking the Vision Serpent.

Stela 10 is on the north side of Structure A-3. It depicts Wat'ul Chatel, dressed in Terminal Classic Maya style, although his foreign-looking face bears a moustache, which is not a typically Mayan characteristic. The text on this stela displays the emblem glyphs of Tikal, Calakmul and Motul de San José, describing how he received visitors from those cities. Among the visitors are named Kan-Pet of Calakmul and Kan Ek' of Motul. Wat'ul Chatel wears a headdress associated with the patron gods of Seibal, the heron god and K'awiil, deities that were also the patrons of Palenque. This appears to be an attempt by this foreign king to identify himself more closely with the city he came to rule.

Stela 11 is on the east side of Structure A-3 and describes the refounding of Seibal on 14 March 830 and the installation of its new lord, Wat'ul Chatel, as a vassal of Chan Ek' Hopet of Ucanal. A panel beneath the portrait of the ruler depicts a bound captive. The hieroglyphic inscription describes how Wat'ul Chatel arrived with his palanquins and his patron deities.

Stela 13 stands a little to the west of the South Plaza. It dates to AD 870.

Stela 14 dates to about AD 870 and stands at the junction of two causeways and is in a good state of preservation. It has stylistic similarities with sculptures at distant Chichen Itza in the extreme north of the Yucatán Peninsula.

Stela 18 is one of the last stelae to be erected at Seibal, it lies 20 metres (66 ft) west of the group of monuments consisting of Stelae 5, 6 and 7.

Stela 19 demonstrates the foreign influences prevalent at Seibal during the Late Classic. It depicts a lord wearing a mask representing the central Mexican wind god Ehecatl.

Stela 20 stands to the west of the South Plaza. It was one of the last monuments to be erected at Seibal, dating to AD 889.

Stela 21 is located inside the chamber at the top of Structure A-3. This stela was badly damaged when the vaulted chamber collapsed on top of it and has also suffered from erosion. The monument has been restored and depicts the lord of Seibal Wat'ul Chatel bearing a manikin sceptre. Like Stela 8, the king wears attributes of the Bearded Jaguar God, although without the jaguar claws. The king holds a K'awiil sceptre raised in his right hand, from his other hand hands a shield with the face of the sun god. The inscription on the monument is largely illegible.

## See also

- Punta de Chimino

Archaeological site of the Maya civilization

10th-century BC establishments in the Maya civilization

10th-century disestablishments in the Maya civilization

Populated places disestablished in the 10th century

Populated places established in the 10th century BC


Salt

In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially at table in ground form in dispensers, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as rock salt or halite. Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and is known to uniformly improve the taste perception of food, including otherwise unpalatable food. Salting, brining, and pickling are also ancient and important methods of food preservation.

Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Hittites, Egyptians, and Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.

Salt is processed from salt mines, and by the evaporation of seawater (sea salt) and mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. The greatest single use for salt (sodium chloride) is as a feedstock for the production of chemicals. It is used to produce caustic soda and chlorine; it is also used in the manufacturing processes of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp and many other products. Of the annual global production of around three hundred million tonnes of salt, only a small percentage is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use. Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt, which latter usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, salt is present in many processed foods.

Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. However, excessive salt consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, in children and adults. Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, equivalent to 5 grams of salt, per day.

## History

All through history, the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. What is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC. Even the name Solnitsata means "salt works".

While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so, salt has been the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamț County, Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC. The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began. The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China, dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.

There is more salt in animal tissues, such as meat, blood, and milk, than in plant tissues. Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food, but agriculturalists, feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt. With the spread of civilization, salt became one of the world's main trading commodities. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement, and the ancient Hebrews made a "covenant of salt" with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him. An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth: scattering salt around in a defeated city to prevent plant growth. The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem, and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War (146 BC).

Salt may have been used for barter in connection with the obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era. Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds, and salt fish. From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar, glass, and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salted fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire. Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in the 5th century BC. In the early years of the Roman Empire, roads were built for the transportation of salt from the salt imported at Ostia to the capital.

In Africa, salt was used as currency south of the Sahara, and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia. The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma, although much of the trade now takes place by truck. Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates. In Gabon, before the arrival of Europeans, the coast people carried on a remunerative trade with those of the interior by the medium of sea salt. This was gradually displaced by the salt that Europeans brought in sacks, so that the coast natives lost their previous profits; as of the late 1950s, sea salt was still the currency best appreciated in the interior.

Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie within 17 km (11 mi) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits. Salzach literally means "salt river" and Salzburg "salt castle", both taking their names from the German word Salz meaning salt. Hallstatt was the site of the world's first salt mine. The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used pickaxes and shovels, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries.

The word salary comes from the Latin word for salt. The reason for this is unknown; a persistent modern claim that the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt is baseless. The word salad literally means "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.

Wars have been fought over salt. Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product, and it played an important part in the American Revolution. Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties, and towns like Liverpool flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire. Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples. The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution. After being repealed, this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars, and was not finally abolished until 1946. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a crowd of 100,000 protestors on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", during which they made their own salt from the sea as a demonstration of their opposition to the colonial salt tax. This act of civil disobedience inspired numerous Indians and transformed the Indian independence movement from an elitist one with little popular support into a national struggle.

## Physical properties

Salt is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). Sea salt and mined salt may contain trace elements. Mined salt is often refined. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. When dissolved in water sodium chloride separates into Na+ and Cl− ions, and the solubility is 359 grams per litre. From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl·2H2O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F).

## Edible salt

Salt is essential to the health of humans and other animals, and it is one of the five basic taste sensations. Salt is used in many cuisines, and it is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride. Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt, containing potassium iodide, is widely available. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker, in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form.

### Fortified table salt

Some table salt sold for consumption contains additives that address a variety of health concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary from country to country. Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans, and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine (hypothyroidism) and enlargement of the thyroid gland (endemic goitre) in adults or cretinism in children. Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide, sodium iodide, or sodium iodate. A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.

The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), whereas in the UK the recommended iodine content of iodized salt is 10–22 ppm.

Sodium ferrocyanide, also known as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. Such anticaking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely. The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988. Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate, calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate. Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds.

In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia, which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate. Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries.

A lack of fluoride in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries. Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France, 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride.

### Other kinds

Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates, traces of algal products, salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute a mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from organobromine compounds. Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appearance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, sea salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.

Salts have diverse mineralities depending on their source, giving each one a unique flavour. Fleur de sel, a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a distinctive flavour varying with its source. In traditional Korean cuisine, so-called "bamboo salt" is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang (a fermented bean paste).

Kosher or kitchen salt has a larger grain size than table salt and is used in cooking. It can be useful for brining, bread or pretzel making and as a scrubbing agent when combined with oil.

Pickling salt is made of ultra-fine grains to speed dissolving to make brine.

### Salt in food

Salt is present in most foods, but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as canned foods and especially salted foods, pickled foods, and snack foods or other convenience foods), where it functions as both a preservative and a flavoring. Dairy salt is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products. As a flavoring, salt enhances the taste of other foods by suppressing the bitterness of those foods making them more palatable and relatively sweeter.

Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration, salting was one of the main methods of food preservation. Thus, herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper, its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1,480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g. Salt is also used extensively in cooking as a flavoring, and cooking techniques such as with salt crusts and brining. The main sources of salt in the Western diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bread and cereal products, meat products and milk and dairy products.

In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment. In its place, condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments.

### Biology of salt taste

Human salt taste is detected by sodium taste receptors present in taste bud cells on the tongue. Human sensory taste testing studies have shown that proteolyzed forms of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) function as the human salt taste receptor.

### Sodium consumption and health

Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6 g serving (1 teaspoon) contains about 2,400 mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.

Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases, health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke, total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension.

The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium (which is contained in 5 g of salt) per day. Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension, African Americans, and middle-aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4,700 mg/day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables.

While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries, one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at least 1,200 mg (contained in 3 g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake the greater the fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethnicities. Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300 mg per day is either beneficial or harmful.

Evidence shows a more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. "Mortality caused by levels of salt the association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake." The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain a healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams (equivalent to 10-13 g salt) a day.

One of the two most prominent dietary risks for disability in the world are diets high in sodium.

## Non-dietary uses

Only a small percentage of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. The remainder is used in agriculture, water treatment, chemical production, de-icing, and other industrial use cases. Sodium chloride is one of the largest volume inorganic raw materials. It is a feedstock in the production of caustic soda and chlorine. These are used in the manufacture of PVC, paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt is also used as a flux in the production of aluminium. For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine, where it is used to saponify fats. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber, and another use is in the firing of pottery, when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong glaze.

When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a mordant in textile dying, to regenerate resins in water softening, for the tanning of hides, the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables.

## Production

Food-grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries (7% in Europe), although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of total production.

In 2018, total world production of salt was 300 million tonnes, the top six producers being China (68 million), the United States (42 million), India (29 million), Germany (13 million), Canada (13 million) and Australia (12 million).

The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries. A major source of salt is seawater, which has a salinity of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about 35 g (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts, predominantly sodium (Na+
) and chloride (Cl−
) ions, per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water. The world's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated. The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.

Elsewhere, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These sources are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, purification was achieved in shallow open pans that were heated to accelerate evaporation. Vacuum-based methods are also employed. The raw salt is refined by treatment with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then applied. Some salt is produced using the Alberger process, which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake. The Ayoreo, an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco, obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree (Maytenus vitis-idaea) and other trees.

One of the largest salt mining operations in the world is at the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan. The mine has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and 400 km (250 mi) of passages. The salt is dug out by the room and pillar method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.

## In religion

Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices, in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon, salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith. In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.

Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings. In Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried. Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition, and when returning home from a funeral, a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house. In Shinto, Shio (塩, lit. "salt") is used for ritual purification of locations and people (harae, specifically shubatsu), and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the twofold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons.

In the Hebrew Bible, there are thirty-five verses which mention salt. One of these mentions Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:26) as they were destroyed. When the judge Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem, he is said to have "sown salt on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it (Judges 9:45). The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment. "Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6). In the New Testament, six verses mention salt. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6). Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass. Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican Rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.

In Judaism, it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat. It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush. To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.

In Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies. A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar, and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies.

Mineral used as food ingredient, composed primarily of sodium chloride


Welcome to Heartbreak

"Welcome to Heartbreak" is a song by American record producer and vocalist Kanye West from his fourth studio album, 808s & Heartbreak (2008). The song features a guest appearance from Kid Cudi on his debut collaboration with West, as well as background vocals by Jeff Bhasker. It was produced by West, with co-production from Bhasker and Plain Pat; the three of them served as the songwriters alongside Kid Cudi. The inspiration behind the song was a conversation West had with Dave Sirulnick, who showed him some pictures of his children. A hip pop number, it has electronic instrumentation that is reliant on piano. In the lyrics of the song, West mentions trying to fill the lack of substance in his life with extravagant materialistic items.

"Welcome to Heartbreak" received generally positive reviews from music critics, who mostly highlighted the lyrical content. Some were complimentary towards the composition, though critical assessment of West's vocals was less receptive. The song reached numbers 87 and 27 on the US Pop 100 and UK R&B charts in 2008 and 2009, respectively. It has since been certified gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). West and Kid Cudi first performed the song live for South by Southwest (SXSW) in March 2009. An accompanying music video was released on February 18, 2009, which features pixelation that was created through data moshing. The video received lukewarm responses from critics; they praised the pixelation, but some questioned the originality.

## Background and development

West and fellow rapper Kid Cudi first met each other at a Virgin Megastore in 2004, with the meeting including Cudi asking West to sign him; West respectfully declined his request, though the rapper told him: "I have the potential for greatness." After being sent Kid Cudi's 2008 debut mixtape A Kid Named Cudi by producer Plain Pat, West arrived at the mixtape's listening party and took Cudi under his wing. The rapper subsequently co-wrote several songs for 808s & Heartbreak in Hawaii with West, including "Heartless" and "Paranoid". Kid Cudi has often been believed to have directly influenced the album's creation, which West himself confirmed as being true. "Welcome to Heartbreak" marked the first ever collaboration between West and Kid Cudi, with the latter's feature on the song and background vocals on "Paranoid" leading to him signing a record deal with West's record label GOOD Music. The former of the two tracks was produced by West, with co-production from Jeff Bhasker and Plain Pat, while all of the producers co-wrote the song with Kid Cudi. West and Cudi later collaborated on many other tracks, including "Gorgeous" (2010) and "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" (2016). They went on to form a duo under the name of Kids See Ghosts, releasing their debut studio album of the same name on June 8, 2018.

In the 2009 book Chicken Soup for the Soul: The Story Behind The Song, West recalls that the song was inspired by a conversation between himself and MTV producer Dave Sirulnick. He writes that the conversation involved Sirulnick presenting photographs of his children to West, with the photos prompting an image used in the song. West further pens about how he wishes to get married and have a family, but numerous reasons in his life have kept him from doing so; he classifies the song as "the first time a rap artist spoke condescendingly about property, possessions like a sports car". West elaborates, "People are so concerned with what they have or what other people have instead of what's really important – other people." The artist goes on to explain that while items such as cars are often used to showcase people having made it, he believes "there is nothing more important than home and family". In an interview for American singer Pharrell Williams' OTHERtone show on July 10, 2016, Kid Cudi revealed the song's hook originated from a melody he wrote for fellow rapper Jay-Z's eleventh studio album The Blueprint 3 (2009). He explained to Williams that he "[was] like, Oh, it's for Jay, let's talk about that dope boy shit, let's make a theme for that dope boy in the kitchen". "Welcome to Heartbreak" was recorded during the three week period that West worked on the entirety of 808s & Heartbreak in 2008.

## Composition and lyrics

Musically, "Welcome to Heartbreak" is a hip pop number, with electronic instrumentation. The song heavily relies on sparse piano, contributed by Ken Lewis. It also contains violin, viola, bass, synths, and tom-tom drums. The song's intro utilizes a cello that was played by James J. Cooper, III alongside Jennie Lorenzo, and was described by The Washington Post as reminiscent of an organ. For the majority of the song, West sings through Auto-Tune. Kid Cudi croons on its hook, being accompanied by West performing falsetto coos. Shortly after the four minute mark, West quickly utters the hook. Background vocals from Bhasker are featured on the song.

In the lyrics of "Welcome to Heartbreak", West addresses attempting to fill his life's lack of substance with lavish materialistic items, expressing a struggle to relate to a normal lifestyle as a result of his fame. West admits that it feels painful for him to merely get "a sports car", desiring to have "a report card" instead. On the hook, Kid Cudi croons about painful visualizations. West echoes the rapper by singing the line "I can't stop having these visions" towards the end of the song, alluding to the death of his own mother.

## Release and reception

On November 24, 2008, "Welcome to Heartbreak" was released as the second track on West's fourth studio album 808s & Heartbreak. West clarified over his blog that, despite a music video being released for the song on February 18, 2009, "Amazing" was the track set for release as the next single from the album. "Welcome to Heartbreak" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics, a number of whom praised the lyrical content. Writing for Urb, Brandon Perkins commented that the song is where West sets "his prized possessions against the simplicity of 'real life'", noting he uses a "disconnected yearning" to mark "the basic juxtapositions". In Consequence, Alex Young complimented West's personal style of lyricism on the song for marking "a sweeping departure" from the stereotypical lyrical content of most popular hip hop songs in 2008. Adam Conner-Simons from musicOMH observed how West does not "hold back" on the song, using the lyrics for "reflecting on his party-heavy lifestyle and envying his friends' picket-fence existences". Reviewing for IGN, Alfred H. Leonard, III stated that West is assisted by Kid Cudi in struggling "to relate to the fruits of living a normal life" due to having a celebrity lifestyle. H. Leonard, III viewed the lyrical content as "intriguing" for showcasing a hip hop artist delving into "the negative side of fame" in 2008, a year in which he thought "many of [the] lyrics are centered around trumpeting the spoils that come with stardom". At PopMatters, Dave Heaton wrote that even though West tells "highly specific" stories "about life as a lonely celebrity" on the song, "it's the tone of the story that leaves the impression", rather than the actual stories told, while he also remarked how West "turns the vocal effects off to sound naked, vulnerable".

Josh Eells of Blender honored the song as "so icy and desolate" that "a pair of snowshoes" should accompany it. The staff of NME pointed to the song's "tortured opening cello groans" as providing clearness that West still possessed "his marbles" in 2008, following on from disappointing events in the artist's career throughout the year. They further noticed how "a cold, metallic bleakness" is present on the song, which invokes "cinematic flashes" in the manner of the 1987 film The Running Man that stars Arnold Schwarzenegger, as well as empowering "the woe-is-me slush". Voicing a less positive response, Wilson McBee from Slant Magazine was thankful for Kid Cudi's "anxious cooing" on the song, which serves as "a perfect counter" to what he dubbed "West's attenuated sketches about fame and self-loathing". In a mixed review of "Welcome to Heartbreak" for Digital Spy, Mayer Nissim called the song an "introspective slice of hip-pop" mostly performed via Auto-Tune and said that despite there being nothing wrong "with West using the available technology to transform his voice", it has become "horribly ubiquitous" in the years leading up to 2009. He elaborated, glorifying the "beautifully understated" beat and labeling the song's lyrics "fine", but pushed for it being hard not to worry that the Auto-Tune "give[s] the track a 'Made In 2008' stamp that could make it close to unlistenable in a few years' time".

For the issue dated December 13, 2008, "Welcome to Heartbreak" debuted and peaked at number 87 on the US Billboard Pop 100. On September 23, 2020, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for pushing 500,000 certified units in the United States. In the United Kingdom, "Welcome to Heartbreak" debuted at number 112 on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated April 12, 2009. One week prior, the song closed out the component UK R&B Chart by entering at number 40. In the same week as its debut on the UK Singles Chart, the song rose two places to number 38 on the component chart. For the issue date of April 26, 2009, it climbed 11 places to peak at number 27 on the UK R&B Chart. After the song had fallen down the chart to number 35 two weeks later, it remained at this position through to the next week. The song climbed the UK R&B Chart again for the May 24, 2009 issue, reaching number 33 in its seventh week.

## Music video

### Background

The music video for "Welcome to Heartbreak" was released on February 18, 2009, via West's blog, and was directed by Nabil Elderkin, who received credit mononymously under his forename. At the time, Nabil was working with West on the photo book for the artist's Glow in the Dark Tour at the time. He had previously directed the visual for West's "Champion" (2007), as well as appearing in Hawaii during the recording of 808s & Heartbreak. In a blog post accompanying the video, West revealed it had been worked on for the past month and that he was "forced" to put the visual out due to "another video out there using the same technique". West was referring to the video for American synth-pop band Chairlift's "Evident Utensil", directed by Ray Tintori; Nabil dubbed it as "data moshing" in an MTV News interview on February 18, 2009. He further pointed out Takeshi Murata as being the most notable of the numerous artists who had used the technique, while explaining that he used data moshing "to convey the haunting element of ['Welcome to Heartbreak']", aiming for "more of [a] strategic way" than Murata by using certain features for adding to the effect. Nabil said that, due to differing parts of the song representing differing feelings, it was of desire "to come with a visual representation of the flow and textures" which felt "very important" in the song to him. He elaborated, recalling shooting certain scenes "in super-slow-motion" with the Phantom merely for "transitional movement and textures", going on to state he was certain the song needed a music video. Of creating the video, Nabil recounted West taking a liking to his initially presented idea, before he "nagged" the artist slightly about it. According to him, West fully agreed on recording the music video after Nabil restated to him that it "would be a great [accompanying] visual", with the latter having a heavy schedule of related phone calls that led to the video's creation in New York. He finalized that "all the extra components" were shot afterwards in Los Angeles, as well as praising the inspiration taken by him from West's creativity during the process.

### Synopsis and reception

The music video applies the data moshing technique of pixelation to West, who wears a Bill Cosby sweater. Calculated moshes, colors, and textures are included, which add to the effect. Other digital distortions are also featured in the video, conveying the troubled mental state that West presents with the song itself. It also contains slow-motion footage, as well as compression artifacts.

The video was met with moderately positive responses from critics. Chad Jordan, for Hypebeast, said the music video "utilizes vivid colors and graphics" for matching the mood of "Welcome to Heartbreak", and felt assured it "would surely get constant rotation on every video channel" if the song experienced a single release. Steven Gottlieb from VideoStatic opined that the clip demonstrates how data moshing "can be used in the context of a broader music video" than the one for Chairlift's "Evident Utensil", while saying the technique is used to communicate the manner to which "a brain and your emotions may be just as susceptible to interference and static and distortions as any piece of videotaped footage or digital data". Amrit Singh of Stereogum called the video "[p]retty rad", but admitted that it was not the first visual to use pixelation as "the internet cares about". In a mixed review, Vulture's Mark Graham explained that the clip "could very well have been" West's great music video, but the technology present being used in the "Evident Utensil" video prevented this from happening. Graham concluded by crediting West over "the killer Cosby sweater", yet assuming he should go "back to the drawing board".

### Credits and personnel

Credits adapted from VideoStatic.

Filming

- Produced by Partizan

Personnel

- Nabil –  director, display picture
- Kathleen Heffernan –  production
- Keely Gould –  production
- Josh Reis –  display picture
- Ryan Bartley –  editor

## Live performances

While showcasing artists signed onto his GOOD Music imprint for South by Southwest (SXSW) at the Levi's/Fader Fort on March 21, 2009, West brought out Kid Cudi. The rapper's appearance was met with applause before he began to perform, while West introduced him. The two performed "Welcome to Heartbreak", which was followed by Kid Cudi performing his track "Sky Might Fall" (2009). Writing for Baller Status, Miles Bennett picked the former performance as one of the highlights of West's SXSW showcase.

For West's two night concert of 808s & Heartbreak in its entirety at the 2015 Hollywood Bowl in September, he and Kid Cudi performed the song as the set's second track. This marked the first time West had performed the song since March 2009; he wore loose garments in white and off-white shades for the performance. While performing, West was backed by a small band and a medium-sized orchestra. In their first concert under the Kids See Ghosts name, West and Kid Cudi performed "Welcome to Heartbreak" at the 2018 Camp Flog Gnaw Carnival. While it stood as the ninth track of their set, the song was the second track the duo performed that was not a Kids See Ghosts release. The transparent box that the duo performed the song from featured flashing LEDs inside, and their performance was received strongly by the crowd.

## Credits and personnel

Information taken from 808s & Heartbreak liner notes.

Recording

- Recorded at Glenwood Studios (Burbank, California) and Avex Recording Studio (Honolulu, Hawaii)

Personnel

- Kanye West –  songwriter, producer
- Jeff Bhasker –  songwriter, co-producer, keyboards, background vocals
- Plain Pat –  songwriter, co-producer
- Scott Mescudi –  songwriter
- Andrew Dawson –  recorder
- Anthony Kilhoffer –  recorder
- Ryan West –  recorder
- Chad Carlisle –  assistant recorder
- Isha Erskine –  assistant recorder
- Gaylord Holomalia –  assistant recorder
- Christian Mochizuki –  assistant recorder
- Manny Marroquin –  mix engineer
- Christian Plata –  assistant engineer
- Erik Madrid –  assistant engineer
- Larry Gold –  string arrangements
- Emma Kummrow –  violin
- Igor Szwec –  violin
- Luigi Mazzochi –  violin
- Gregory Teperman –  violin
- Olga Konopelsky –  violin
- Charles Parker –  violin
- Davis Barnett –  viola
- Alexandra Leem –  viola
- James J. Cooper, III –  cello
- Jennie Lorenzo –  cello
- Miles Davis –  bass
- Ken Lewis –  piano
- Jeff Chestek –  string engineer
- Montez Roberts –  assistant string engineer
- Rick Friedrich –  assistant string engineer
- John Stahl –  assistant string engineer

## Charts

## Certifications

2008 song by Kanye West featuring Kid Cudi

Song recordings produced by Jeff Bhasker


Didsbury Campus

The Didsbury Campus on Wilmslow Road, Didsbury, Manchester, England, originally a private estate, was part of the Manchester Metropolitan University; the oldest building on the site dated to around 1785. It became a theological college for the Wesleyan Methodist Church in 1842, about the same time as a chapel which later became part of the college was built. These buildings are now all listed.

In 1946, in response to a growing need for new teachers across the country, the site became a temporary teacher training college, becoming permanent in 1950. Over the next thirty years there was a significant building programme, with classrooms, lecture theatres, offices, sports facilities and a library all being constructed. The college became a part of Manchester Polytechnic (later Manchester Metropolitan University) in 1977. In 2005, the campus became home to the Science Learning Centre North West.

The university closed the campus in 2014, sold the land to developers, and moved its facilities to a new purpose-built campus named Birley Fields in Hulme. All the buildings constructed after the Second World War were then demolished, with only the listed buildings remaining. As of 2018 these are being converted into homes, as part of the site's redevelopment as a residential area.

## History

### Early history: 1465–1946

According to local historian Diana Leitch, the site has been in use since 1465; the first house was built in 1603 as part of a large estate with a deer park. In 1740 the site was purchased by the Broome family, and a new house was constructed after 1785 by William Broome, extant today as the front part of the university's former administration building, now known as Sandhurst House. By 1812 the house was occupied by a Colonel Parker, and in the 1820s and '30s it was a girls' school. The site was purchased by the Wesleyan Methodist Church on 18 March 1841 for £2,000, and opened as a theological college on 22 September 1842 with a special service. The construction and later renovations were paid for from a centenary fund, an initiative started ten years previously by the Methodist scholar Adam Clarke.

To the south of the main house, the Methodist owners constructed a chapel that could hold 300 worshippers, along with accommodation for staff. This was later dubbed the Old Pump House. In 1866 the main house was extended by the addition of two wings and a back to form a quadrangle, and the front was reclad in Kerridge stone. In 1877 a new church was built to serve the college, the large Victorian Gothic St Paul's Methodist Church, on an adjacent site, and the chapel became the college library and lecture theatre. By the end of the nineteenth century Didsbury had become a branch of a national Wesleyan Theological Institution, along with Wesley College, Headingley, in Leeds and Handsworth College in Birmingham. The first president of the Institute was Jabez Bunting; John Hannah was among the first tutors.

During both world wars the site was used as a military hospital, with up to 200 beds and more than 5000 patients receiving treatment between 1941 and 1945. In 1943 the Board of Education had begun to consider the future of education, following reforms that would inevitably come after the war ended. It was estimated that with the raising of the school leaving age, following the 1944 Education Act, about 70,000 new teachers would be needed annually, almost ten times as many as before the war. In 1944 a report was produced by the Board of Education on the emergency recruitment and training of teachers, and it was decided that there were to be several new training colleges set up. These colleges were to be staffed by lecturers seconded from local authorities, with mature students selected from National Service conscripts. In 1945 the theological college, which was no longer required by the Wesleyans, was leased to the Manchester Education Authority. The new emergency training college was officially opened on 31 January 1946, with Alfred Body as its first principal.

### Didsbury College of Education: 1946–1977

The college faced some difficulties initially, as the building which had accommodated 70 students previously now needed space for 224, including 140 living on site. In the first four years, renovations by the Ministry of Works included the removal of 60 chimney stacks, a new roof, new wiring and central heating. Many lectures took place away from the site in various schools and other buildings nearby, and temporary huts – which would become permanent – were constructed in 1947. The first students were all ex-service men who had been interviewed by boards established by the Ministry of Education; they completed a 2-year course over a period of just 13 months. The second cohort of 242 men completed their course in a similar amount of time. Didsbury became co-educational in 1948, with 158 female and 106 male students enrolling. There was some uncertainty about what was to become of the college once the emergency scheme ended; the Methodists, who still owned the building, had moved to Bristol. The University of Manchester had expressed an interest in using the site as student accommodation, and the Methodists also wished to set up a training college. In the end, by 1950, the emergency college was purchased by the City of Manchester and made permanent as Didsbury Teacher Training College, with an initial enrolment of about 250 male and female students. As a result of becoming a permanent college, Didsbury became part of Manchester University's School of Education. In 1956 Lord and Lady Simon of Wythenshawe granted the college 5.5 acres (22,000 m2) of land on the opposite side of Wilmslow Road, allowing sports days to be held.

Over the next two decades, numerous buildings were constructed on the site; Behrens, Birley and Simon were all named after prominent local families with ties to the college. The date the building was opened is given in parentheses where known:

- Simon Building (1963; construction started in 1957). Included lecture rooms, a gymnasium, assembly hall, refectory and kitchen.
- Behrens Building
- Broomhurst Hall (1963). A mixed halls of residence on the site of the playing field.
- Royal Ford Hall of Residence (November 1965); off-site.
- Birley Building (1968). Included a refectory, kitchen and teaching rooms.
- Assembly hall and drama studio (1968; constructed between 1963 and 1964).
- Sports centre and swimming pool (1973).
- Purpose-built library (1975).

Park End House, originally a home for the principal, was converted into residential accommodation in 1946, and houses on Didsbury Park were purchased by the college in the 1960s as student hostels. In 1968 the bedrooms of the college were converted into tutorial offices, and the Old Social Room, which had been built during the Second World War, was converted into a college club, complete with a bar, which eventually moved into the Old Chapel.

Didsbury Teacher Training College was renamed Didsbury College of Education in 1963, following the Robbins Report on Higher Education. By 1966 student numbers had risen to 1,100, with 107 staff. In the late 1960s, under the second principal Ronald Goldman, plans were made to change the college into the University of South Manchester, though these never came to fruition. By 1970 student numbers had increased significantly, to 1,550.

### Polytechnic and university: 1977–2014

Didsbury became part of Manchester Polytechnic in 1977, renamed Didsbury School of Education. The merger was met with some opposition by students, who considered the polytechnic to be "quite different" from the college. The City of Manchester College of Higher Education merged with the polytechnic in 1983, and in 1992 it gained university status, becoming Manchester Metropolitan University. In the same year it merged with Crewe and Alsager College, which became the university's Cheshire campus. As part of a university, Didsbury was granted an annual research fund of £375,000, and by 1995 the first doctorates in education were being planned, with PhDs introduced later. There were 1,867 students by 1986, and throughout the 1980s and '90s there were ongoing improvements to technology. Computers became commonplace, and interactive whiteboards were introduced across all classrooms by 2009. In 1999 the School of Education became known as the Institute of Education, and student numbers reached a peak of 3,207 in 2004. In 2005 the library was significantly renovated and updated, with mezzanine floors, a lift, and group study rooms being constructed. Didsbury became the base of the Science Learning Centre North West (later known as STEM) in 2005, following the building of new science laboratories costing £2 million. In 2008 the institute was renamed the Faculty of Education. It was placed 8th on the national league tables in the same year, and was the highest rated new university with a large education faculty.

In 2006 the university made proposals to significantly develop Didsbury, bringing the School of Health, Psychology and Social Care and the Institute of Education onto the Didsbury site, after the closure of the Elizabeth Gaskell campus. Plans involved the creation of £19 million multi-storey teaching blocks and upgraded buildings, and improved access to facilities such as the library and sports centre. The plans were criticised by local residents, whose main concern was parking, since the plans could lead to 1,900 new students on site and 240 new staff. By 2008, plans had changed and it was decided to close the Didsbury campus and move the 2,740 students to a new facility in Hulme, later named Birley Fields. This new campus, close to the All Saints campus in the city centre, was designed to replace all of the university's other Manchester campuses, with funds arising from the land that was sold off. Reactions to the announced closure were mixed; local traders and businesses were worried about the impact of the loss of students, but many residents supported the move, especially those who had opposed expansion. The Didsbury campus was finally closed in August 2014, and the new £140 million Birley Fields campus opened on 2 October 2014, after two years of construction. In total, the university spent £350 million on new facilities at Birley Fields, as well as the All Saints and Cheshire campuses.

### St James Park: 2014–present

As of 2018 the site is being redeveloped by local architects PJ Livesey, as a residential area of 93 homes, with the listed buildings being retained. The former administration building will contain 19 apartments, within the original part of the building, and 12 houses in the wings as mews homes; the Old Chapel will contain 10 apartments; the Lodge will become a house; and 801 and 803 Wilmslow Road will become houses. A further 42 three, four, and five-bedroomed houses will be built, along with garages and gardens. There will be 7 new apartments, with an underground car park. The area will be known as St James Park, and a new 420-place primary school, operated by Beaver Road Primary School, will be constructed on the land previously occupied by Broomhurst Hall.

## Academics

When the college was opened in 1946, teacher training followed the standard route of two years, albeit initially taking a shorter time during the first few years as an emergency college. Courses available included rural studies, nature studies, handicraft, metalwork, physical education, mathematics, science, chemistry, music, geography, English, history, drama, art, religious studies, and infant education. As a result of the Robbins Report, the certificate was extended to three years, and in 1966 the first students of the Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree – awarded by the University of Manchester – enrolled, graduating three years later in 1969. One of the most important subjects introduced was education studies, and a graduate course was introduced in the 1960s that would eventually become the PGCE, introduced in the 1970s. Further courses, including sociology, and European and American Studies were also introduced at this time. By the 1970s courses in compensatory education and special needs had been added to the curriculum, in addition to in-service courses for qualified teachers. It was around this time that Didsbury students began to be taught by subject specialists, and the PGCE was organised by subject. In 1973 BEd students were offered a fourth year of studies to gain an honours degree, and in 1980 this became standard for all students. Teaching and learning through ICT became embedded in the 2000s. There was also a degree in early childhood studies available. The latest courses introduced were youth work and social work.

Teaching students spent time away from the campus in a school to develop their skills. The amount of time in schools varied across the years and across courses, with the PGCE students spending 24 weeks in schools. Students were supervised on placement by visiting university tutors. Until 1990 each student had two tutors, to ensure consistency and to moderate, but this was changed to one owing to costs. The BEd began to be phased out from 2005, replaced with a BA degree in primary education.

From the beginning, Didsbury encouraged connections to educational institutions in other countries, with at least 1000 people reported to have visited during the first nine months, from Greece, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and America. Staff and students made visits to foreign countries, including Germany and Russia, with students from these countries visiting Didsbury. In the 1970s visits to Germany, France, the Netherlands and the United States became a major part of Didsbury's courses, and these relationships were strengthened when the UK joined the European Economic Community. The Erasmus Programme, a European Union initiative set up in 1987, established partner institutions across Europe, allowing staff and students to spend significant amounts of time abroad, most while studying the BEd degree from 1991 onwards. The purpose of Erasmus was to allow students to gain experience in a foreign setting, and return to the UK with knowledge and skills that would impact the children they would teach. As a result of a policy change for accommodation, visits to Finland by students with their children were made possible in 2000. In 2008, it was extended to include Bridgewater State College in the United States, and Hong Kong Institute of Education, despite not being in Europe.

## Buildings

The campus was situated south of Didsbury village on Wilmslow Road, approximately 5.5 miles (8.9 km) from Manchester City Centre, as the road turns east towards Parrs Wood. It contained the following buildings as of the final academic year it was occupied by Manchester Metropolitan University:

### Listed buildings

#### Administration building

The administration building (now known as Sandhurst House) is the oldest building on the site, dating back to around 1785. After the Wesleyans purchased it in 1842, they extended it by adding two Neo-Grecian style wings and a back to form a central courtyard. The architect was probably Richard Lane. The front of the original house was reclad in a sandstone ashlar facade, with the original rear and courtyard walls of Flemish bond red brick remaining. In 1930 glazed skylights were added to the slate roofs, and the Old Social Room, later the student resource centre, was built in the courtyard during the Second World War.

The west side of the original three-storey building consists of five bays, with the two-storey 1842 additions making a total of 11 bays. There are four pilasters decorated with carved lotus leaf capitals and acanthus bases. Pevsner suggests that these architectural details were taken from illustrations by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett of the Ancient Greek Tower of the Winds in Athens, and notes that identical decorations can be seen on another house by Lane at 84 Plymouth Grove in Manchester, later occupied by Elizabeth Gaskell. The east range consists of 16 bays, with a passageway in the centre. The main entrance hall contains an elliptical spiral staircase with an iron balustrade, which leads up to the former reception rooms and bedrooms. This building was designated a Grade II\* listed building on 25 February 1952.

During the time the university occupied the site, the building contained bedrooms for students, and later, most of the offices of lecturers and administration staff.

#### Old Chapel

The Old Chapel building, originally the college chapel, is one of the campus's listed buildings, gaining Grade II listed status on 6 June 1994. It is a two-storey building constructed in gothic style, with Flemish bond brickwork, built on a sandstone plinth in 1842. It is also likely to be the work of Richard Lane. The structure consists of three wings, containing a central hall range, with two domestic wings on each side, initially used as tutor accommodation, forming a symmetrical appearance with the gable end of the upper hall. For many years it was used as a library and lecture theatre. The ground floor eventually became the student union, and contained a bar and café. The first floor was used as the base of ESRI (Education and Social Research Institute) and lecture space.

#### The Lodge

This building is situated near to the Old Chapel on the edge of the campus, and was constructed in the 1870s as a gatehouse. As an associated building to the grander college building, it is considered to be curtilage listed. In modern times it housed security and is due to be developed as a private property.

### Other buildings

The Birley Building was a four-storey building which contained the refectory and kitchen, a conference centre, and numerous classrooms, including art and ceramic studios and computer suites. It was attached directly to the library, which was spread over three floors and modernised in 2005. It contained group work rooms and study areas. Academic books and journals were available for research, as well as children's books and other resources for students to use during school-based placements.

The Behrens Building was three floors high and mainly consisted of classrooms, although it originally contained a student common room and study area. During the library's redesign, the ground floor of Behrens was used as a temporary library.

Attached to Behrens was the Simon Building, which contained a variety of rooms including classrooms, lecture theatres, science laboratories, offices, music rooms, technology rooms, and the assembly hall and foyer. At basement level there was a drama studio. The Simon Building originally contained a gymnasium and refectory with an associated kitchen, and in 2006 there were proposals to demolish part of the building to make space for new teaching facilities.

The sports centre, which was open to the public, contained a dance studio, a gym, and a sports hall, as well as changing rooms. Until 2000 it also housed a swimming pool, but this was closed as a result of the opening of Manchester Aquatics Centre, despite protests by local residents. Externally there were tennis courts. Other buildings on the campus included temporary classrooms, some dating from the 1940s.

Grade II* listed buildings in Manchester

Methodist seminaries and theological colleges

Teacher training colleges in the United Kingdom