GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)

GoldenEye 007 is a 1997 first-person shooter video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. Based on the 1995 James Bond film GoldenEye, the player controls the secret agent James Bond to prevent a criminal syndicate from using a satellite weapon. They navigate a series of levels to complete objectives, such as recovering or destroying objects, while shooting enemies. In a multiplayer mode, up to four players compete in several deathmatch scenarios via split-screen.

Development began in January 1995. An inexperienced team led by Martin Hollis developed GoldenEye 007 over two-and-a-half years. The game was conceived initially as a rail shooter in the style of SEGA's Virtua Cop (1994), later developing into a first-person shooter. Rare visited the GoldenEye set for reference, and Eon Productions and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer allowed them to expand the game with sequences and characters not featured in the film.

GoldenEye 007 was released in August 1997, almost two years after the release of the film but shortly before the release of its sequel Tomorrow Never Dies. It faced low expectations from the gaming media during development. However, it received critical acclaim and sold over eight million copies, making it the third-bestselling Nintendo 64 game. The game was praised for its visuals, gameplay depth and variety, and multiplayer mode. In 1998, it received the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Games Award and four awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.

GoldenEye 007 demonstrated the viability of home consoles as platforms for first-person shooters, and signalled a transition from Doom-like shooters to a more realistic style. It pioneered features such as atmospheric single-player missions, stealth elements, and multiplayer console deathmatch. The game is considered one of the greatest video games ever made, with many of its elements, such as the Klobb gun, leaving an enduring impression in video game culture. A spiritual successor, Perfect Dark, was released in 2000, while a remake developed by Eurocom, also titled GoldenEye 007, was released in 2010. The original game was rereleased in January 2023 on Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S via Xbox Game Pass and Nintendo Switch via Nintendo Switch Online.

## Gameplay

GoldenEye 007 is a first-person shooter where the player takes the role of Secret Intelligence Service agent James Bond through a series of levels. In each level, the player must complete a set of objectives while computer-controlled opponents try to hinder the player's progress. Objectives range from recovering items to destroying objects, defeating enemies, or rescuing hostages. Some objectives may also require the player to use high-tech gadgets. For example, in one level, the player must use Bond's electromagnetic watch to acquire a jail cell key. Although the player begins each level with a limited amount of supplies, additional weapons and ammunition can be acquired from defeated enemies. There are no health-recovery items, but body armour can be acquired to provide a secondary health bar.

The game features more than 20 weapons, including pistols, submachine guns, assault rifles, a sniper rifle, grenades, and throwing knives. Most weapons have a finite magazine and must be reloaded after a certain number of shots. Although each weapon has its own characteristics, ammunition is interchangeable between some weapon types. For example, pistols and submachine guns share the same ammunition. Weapons inflict different levels of damage depending on which body part they hit. Head shots cause the most damage, while arm and leg shots inflict the least damage. The Klobb, a submachine gun with a folding stock, possesses a high rate of fire and a wide bullet spread compared to other weapons, but is severely underpowered with a heavy recoil. The Klobb can be dual-wielded for additional firepower. Stealth is often encouraged, as frequent gunfire can alert distant guards and alarms can spawn enemies. Certain weapons incorporate a suppressor or a telescopic sight to aid the player in killing enemies discreetly.

Each level can be played on three difficulty settings: Agent, Secret Agent, and 00 Agent. These affect aspects such as the damage enemies can withstand and inflict, the amount of ammunition available, and the number of objectives that must be completed. Two bonus levels can be unlocked by completing the game on Special Agent and then on 00 Agent. The player may also replay previously completed levels within target times to unlock bonus cheat options such as infinite ammunition or invincibility. Upon completing the game on the three difficulty settings, an additional mode is unlocked, allowing the player to customise the difficulty of a level by manually adjusting enemies' health, reaction times, aiming accuracy, and the damage they inflict.

### Multiplayer

GoldenEye 007 features a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete in several deathmatch scenarios via split-screen. These include Normal, You Only Live Twice, The Living Daylights, The Man With the Golden Gun, and Licence to Kill. Normal is a standard mode where players score points by killing opponents. Players can be grouped in teams or compete individually. You Only Live Twice gives players two lives before they are eliminated from the game, resulting in the last surviving player winning the match. In Licence to Kill, players die from a single hit with any weapon. Due to its high rate of fire and wide bullet spread, the Klobb is highly advantageous in this scenario.

In The Man With the Golden Gun, a single Golden Gun, which is capable of killing opponents with one shot, is placed in a fixed location in the level. Once the Golden Gun is picked up, the only way to re-acquire it is by killing the player holding it. In The Living Daylights, a flag is placed in a fixed location in the level, and the player who holds it the longest wins. The flag carrier cannot use weapons but can collect them to keep opponents from stocking ammunition. Options such as the chosen level, characters to play as, weapons available, and game length can be customised for each scenario. Additional levels and characters can be unlocked as the player progresses through the single-player game.

## Plot

In 1986 Arkhangelsk, Soviet Union, MI6 has uncovered a secret chemical weapons facility at the Byelomorye Dam. James Bond and fellow 00-agent Alec Trevelyan are sent to infiltrate the facility and plant explosive charges. During the mission, Trevelyan is shot by General Arkady Ourumov, while Bond escapes by commandeering an aeroplane.

Five years later in 1991, Bond is sent to investigate a satellite control station in Severnaya, Russia, where programmer Boris Grishenko works. In 1993, Bond investigates an unscheduled test firing of a missile in Kyrgyzstan, believed to be a cover for the launch of a satellite known as GoldenEye. This space-based weapon works by firing a concentrated electromagnetic pulse (EMP) at any Earth target to disable any electrical circuit within range. As Bond leaves the silo, he is ambushed by Ourumov and a squad of Russian troops. Ourumov manages to escape during the encounter.

In 1995, Bond visits Monte Carlo to investigate the frigate La Fayette, where he rescues several hostages and plants a tracker bug on the Pirate helicopter before it is stolen by the Janus crime syndicate. Bond is then sent a second time to Severnaya, but during the mission, he is captured and locked up in the bunker's cells along with Natalya Simonova, a captive computer programmer unwilling to work with Janus. They both escape the complex seconds before it is destroyed—on the orders of Ourumov—by the GoldenEye satellite's EMP. Bond next travels to Saint Petersburg, where he arranges with ex-KGB agent Valentin Zukovsky to meet the chief of the Janus organisation. This is revealed to be Alec Trevelyan—his execution by Ourumov in the Arkhangelsk facility was faked.

Bond and Natalya escape from Trevelyan, but are arrested by the Russian police and taken to the military archives for interrogation. Eventually, Bond escapes the interrogation room, rescues Natalya, and communicates with Defence Minister Dimitri Mishkin, who has verified Bond's claim of Ourumov's treachery. Natalya is recaptured by General Ourumov, and Bond gives chase through the streets of St. Petersburg, eventually reaching an arms depot used by Janus. There, Bond destroys its weaponry stores and then hitches a ride on Trevelyan's ex-Soviet missile train, where he kills Ourumov and rescues Natalya. However, Alec Trevelyan and his ally Xenia Onatopp escape to their secret base in Cuba.

Natalya accompanies Bond to the Caribbean. Surveying the Cuban jungle aerially, their light aircraft is shot down. Unscathed, Bond and Natalya perform a ground search of the area's heavily guarded jungle terrain but are ambushed by Xenia, who is quickly killed by Bond. Bond sneaks Natalya into the control centre to disrupt transmissions to the GoldenEye satellite and force it to burn up in the Earth's atmosphere. He then follows the fleeing Trevelyan through a series of flooded caverns, eventually arriving at the antenna of the control centre's radio telescope. Trevelyan attempts to re-align it in a final attempt to restore contact with the GoldenEye, but Bond destroys machinery vital to controlling the antenna and defeats Trevelyan in a gunfight on a platform above the dish.

## Development

### Design

GoldenEye 007 was developed by the British studio Rare and directed by Martin Hollis, who had previously worked as a second programmer on the coin-op version of Killer Instinct. In November 1994, after Nintendo and Rare discussed the possibility of developing a game based on the upcoming James Bond film GoldenEye, Hollis told Tim Stamper, Rare's managing director, that he was interested in the project. Due to the success of Rare's 1994 game Donkey Kong Country, GoldenEye 007 was originally suggested as a 2D platformer for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. However, Hollis proposed a 3D shooting game for the upcoming Nintendo 64 console. He created a document with design ideas, including gadgets, weapons, characters, story digression from the film, and artificial intelligence (AI) that would react to the player.

Rare named Sega's 1994 light gun shooter Virtua Cop, id Software's seminal 1993 first-person shooter Doom and the Nintendo 64 launch game Super Mario 64 as influences. Features such as gun reloading, position-dependent hit reaction animations, penalties for killing innocent characters, and the aiming system that is activated with the R button of the Nintendo 64 controller were adopted from Virtua Cop. The developers considered having players reload weapons by unplugging and re-inserting the Rumble Pak on the controller, but Nintendo opposed the idea. The concept of several varied objectives within each mission was inspired by the multiple tasks in each stage of Super Mario 64.

The team visited the studios of the GoldenEye film several times to collect photographs and blueprints of the sets. Eon Productions and MGM, the companies that control the James Bond films, granted the team a broad licence, and many levels were extended or modified to allow the player to participate in sequences not seen in the film. Although the reference material was used for authenticity, the team was not afraid to add to it to help the game design. John Woo films such as Hard Boiled influenced the visual effects and kinetic moments. Details such as bullet marks on walls, cartridge cases being ejected from guns, and objects exploding were part of the design. Hollis wanted players to receive a lot of feedback from the environment when they shot.

The team considered implementing both on-rails and free-roaming modes because they did not know how the Nintendo 64 controller would work, and the game's gas plant location was modelled with a predetermined path in mind. A modified Sega Saturn controller was used for some early playtesting. The designers' initial priority was purely on the creation of interesting spaces; level design and balance considerations such as the placement of start and exit points, characters and objectives did not begin until this process was complete. According to Hollis, this unplanned approach gave many levels a realistic and non-linear feel, with several rooms having no direct relevance to a level.

### Production

Work on GoldenEye 007 began in January 1995 with a team hired by Hollis: programmer Mark Edmonds, background artist Karl Hilton, and character artist B. Jones. Edmonds focused on creating a game engine that could render 3D graphics from art packages into Nintendo 64 data structures. Hilton modelled levels based on the film material, while Jones constructed characters based on photos and costumes they had. Since final Nintendo 64 specifications and development kits were not initially available to Rare, the team had to estimate the finalised console's capabilities using an SGI Onyx workstation and Nintendo's custom NINGEN development software. In the following months, designer Duncan Botwood joined the team to construct the levels. The first year was spent producing art assets and developing the engine, which originally only allowed the player and enemies to move around a virtual environment.

After the first year of development, Rare added more staff to the project. The first addition was designer David Doak, who helped with the level designs and worked on the AI scripting. He explained how the stealth elements were implemented: "Whenever you fired a gun, it had a radius test and alerted the non-player characters within that radius. If you fired the same gun again within a certain amount of time, it did a larger radius test and I think there was a third even larger radius after that. It meant if you found one guy and shot him in the head and then didn't fire again, the timer would reset." Windows throughout the game were programmed so that enemies cannot see through them. Though unrealistic, this encouraged the player to use windows to spy on enemies.

Hollis hired a second programmer, Steve Ellis, six months later. Although Ellis assisted the development team in many areas and programmed the cheat options, he was mostly responsible for implementing the multiplayer mode, which was added roughly six months before release. According to Doak, Ellis "sat in a room with all the code written for a single-player game and turned GoldenEye into a multiplayer game." The team spent numerous late evenings playtesting it. The multiplayer levels are based on single-player missions and some of them do not support four players because they were initially not designed to handle multiplayer action. A firing range was modelled as an environment, but was not added.

Because the team assumed they could use anything from the James Bond universe, the multiplayer mode features characters that appear in previous Bond films. Actors who portrayed Bond in previous films were playable during development, but were removed because Rare was unable to get Sean Connery's permission to use his likeness. Despite their fictional names, most weapons were modelled after real-world firearms such as the Walther PPK, the AK-47, and the FN P90. The Klobb was inspired by the Škorpion, a Czechoslovak submachine gun with a folding stock. Its name was chosen to honor Ken Lobb, who was Rare's Nintendo-side producer and contact at the time. Another weapon, the DD44 Dostovei, was named after Doak's initials. Adrian Smith, the game's third and last artist, who had already worked on some games at Rare, was in charge of producing visual effects such as muzzle flashes and explosions. He mentioned the 1995 film Heat as an influence.

The final Nintendo 64 hardware could render polygons faster than the SGI Onyx workstation the development team had been using. This helped the developers significantly, as some backgrounds rendered at 2 frames per second on the Onyx without even drawing enemies, objects, or Bond's gun. However, the textures had to be cut down by half. Hilton explained one method of improving performance: "A lot of GoldenEye is in black and white. RGB colour textures cost a lot more in terms of processing power. You could do double the resolution if you used greyscale, so a lot was done like that. If I needed a bit of colour, I'd add it in the vertex." When Super Mario 64 was released in 1996, the 3D collision detection system was influential for Hollis because GoldenEye 007 was originally using a 2D method.

The music was primarily composed by Graeme Norgate and Grant Kirkhope. Norgate previously penned the music of Blast Corps, while Kirkhope composed the music of Donkey Kong Land 2. Robin Beanland, the game's third composer, only wrote the elevator music that can be heard in certain levels. All the sound effects were created by Norgate and a lot of effort was put into combining and permuting sounds in different ways to create a satisfying feel. According to Hollis, whenever the player shoots a gun, up to nine different sound effects will randomly trigger. When the game was reviewed by Nintendo shortly before it was released, the company was slightly concerned about the amount of violence and gunplay. As a result, the team toned down the killing and added an end credits sequence that introduces all the non-player characters, giving the game a filmic sense. The game received a Teen rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board.

GoldenEye 007 was released on a 96-megabit cartridge on 25 August 1997. Although this was over a year and a half after the release of the GoldenEye film, the game benefited from publicity for the upcoming James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies. Every cartridge of the game contains a ZX Spectrum emulator with ten Rare developed games. This function was originally made as an experimental side project by Rare and was deactivated in the final version, but has since been unlocked through fan-made patches. The development of GoldenEye 007 took more than two and a half years to complete and had a budget of US\$2 million.

## Reception

Despite low expectations among the gaming media and an unsuccessful showing at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Atlanta in 1997, GoldenEye 007 received widespread acclaim from critics and was a commercial success. In 1998, it sold approximately 2.1 million copies. By 2001, it had sold over seven million copies worldwide. Overall, GoldenEye 007 sold more than eight million units worldwide, making it the third-best-selling Nintendo 64 game, behind Super Mario 64 and Mario Kart 64. According to a paper published on the website of the Entertainment Software Association, the game grossed \$250 million worldwide.

Graphically, GoldenEye 007 was praised for its varied and detailed environments, realistic animations, and special effects such as glass transparencies and lingering smoke. Nintendo Power said the frame rate in multiplayer games was high, while Electronic Gaming Monthly described it as somewhat choppy and sluggish. The zoomable sniper rifle was praised as one of the most impressive and entertaining features, with Edge describing it as a "novel twist" and Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot noting its ability to alleviate the distance fog. The music was praised for its inclusion of the "James Bond Theme" and for adding ambience. Some levels begin in lifts and feature transitions from elevator music to full soundtracks, which Gerstmann cited as an illustration of the attention to detail.

The gameplay was highlighted for its depth and requiring more stealth and intelligence than earlier first-person shooters. IGN's Doug Perry called GoldenEye 007 an immersive game which "blends smart strategy gameplay with fast-action gunmanship". Similarly, Greg Sewart of Gaming Age remarked that players have "a bit of freedom as to what they want to do in any given situation, and what order the directives are completed in". Reviewers also enjoyed the wide variety of weapons and the multi-objective-based missions, stating that they kept the game fresh. The controls were praised for being more intuitive than Acclaim's earlier well-received Nintendo 64 first-person shooter Turok: Dinosaur Hunter, though some found the cursor targeting difficult to master. GameRevolution credited the gameplay for being realistic and different from other shooters, but also criticised the campaign for being badly paced. The publication noted that GoldenEye 007 "takes it for granted that you have already seen the movie" and that players may get stuck due to the game's lack of orientation.

At the time, GoldenEye 007 was considered the best multiplayer game on the system, "edging Mario Kart 64 by a hair" according to IGN. Edge called it addictive and praised the originality of some of the scenarios such as You Only Live Twice. GamePro said the multiplayer modes "will have you shooting your friends for the rest of the year", while Next Generation highlighted the number of multiplayer options, calling GoldenEye 007 "a surprising killer app, if only for the smashing multiplayer options. The excellent single-player game backing it up makes it well worth buying indeed." The game was also hailed for its accurate and detailed adaptation of the film, with GamePro going so far as to call it "one of the best movie-to-game translations ever". The ability to use numerous signature Bond gadgets and weapons was considered a particularly strong element in this regard. Crispin Boyer of Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that Rare "has packed everything that's cool about 007 into this game."

GoldenEye 007 received multiple year-end awards, including the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Games Award in 1998, and four awards from the inaugural AIAS Interactive Achievement Awards: "Interactive Title of the Year", "Console Game of the Year", "Console Action Game of the Year", and "Outstanding Achievement in Software Engineering"; it also received nominations for "Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics" and "Outstanding Achievement in Interactive Design". Electronic Gaming Monthly named it both Most Addictive Game and Best Movie to Game in their 1998 Video Game Buyer's Guide, and Game of the Year in their Editor's Choice Awards. Rare won the BAFTA award for Best UK Developer.

## Legacy

### Retrospective appraisal

GoldenEye 007 has been credited for proving that it is possible to create a "fun" first-person shooter experience on a home console in both single-player and multiplayer modes—when the game was released, the first-person shooter genre was primarily for PC games. The game opened the genre to the console market, and it has been credited for paving the way for the popularity of Halo and Call of Duty. The game's introduction of a multiplayer deathmatch mode on a console is often credited for having revolutionised the genre, with Edge stating that it set the standard for multiplayer console combat until it was surpassed by Halo: Combat Evolved in 2001. GoldenEye 007 also introduced stealth elements that were unprecedented in first-person shooters. The game's use of realistic gameplay, which contrasted with the approaches taken by Doom clones, and its context-sensitive hit locations on enemies added a realism that was previously unseen in video games, although the 1996 Team Fortress computer mod for Quake had previously introduced headshots. Alongside Shiny Entertainment's 1997 third-person shooter MDK, GoldenEye 007 has been credited with pioneering and popularising the now-standard inclusion of scoped sniper rifles in video games.

GoldenEye 007 is frequently cited as one of the greatest video games of all time. Shortly after its release in 1997, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked GoldenEye 007 the 25th best console video game of all time, calling it "easily the best movie game, and, more importantly, the best first-person game ever." In 1999, Next Generation editors placed GoldenEye 007 at No. 10 on their list of Top 50 Games of All Time, commenting, "Marrying Doom-style shooting with trademark Bond missions, GoldenEye is the perfect thinking-man's shooter." In 2000, Computer and Video Games readers ranked GoldenEye 007 first place in the magazine's poll of 100 Greatest Games of All Time, and fifth in a similar poll the following year. In 2001, Game Informer ranked the game 16th on its list of Top 100 Games of All Time. In 2004, Retro Gamer readers voted GoldenEye 007 as the 33rd greatest retro game, with editors calling it "easily the best Bond game to date." In 2005, IGN editors ranked the game 29th on their list of Top 100 Games of All Time, while readers placed it at seventh on a separate list. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game 55th on a list of greatest Nintendo games.

Edge has featured GoldenEye 007 prominently in several "greatest game" lists. The game was ranked third in a staff-voted poll in 2000, was included as one of the publication's top ten shooters in 2003, and was placed at No. 17 in a staff, reader, and gaming industry-voted poll in 2007. Although Edge awarded GoldenEye 007 a score of 9 out of 10 upon its release, the publication acknowledged in 2013 that the game should have received the highest score. With its eight million copies sold, GoldenEye 007 was a significant contributor in helping the Nintendo 64 remain competitive against the PlayStation, although Nintendo ultimately lost much of the market share. GamePro called GoldenEye 007 the console killer app of the 1990s and the greatest licensed game from a film of all time, while Nintendo Power considered the multiplayer mode one of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo history.

In a retrospective analysis, Nintendo Life editor Mark Reece gave GoldenEye 007 eight out of ten, stating that although the multiplayer mode stands up well, its graphics, audio and "fiddly" aiming system are dated. He noted that GoldenEye 007's approach to difficulty settings provides considerable replay value, but is a system rarely used in modern first-person shooters. Writing for NME on the game's 20th anniversary, journalist Mark Beaumont highlighted the immersive graphics, aesthetic, location-based damage on enemies, and revolutionary multiplayer mode, stating that it "helped to introduce gaming as a group event". In 2011, the game was selected as one of 80 games from the past 40 years to be placed in the Art of Video Games exhibit in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, DC.

### The Klobb

The Klobb has been retrospectively described by critics as a memorable aspect of the gameplay of GoldenEye 007, albeit for its negative traits; despite its high rate of fire, it deals a low amount of damage and is extremely inaccurate. In a contemporaneous review, Edge remarked that the ability to dual-wield the Klobb is one of the most satisfying moments, and argued that it is likely to be remembered by players unlike the vast majority of video game weapons. In their view, imperfection adds both realism and unpredictability to a game, and that the moments created by this were something that designers were beginning to realize were just as valuable as creating a "perfect" weapon. Simon Parkin of Eurogamer noted the naming of the Klobb as one of the first times that issues arose over using real-life gun names for in-game weapons, as GoldenEye 007 was one of the first console games to feature 3D firearms. Parkin noted that while the invented gun names were "acceptable in the fictional universe of James Bond", he emphasized that "for those games based around real armed forces, the inclusion of brand names was necessary to remain faithful to the source material." The gun was included in the video game Too Human as "KLOBB", due to Ken Lobb's association with the game's developers, Silicon Knights.

### Rerelease

An Xbox Live Arcade (XBLA) remaster was in development at Rare for several months in 2008. The remaster was set to add several new features, including online multiplayer and the ability to toggle between the original and updated graphics. Though it reportedly needed only two more months of development before it was finished, the remaster was cancelled because Nintendo, MGM, and Microsoft, which acquired Rare in 2002, were unable to come to a licensing agreement. According to Rare's Ross Bury, Mark Edmonds, and Chris Tilston, Rare began developing the remaster in late 2006, shortly after the Stamper brothers had left Rare and after the company had completed Perfect Dark Zero and Kameo. Microsoft had suggested that GoldenEye 007 would be appropriate for XBLA, leading Rare to start on the remaster prior to getting Nintendo's permission, believing it would not have been a problem because GoldenEye 007 was one of the most popular Nintendo 64 games. Rare had completed the conversion and removed most of the bugs before they learned that Nintendo had not cleared it. This halted development until negotiation on rights could be discussed, which ultimately fell through. In January 2021, a full playthrough of a prototype of the XBLA version was streamed to YouTube, showcasing improved graphics running at 60 frames per second. Later, a near-final playable ROM image of the XBLA game was leaked online from an unknown source.

In January 2022, achievements for an Xbox One version of GoldenEye 007 were leaked. In June 2022, the same leaked achievements were seen on Xbox servers. VGC and Eurogamer reported that the leaked achievements suggested an official release was imminent. In September 2022, Nintendo and Rare announced the Nintendo 64 version would be rereleased on Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S through Xbox Game Pass, and on Nintendo Switch through the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack subscription service. The Xbox version was remastered by Code Mystics and supports 4K resolution displays, but does not include any of the enhancements from the canceled XBLA remaster. The Switch release is playable in both the original 4:3 aspect ratio as well as widescreen (the same goes with the Xbox version), and is the only one to feature online multiplayer, via the Nintendo Switch Online emulator's built-in online multiplayer functionality. Both versions were published by Xbox Game Studios on 27 January 2023. Players who digitally purchased Rare's 2015 Xbox One compilation Rare Replay received the game for free.

### Related games

After GoldenEye 007 was released, Rare began development of a spiritual successor, Perfect Dark. Using an upgraded version of the GoldenEye 007 game engine, Perfect Dark was released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000. Although the game features a setting and storyline unrelated to James Bond, it shares many gameplay features, including a similar control scheme, mission objectives that vary with difficulty settings, and cheat options unlockable through quick level completions. While Perfect Dark was still in development, Martin Hollis left Rare to work as a consultant on the development of the GameCube at Nintendo of America. Other members of the GoldenEye 007 team also left the studio to form Free Radical Design. The company developed the TimeSplitters series of first-person shooters. These games contain several references to GoldenEye 007, including the design of the health-HUD, the nature of the aiming system, and the Russian dam setting of the opening level of TimeSplitters 2.

After forming a partnership with MGM in late 1998, Electronic Arts published games based on then-recent James Bond films, Tomorrow Never Dies and The World Is Not Enough, as well as entirely original ones, including Agent Under Fire, Nightfire, Everything or Nothing and GoldenEye: Rogue Agent. Although Nintendo considered the possibility of bringing GoldenEye 007 to the Wii's Virtual Console in 2006, the game was never released for the platform due to legal issues involving the numerous licence holders with rights to the game and to the James Bond intellectual property. In 2006, the James Bond game licence was acquired by Activision. Activision published more games, including Quantum of Solace, Blood Stone and a 2010 remake of GoldenEye 007''''. The remake features Daniel Craig as the playable character, contemporary first-person shooter conventions, new level layouts, and online multiplayer. Activision lost the James Bond game licence in 2014.

In 2010, an independent development team released GoldenEye: Source, a multiplayer-only total conversion mod that runs on the Source engine. GoldenEye 007 had initially been intended for inclusion in Rare Replay; a behind-the-scenes featurette for the compilation was produced, but was not released until being leaked in 2019. A fan remake powered by Unreal Engine 4, GoldenEye 25, was in development and originally scheduled for a 2022 release in honour of the game's 25th anniversary, but it was retooled into an original property called S.P.I.E.S. after MGM sent a cease and desist letter to the developers.

1997 first-person shooter video game

BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for Best Games winners

D.I.C.E. Award for Action Game of the Year winners

D.I.C.E. Award for Game of the Year winners

D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Technical Achievement winners

Multiplayer and single-player video games

Video games based on works by Michael France

Video games developed in the United Kingdom


2011 Tirreno–Adriatico

The 2011 Tirreno–Adriatico was the 46th running of the Tirreno–Adriatico cycling stage race, often known as the Race of two seas. It started on 9 March in Marina di Carrara and ended on 15 March in San Benedetto del Tronto and consisted of seven stages, including a team time trial to begin the race and an individual time trial to conclude it. It was the third race of the 2011 UCI World Tour season.

The race was won by rider Cadel Evans, who claimed the leader's blue jersey on stage five before a stage win on stage six. Evans' winning margin over runner-up Robert Gesink () was 11 seconds, as Gesink overhauled both Ivan Basso of and 's Michele Scarponi on the final time trial stage. Scarponi – winner of the fourth stage – completed the podium, 15 seconds down on Evans.

In the race's other classifications, Gesink's second place overall won him the white jersey for the highest placed rider aged 25 or under, and Scarponi took home the red jersey for amassing the highest number of points during stages at intermediate sprints and stage finishes. rider Davide Malacarne won the King of the Mountains classification, with finishing at the head of the teams classification.

## Teams

The Tirreno–Adriatico was part of the 2011 UCI World Tour, so all 18 UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to attend. Two UCI Professional Continental teams were awarded wildcards. These were the team of defending champion Stefano Garzelli and the team of Italian national champion Giovanni Visconti, both of whom were present in the race.

The full list of participating teams is:

## Race previews and favorites

Numerous notable riders were present in the race peloton, though their reasons for attending varied slightly. Top stage racers like Cadel Evans, Ivan Basso, Robert Gesink, Vincenzo Nibali, Joaquim Rodríguez, Andy Schleck, and Marco Pinotti were present. Evans' attendance was mainly for racing kilometers before attempting to win the Tour de France. Basso, who likewise planned to peak at the Tour de France, came to the race hoping for overall victory. He named Gesink as a potential rival, and Gesink for his part claimed Basso as a rider he fears. Schleck, Nibali, and Evans were named by one pre-race analysis as possible contenders, but not favorites, due to their plans to be at peak form later in the season.

Other riders named as contenders included Philippe Gilbert, Damiano Cunego, Thomas Löfkvist, David Millar, Italian national champion Giovanni Visconti and Edvald Boasson Hagen. 2010's top two, Stefano Garzelli and Michele Scarponi, both returned, but as the race had no time trial in 2010 and had two in 2011, their chances were diminished due to their relatively weak time trial skills. Other notable riders present in the field included 2008 winner Fabian Cancellara, American time trial specialist David Zabriskie, Italian classics rider and former Tirreno–Adriatico podium finisher Alessandro Ballan, former Italian national champion Filippo Pozzato, 2010 Giro d'Italia runner-up David Arroyo, and Australian sprinter Robbie McEwen.

Despite there being only two flat stages (the first two road race days), many top-tier sprinters started the race, as the Tirreno–Adriatico is traditionally considered to be excellent preparation for Milan–San Remo. Every Milan–San Remo winner since Andrei Tchmil in 1999 raced Tirreno–Adriatico (rather than Paris–Nice) beforehand. Tyler Farrar, Tom Boonen, Alessandro Petacchi, André Greipel, world champion Thor Hushovd, the aforementioned McEwen, and the last two Milan–San Remo winners Mark Cavendish and Óscar Freire all started the race.

The stage 1 team time trial was the first in the Tirreno–Adriatico's 46-year history. The individual time trial returned in stage 7, after not being present in 2010. Along with the two flat stages and the two time trials were three hilly stages. While there were no exceptionally high passes visited in the race, each of the hilly stages was long and featured several small, steep ascents. Stages 4 and 5 were both 240 km (150 mi) in length, which is long for stages in a multi-day race. The five road races covered 1,049 km (652 mi) in total.

## Stages

### Stage 1

9 March 2011 – Marina di Carrara, 16.8 km (10.4 mi), team time trial (TTT)

The race of the two seas began with a flat team time trial starting and ending in Marina di Carrara in Tuscany on the Tyrrhenian coast. The course cut inland briefly, but doubled back and ended less than a kilometer from where it started.

The Dutch team was the first out of the starthouse, finishing with six of their eight riders in a time of 18' 08". The stage's main favorites took the course later, and each fell short of the time set. had a slow start, but picked up speed as their ride wore on, finishing second nine seconds slower than Rabobank. and , winners of the TTT in the respective last two editions of the Giro d'Italia, finished third and fifth at 10 and 22 seconds off Rabobank's time. sprinter André Greipel crashed in the warmups for the TTT and suffered numerous facial injuries. He rode the time trial with several bandages on his head, and abandoned the race before stage 2 with his left eye swollen completely shut.

The team, driven by world time trial champion Fabian Cancellara, had trouble retaining the minimum of five riders. Tom Stamsnijder fell off the group's pace outside the final kilometer and Cancellara, likely unaware, kept drilling his squad to get them to the line as fast as possible. Their time was not taken until Stamsnijder finished, several seconds after the first four riders, giving them seventh place at 29 seconds back. The squads of Michele Scarponi, Giovanni Visconti, and defending champion Stefano Garzelli all lost considerable time, finishing 37, 55, and 47 seconds off the pace respectively. Lars Boom took the first blue jersey as race leader since he had been the first Rabobank rider to cross the finish line, but more significant was the time in hand the result meant for Robert Gesink against his rivals for the overall classification.

### Stage 2

10 March 2011 – Carrara to Arezzo, 202 km (126 mi)

The profile for the first road race stage was largely flat, with two small climbs coming about two-thirds of the way in. The course was easterly, heading from the start town of Carrara to the frazione of Indicatore in Arezzo.

Despite the stage being all but certain to end in a field sprint, Javier Aramendia, Leonardo Giordani, and Olivier Kaisen tried their luck with a breakaway after just 3 km (1.9 mi). They were able to increase their advantage by two minutes at one point when the peloton was caught behind a closed railroad crossing, and the race jury decided that the breakaway would not have to stop while the peloton did. When their advantage hit 7'30", the chase, led largely by , began in earnest. Tom Boonen and Mark Cavendish were both gapped off during the chase. Boonen finished 91 seconds back on the day, and though Cavendish did rejoin the leading group, he was not a factor in the sprint finish. The three-man breakaway was caught 44 km (27 mi) from the finish line, leaving Kaisen's teammate Vicente Reynés to try a counter-move, but he was never allowed more than 30 seconds' advantage. A large group sprint indeed took place, won by Tyler Farrar after a strong leadout from world champion Thor Hushovd.

### Stage 3

11 March 2011 – Terranuova Bracciolini to Perugia, 189 km (117 mi)

Stage 3 was also flat, heading southeasterly to Perugia in the region of Umbria. A short point-awarding climb occurred 25 km (16 mi) before the finish line.

A lone rider formed the day's breakaway. Daniel Sesma slipped ahead of the peloton after only 2 km (1.2 mi). Given the stage's flat profile and the limited power one rider can muster on his own, he was allowed an advantage of nearly ten minutes at one point, before the chase began. When he was caught, at the 30 km (19 mi) to go mark, the team took to the front of the field to try to set up an attack by their leader Giovanni Visconti. Visconti never had much of an advantage, but the work done by his team did put sprinters like Mark Cavendish into more difficulty than anticipated on the short climb that preceded the finish. For the second day in a row, Cavendish had to chase back on to the main field prior to the mass sprint finale. In the sprint, world champion Thor Hushovd again led out race leader Tyler Farrar, but may have been too strong in so doing, as he briefly opened up a gap on his team leader. Cavendish lost the wheel of his leadout man Mark Renshaw, and again failed to factor into the finish. Hushovd's early leadout left Farrar to go for the finish line from 600 m (2,000 ft) out, which proved too far as Juan José Haedo was able to come around the American at the last moment and just pip him at the line for the victory. Farrar, however, retained the race leadership for another day.

### Stage 4

12 March 2011 – Narni to Chieti, 240 km (150 mi)

In stage 4, the peloton nearly reached the Adriatic coast, ending in Chieti in Abruzzo just a few kilometers away. The course was hilly, with a climb and a descent early on and several short but steep climbs toward the finish.

The first of two very long stages began with a moment of silence in commemoration of the lives lost in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, led by 's Fumiyuki Beppu, the only Japanese rider in the race. Beppu's family was safe, and he chose to continue in the race.

After 25 km (16 mi), a leading trio came clear of the peloton. These were Mikaël Cherel, Gorazd Štangelj, and Sebastian Lang. Their lead exceeded 15 minutes at one point, the most advantage given to a breakaway so far in the race. The mid-course hills took their toll and the leaders' time gap steadily fell as the day went on. Lang was dropped after he punctured and could not chase back on, leaving Cherel and Štangelj alone in front of the race. Their fatigue evident, Cherel tried to ride away from Štangelj with 20 km (12 mi) left to race, but he could not muster much of an attack, and he was brought back 10 km (6.2 mi) later after riding with a very slow cadence and a large gear for those 10 km.

Just before the stage-concluding ascent to the hilltop town of Chieti truly began, world time trial champion Fabian Cancellara, Giovanni Visconti, Dmitriy Muravyev, and world road race champion Thor Hushovd tried a counter-move, but none could keep Cancellara's wheel, so they did not attain a meaningful advantage and were soon brought back. As the climb began, Michele Scarponi, Philippe Gilbert, Danilo Di Luca, and Damiano Cunego went on the attack and gapped off some of their rivals. Ivan Basso and Cadel Evans at first rode more conservatively, but did bridge back up. Scarponi was the strongest of the attackers, quickly surging to the front of the race. Gilbert and then Evans in succession tried to make their way up to him. Cunego marked each move and stayed in their slipstream, so that should the man he was following catch Scarponi, he would be fresher to attack and take victory for his team. Since his teammate was up the road, he did not help either in the chase. Scarponi faded toward the end but held on for victory by a few bike lengths. When it was clear that Scarponi would win the day, Cunego put in a finishing kick to take second place ahead of Evans, giving the top two finishers on the day. Scarponi also won in Chieti in the 2010 Tirreno–Adriatico. The gruppetto containing the sprinters, including overnight race leader Tyler Farrar, was 17 minutes back, so there was a new leader after this stage. That was Robert Gesink, still well-placed because of 's win in the team time trial, but he had had his advantage narrowed by finishing 12 seconds back on this stage.

### Stage 5

13 March 2011 – Chieti to Castelraimondo, 240 km (150 mi)

The fifth stage included the only climb in the race of over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height, the Sasso Tetto cresting at 154 km (96 mi) in. The early part of the route hugged the Adriatic coast before cutting inland for the climbs. The riders saw the finish line twice, taking a 26.6 km (16.5 mi) circuit in Castelraimondo.

Again, the day's principal breakaway was given a large time gap. After 100 km (62 mi), Andrey Amador, Davide Malacarne, Mathew Hayman, Fabian Wegmann and Jens Mouris had a lead of over 11 minutes. The parcours began to take its toll at this point, and as the chase ramped up in the peloton, the time gap fell precipitously. By the time the ascent of the Sasso Tetto began, Mouris was gapped off and lost more and more time as the day went on, eventually finishing 21 minutes behind the stage winner. Hayman and Wegmann kept the pace for a while, and Wegmann won the day's second climb, the Camerino at 201.8 km (125.4 mi), but eventually only Amador and Malacarne were left out front. The second group on the road eventually reduced itself to just a select group of overall favorites and contenders. Amador attacked first on the finishing circuit, but Malacarne made the bridge. Instead of working together to stay away and let a two-up sprint decide the stage winner, Amador and Malacarne sat on one another's wheels and let their rapidly falling advantage dwindle even further. From the elite group of contenders, Pinotti put in an attack on an uphill section of the finishing circuit that effectively gapped off race leader Robert Gesink, who had used up all of his support riders at this point. Gesink finished 17 seconds back on the day, losing the race leadership.

Amador and Malacarne hung on to an advantage of just under two minutes with 10 km (6.2 mi) left to go, meaning they had a chance to stay away. Through a downhill section at 6 km (3.7 mi) to go, their advantage held steady, but the uphill finish was too much for them. They were unaware that Wout Poels had come clear of the elite group of overall favorites and bridged up to them, and the Dutchman was in first position on the road with 200 m (660 ft) to go. But instead of taking the optimal line along the barricades, Poels rode the final meters of the stage in the middle of the road, which gave classics specialist Philippe Gilbert the inside track to pip him at the line for the stage win. Damiano Cunego and Danilo Di Luca also finished at the front of the race, two seconds ahead of the next group. Malacarne's all-day effort in the breakaway did not go unrewarded, as he became the new leader of the mountains classification. Cadel Evans became the new race leader, and he expressed surprise that Gesink had lost it on a day that seemed to suit his strengths.

### Stage 6

14 March 2011 – Ussita to Macerata, 178 km (111 mi)

This course was hilly. The riders rode part of the final kilometer in Macerata twice before the actual conclusion of the race, though they only crossed the finish line once. The final kilometer was uphill; the first visit counted as a point-awarding climb and the second was an intermediate sprint.

The first rider to break away for any length of time was 's Borut Božič, coming clear at the 44 km (27 mi) mark. He was joined shortly thereafter by a bridging Bert Grabsch, and just 6 km (3.7 mi) after Božič's initial escape, the duo had five minutes on the main field. That time gap held steady until the finishing circuits in Macerata began, and the team came forward to lead the chase. The lead was two minutes on the hill climb pass at the end of the first circuit but only 20 seconds on the intermediate sprint at the end of the second, and they were caught not long after.

`continued to work to soften up the field. Przemysław Niemiec was the first, and with only 1.5 km (0.9 mi) left, Damiano Cunego was the last, as their leader Michele Scarponi figured to need to take not only the blue jersey but time in hand over race leader Cadel Evans should he hope to win the race overall, since Evans is the stronger time trialist. On the final ascent, Scarponi and Vincenzo Nibali both got clear of the lead group of overall favorites, but both strangely sat up and stopped riding hard, eying one another, after a turn in the road. This allowed Evans and the other top contenders to catch them. With 200 m (660 ft) to go, Evans hit the front himself, and never gave up first position, holding on for the stage victory. He confirmed after the stage that he had come in simply hoping to retain the race lead, or at least limit any major losses, but when the opportunity to increase that lead presented itself, he took full advantage.`

### Stage 7

15 March 2011 – San Benedetto del Tronto, 9.3 km (5.8 mi), individual time trial (ITT)

The Tirreno–Adriatico ended as its parent race the Giro d'Italia had for the last three seasons, with an individual time trial. San Benedetto del Tronto in the Marche region played host to a perfectly flat out-and-back ride right along the Adriatic coast.

The winning time came early in the day, from a likely source: four-time world time trial champion Fabian Cancellara stopped the clock in 10'33" about two hours before the race's top overall riders took to the course. Though it did hold up as best, Cancellara said afterward that he was far from certain in his time holding up, considering that he had no reference point. In contrast to the world championships, when he has usually started last as the defending champion and therefore knows the times and splits of his rivals, Cancellara had no such information for this ride. It was Cancellara's first win for and only the second win overall for the team, after the GP Samyn.

Later, the race's top riders took the course to decide the overall standings. Robert Gesink, generally regarded as a poor time trialist, put up his second very strong individual performance in as many races, after having won the ITT at the Tour of Oman. He finished ninth on the day, 27 seconds back of Cancellara at an even 11 minutes, and successfully moved up to second in the overall standings. Ivan Basso, regarded as solid but unremarkable in the time trial discipline, had a difficult ride, finishing in 11'16" and slipping to fourth overall. Michele Scarponi did him one second better, at 11'15", but fell short of overtaking even Gesink, let alone race leader Cadel Evans, with that time. Italian national champion Marco Pinotti finished sixth both in the time trial and the race overall, coming in at 10'57" on the day. As race leader, Evans was the last man on course, and he clocked in at 11'04", ceding four seconds to Gesink in 12th place on the day, but this was sufficient for him to win the race overall. He knew Vincenzo Nibali's time, which was 11'14", before he began his ride, but not any of the others of his rivals. Evans became the first rider from the southern hemisphere to win Tirreno–Adriatico. Third place finisher Scarponi won the points classification, having taken the jersey from Tyler Farrar after stage 6. Gesink took home the white jersey, having led the youth classification for the entire race. Stage 5 breakaway man Davide Malacarne was the winner of the mountains classification, and Basso and Nibali's squad won the team award.

## Classification leadership table

In the Tirreno–Adriatico, four different jerseys were awarded. For the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage, and allowing time bonuses in intermediate sprints and at the finish in mass-start stages, the leader received a blue jersey. This classification was considered the most important of the Tirreno–Adriatico, and the winner was considered the winner of the race itself.

Additionally, there was a points classification, which awarded a red jersey. In the points classification, cyclists got points for finishing in the top ten in a stage. The stage win awarded 12 points, second place awarded 10 points, third 8, and one point fewer per place down the line, to a single point for tenth. In addition, the first four riders across the intermediate sprint lines earned points, 5, 3, 2, and 1 in succession.

There is also a mountains classification, which awarded a green jersey. In the mountains classifications, points were won by reaching the top of a mountain before other cyclists. There were sixteen recognized climbs in the race. Unlike most other races, the climbs were not separated into categories – each awarded the same points to the first five riders over its summit.

The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification, which awarded a white jersey. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders born after 1 January 1986 are eligible.


Tocco family

The House of Tocco (pl. Tocchi, Greek: Τόκκος, translit. Tókkos pl. Τόκκοι, Tokkoi) was an Italian noble family from Benevento that came to prominence in the late 14th and 15th centuries, when they ruled various territories in western Greece as Counts Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos and Despots of Epirus. During their brief period of rule in Greece, they were one of the most ambitious and able Latin dynasties in the region, and they were one of the few to leave descendants lasting until modern times.

The earliest known members of the family are recorded in the 12th century in Benevento, though Tocco family genealogies claimed that they originated much earlier, with forged connections to ancient Gothic kings Theodoric the Great and Totila, as well as to the ancient Epirote king Pyrrhus. Members of the family held various prominent offices during the rule of the Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties in the Kingdom of Sicily. As a result of the family's loyalty to the Angevin princes in Greece, such as the titular Latin emperors Philip I of Taranto and Robert of Taranto, Leonardo I Tocco was rewarded c.  1357 with the grant of the County Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, islands off the western coast of Greece.

Leonardo I's son and successor, Carlo I Tocco, became Despot of Epirus in 1411 as the favored successor of the previous despot, Esau de' Buondelmonti. Through a series of military campaigns, Carlo I reunified Epirus, which had been politically fragmented due to invasion by the Serbian Empire and Albanian tribes in the previous century and subsequent infighting by local Albanian princes. Most of Carlo I's conquests were lost during the reign of his successor, Carlo II Tocco, due to invasions by the Ottoman Empire. The Tocchi lost the despotate and their other holdings in Greece in 1479, during the reign of Carlo II's successor Leonardo III Tocco. Leonardo III was one of the last independent Latin rulers in Greece, and the last to hold lands on the Greek mainland.

Leonardo III escaped into exile in the Kingdom of Naples, where he unsuccessfully attempted to gain support for a military expedition to recover his lands in Greece. His descendants continued to claim the title of Despot of Epirus until the 17th century, when it was abandoned and substituted by the title of Prince of Achaea. Over the following centuries, the Tocchi once more became part of the Italian nobility, gaining various titles through marriages and purchases. From the 17th century onwards, the title most commonly used by the heads of the family was Prince of Montemiletto. The family went extinct with the death of its last member, Carlo III di Tocco Cantelmo Stuart, in 1884.

## History

### Origins

The Tocchi originated in Benevento in the Kingdom of Sicily. Some historical genealogies from the Renaissance derived their surname from the Tauci, a Gothic tribe attested in the time of the Ostrogothic king Totila (r. 541–552). This connection was made through observing the similarity of the names Tocci (the Latin form of Tocchi), Tauci and Totila. Some early modern genealogies went as far as claim descent from one of Totila's predecessors, the greatest of the Ostrogothic kings, Theodoric the Great (r. 475/493–526). In the early modern age, Tocco genealogies typically stressed the family's connection with Greek royalty rather than Germanic warlords. The family's legitimate relations to the Palaiologos and Komnenos dynasties of the Byzantine Empire, formed while the family ruled in Epirus in the 15th century, were emphasized and some ancient connections, such as supposed descent from Pyrrhus, ancient king of Epirus (r. 306–302 BC, 297–272 BC), were invented.

The connections to ancient Greek royalty were likely forged in the 17th century to further the claims to authority by the family's Greek branch, whereas the connections to Germanic kings might have been forged either during the family's early history (when Italy was under the control of the German Hohenstaufen dynasty) or during the service of many members of the family to the Habsburg emperors in the 16th century. Both connections may also simply have been made, as many genealogical connections to Antiquity were in the Renaissance, to link the noble family to the heroes of the ancient world.

The earliest known historical member of the Tocco family is Ugolino Tocco, who served as the Grand Seneschal of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1191–1197). Ugolino is typically considered to be the family's founder. Instead of descending from heroic figures of bygone times, the Tocchi likely rose to prominence by being rewarded with lands and nobility on account of their service and loyalty in the 11th or 12th century. Their supposed ancestral seat, the Castellum di Tocco, in ruins in the present day, was located on the slopes of Monte Taburno in the Taburno Camposauro massif in southern Italy. The family grew in power and influence throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, recorded as having controlled lands throughout the valley surrounding Benevento from their seat at Castellum di Tocco. Tocchi of this time were buried in privileged positions within the Church of St. Lupo [it] near Benevento, suggesting increasing social standing. Notable Tocchi recorded from the period of Hohenstaufen rule over southern Italy include Guillelmo di Tocco, who served as iudex (judge) in the local Hohenstaufen administration, and Landulfo di Tocco, who is recorded as having been granted the towns of Limata and Cerreto in May 1250 due to the loyalty he demonstrated to the Hohenstaufen rulers. The family fragmented in the early 13th century, divided into smaller branches of close relatives that did not necessarily share any coherent ancestral memory. Some of these branches of Tocchi are recorded outside of Benevento, serving as traders or medical practitioners at various locations in southern Italy.

### Under the Angevin kings

The Hohenstaufen dynasty's rule over southern Italy was ended with their defeat by the Guelphs and the installation of Charles I of Anjou as the King of Sicily in 1266. As they had been integrated in the Hohenstaufen administration, the Tocchi suffered some setbacks during the initial period of Angevin rule. For instance, the Castellum di Tocco is in the 1280s recorded as having been subjected to the authority of Robert of Lavena, a French knight from Charles I's entourage. Not all Tocchi appear to have been affected by these setbacks, and the family produced prominent members during this period as well. Johannes de Tocco, doctor of medical science, served Charles I and his heir Charles II (r. 1285–1309) as their personal physician. A Dominican prior by the name Guillelmus de Tocco is recorded as a close confident of Charles II (serving as his confessor) and served as inquisitor-general of Sicily.

Previously only attended by Angevin and French elites, Charles II opened the court in Naples to the local nobility around 1300, allowing local nobles to hold various positions in the court itself and serve the king and his close relatives through military service. Alongside other nobles, some Tocchi are recorded as having entered Charles II's court at this time. Through serving as milites (knighted soldiers), nobles were allowed to live in the prestigious Neapolitan quarter of the Porta Capuana gate. Nobles who lived there in the early 14th century claimed their own special noble rank and direct descent from the ancient Roman residents of the city. To the Tocchi, living in this quarter of the city allowed them, despite having become a noble family relatively recently, to take on the mantle of "olden" aristocracy, increasing their prestige.

Among the Tocchi living in the Capuana quarter was Guglielmo Tocco, whom modern historians consider the founder of the branch of the family that would later rule territories in Greece. Guglielmo was well connected to the Neapolitan royal family, especially to Philip of Anjou, Charles II's younger son. Philip of Anjou was the Prince of Taranto from 1294 to 1331 and also held several titles in Greece, ruling as Prince of Achaea in 1307–1313 and also being the titular Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1313–1331. Guglielmo served as one of Philip's knights and councillors and was awarded with lands in Italy for his loyalty several times. Though some later genealogists alleged that Guglielmo became connected to the royal dynasty through marrying one of Philip's illegitimate daughters, there is no contemporary evidence to support this. Similar assertions that his wife came from the Orsini family, perhaps that she was a daughter of John II Orsini, Despot of Epirus in 1323–1335, are also not substantiable from contemporary sources.

The Angevins ruled several possessions in Greece at the time, holdovers from the Fourth Crusade, out of which one of the most important was the island of Corfu. In 1327, Guglielmo Tocco served on the island as an inquisitor, investigating a juridical case. In 1330–1331, he was governor, or Captain-General, of Corfu, assigned to supervise the expenses, production income and customs of the island.

### Tocchi in Greece

#### Rulers in the Ionian Islands

Guglielmo had several children, but his most prominent son was Leonardo I Tocco. Though he was one of Guglielmo's younger sons, Leonardo stood higher than all his brothers by the end of his life. Around 1357, Leonardo I was granted the title of Count Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, two islands off the western coast of Greece, by either Robert of Taranto (Philip of Anjou's son and heir) or Queen Joanna I of Naples. Sources on Leonardo I are scarce and how exactly he came to gain his high position in Greece is unclear. It is possible that he was brought into touch with Robert of Taranto by his older brother, Pietro Tocco, and he is known to have been one of his close confidants, being recorded as a witness of Robert's marriage contract and is recorded as having labored intensely to free Robert when he at one point was imprisoned in the Kingdom of Hungary. One factor that might have contributed to Leonardo I's rise to power was his marriage to Maddalena de' Buondelmonti, the niece of Niccolò Acciaioli, Grand Seneschal of the Kingdom of Naples.

In 1362, Leonardo I seized the nearby island Lefkada and the fortress of Vonitsa, located on the mainland. He assumed the additional titles "Lord of Vonitsa" and Dux Leucade ("Duke of Lefkada"). The taking of Lefkada and Vonitsa were not outright conquests; the locals had grown dissatisfied by their ruling family, the Venetian Zorzi, and had summoned Leonardo I to their aid. Although contemporary chroniclers wrote that Leonardo promised to respect the local Orthodox religion, he is also recorded to have driven the local Orthodox archbishop from Vonitsa. Upon Leonardo I's death in the 1370s, his domain was inherited by his infant son, Carlo I Tocco, with the administration of his early reign handled by his mother Maddalena as regent. By the late 1380s, Carlo I was, according to the historian William Miller, the most powerful remaining Latin ruler in the eastern Mediterranean. Around 1390, Carlo reached maturity and his mother's regency ended. He married Francesca Acciaioli, daughter of Nerio I Acciaioli, Duke of Athens (r. 1285/1394–1394). Carlo I's most trusted advisor and military leader was his younger brother, Leonardo II Tocco, who as a reward for his services was granted the island of Zakynthos in 1399. The island was not given away as a usual feudal possession, since it was specified that regardless of Leonardo II fathering any children, the island would be returned to Carlo I at the time of his death.

In 1394, Carlo I came into conflict with Theodore I Palaiologos, son of Emperor John V Palaiologos and Despot of the Morea (r. 1383–1407). Nerio I of Athens died in September 1394 and designated Carlo I's wife Francesca as the heir to all his possessions and as the guardian of the town of Corinth. The will almost completely disregarded Francesca's older sister, Bartolomea Acciaioli, wife of Theodore I Palaiologos. As a result, Theodore attacked Corinth almost immediately after Nerio's death, claiming the right by primogeniture rather than following the will. Francesca held power in the town as she had been present there at the time of Nerio's death, and actively participated in its defense, leading the local troops herself. Though popular with the soldiers, Francesca's role was marginalized once Carlo arrived in the town late in 1394 or early 1395 and she soon thereafter left for Cephalonia. The conflict was resolved with Carlo agreeing to sell the town, and Francesca's other possessions, to Theodore for 6000 golden ducats and an annual rent of 600 golden ducats.

The early 15th century saw Carlo I working to expand his domain—mainly successfully—into the lands of Epirus and drive out the local Albanians, who had ruled various principalities there since the collapse of the Serbian Empire, which had destroyed the original Despotate of Epirus in the 1340s. The motive for these conquests is not clear. Perhaps Carlo I worked to save the locals from perceived "Albanian tyranny" or perhaps he was retaliating; the Albanian lord John Spata had reportedly attacked the Tocco island domain during his mother's regency. In 1411, the ruler of the town of Ioannina (and Carlo I's uncle), Esau de' Buondelmonti, Despot of Epirus, died. The town was then held by his wife, Jevdokija Balšić, but on account of her unpopularity she was deposed by the locals, who appealed to Carlo I to become their ruler instead. Only two months after Esau's death, Carlo I made a triumphal entry into Ioannina. He almost immediately assumed the title of Despot, though the locals insisted that Carlo seek recognition of that title from the Byzantine emperor. After having received Carlo I's brother Leonardo II as an emissary, Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) formally recognized Carlo I as a Despot in 1415. Miller referred to the Tocco dynasty under Carlo I and Leonardo II as "among the most ambitious and able Latin dynasties in the Levant".

In the Ionian islands, the Tocco secured their power by grants of nobility and feudal landholdings to both Italian and local Greek families. Most positions in the Tocco power structure were occupied by loyal figures of Neapolitan or southern Italian origin, which established some level of disconnect between the Greek-speaking population and their Latin rulers. However, there was some involvement of Greeks in the Tocco court, though they mostly occupied the lower levels of the administrative hierarchy.

#### Despots of Epirus

Carlo I saw his title of Despot as granting him a claim on the lands formerly ruled by the Komnenos Doukas and Orsini dynasties of the Despotate of Epirus. He thus moved to seize Arta, the ancient capital of the despotate. After taking it from the local Albanians, Carlo I ceremonially entered the city in October 1416. According to his own chroniclers, the locals perceived Carlo I's conquest of Arta to be a great victory. Carlo I had successfully united the Greeks of Epirus under a single realm once more, something that his chroniclers wrote "could not have been done in the last two hundred years".

Around the end of 1426, conflict began again between Carlo I and the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea, when Carlo I attacked a contingent of Albanian soldiers in the Peloponnese that fought for Despot Theodore II Palaiologos (r. 1407–1443). Carlo I also occupied territories in the northwestern parts of Theodore II's domain. In 1427, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos (r. 1425–1448) personally set out to deal with Carlo I, bringing his younger brother Constantine with him. On 26 December 1427, the two brothers reached Mystras, the capital of the Morea, and made their way to the town of Glarentza, which was captured by the Tocchi forces. In the Battle of the Echinades, a naval skirmish off the coast of Glarentza, Carlo I was defeated and he agreed to relinquish his conquests in the Morea. In order to seal the peace, Tocco offered his niece, Maddalena Tocco (whose name was later changed to the Greek Theodora), in marriage to Constantine, her dowry being Glarentza and the other Moreot territories held by Carlo I. Glarentza was given to the Byzantines on 1 May 1428 and on 1 July, Constantine married Theodora. As such, Carlo I's defeat was not nearly as catastrophic as it could have been; though he was defeated militarily, he also gained a close connection to the Byzantine imperial family.

Carlo I probably died in June 1429, and his domains were plunged into chaos. Less than a year after his death, the important town of Ioannina had already been captured by the Ottoman Empire, and his legitimate heir, his nephew Carlo II Tocco, was engaged with Carlo I's illegitimate sons in a war of inheritance. Though successful against his cousins in retaining power, by the time of his death around 1448 Carlo II had lost nearly all of his possessions on the mainland to the Ottoman Empire. Although Carlo II was, according to historian Nada Zečević, often blamed in past scholarship for the loss of these territories, being perceived as a "weak ruler", the fall of the Tocco territories was an outcome of a much broader Ottoman advance across the Balkans in the 15th century. Even Carlo II's stronger neighbors, notably the Byzantine Empire, were powerless to stop the rise of the Ottomans. Carlo II was succeeded by his son, Leonardo III Tocco, who inherited the despotate as a minor. In March 1449, the Ottomans captured Arta. Though several contemporary sources describe Leonardo III as an exceptional ruler and his domain as prosperous and stable, his tenure as Despot of Epirus and Count Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos ended in catastrophe, with the Ottomans seizing his final possessions in Greece in 1479 and his family being forced into exile, returning to Naples, where they still had living relatives, descendants of other sons of Guglielmo Tocco.

Ottoman conquest was a fate that none of the contemporary minor rulers in the Balkans could escape. The Ottoman campaign against Leonardo III had completed the Turkish conquest of mainland Greece; Leonardo had been one of the last independent Latin rulers in the region. There is no universally accepted historical assessment of the Tocco family's rule and ambitions in Greece. According to Zečević, the two largest schools of thought view the Tocchi as either minor nobles who simply obtained the legitimate administrative positions in service of the Angevin kings in Greece, or as adventurers in search for power and fortune in the ruins of the once powerful Byzantine Empire.

### Exiles in Italy

Leonardo III spent the rest of his life in Naples trying to come up with ways to retake his territories in Greece. He did not take his early years in exile well, perceiving his exile as unjust, and lamenting his decline in status. In 1480, while he was attempting to secure support from powerful feudal lords in southern Italy to aid him in retaking his Greek domains, Leonardo III reportedly said, in regards to his family, that "we may have lost our rings but we still did not lose our fingers", a sentence Zečević writes "would long afterwards be quoted as the key illustration of the family's pragmatism".

Some members of the family adopted to life in Italy quite well. Leonardo III's brother, Giovanni Tocco, became protonotary apostolic in Rome and Leonardo III's oldest son and heir, Carlo III Tocco, served the Sforza family of Milan, and later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (r. 1508–1519), in a military capacity. Leonardo III's second son, Fernando Tocco, was a diplomat at the court of Henry VII of England (r. 1485–1509). Leonardo III's younger brother, Antonio, briefly succeeded in retaking Cephalonia in 1481. He was however not liked by the Republic of Venice, nor by the local populace, and was murdered in 1483, either by the Venetians or by the locals.

The discontent the Tocchi felt with their exile was eased as new generations of the family were born and educated in Italy, more adopted and familiar with life there. The Tocchi of the 16th century oriented themselves to trade, mercenary service and diplomacy, often finding themselves working far from Naples. The exiled Tocchi, though more and more acquainted with life in Italy, also began to emphasize their Greek identity, stressing their familial and titular connections to the Byzantine emperors. According to Zečević, this was probably not some sign of "late Greek self-consciousness", but rather a useful decision made to "improve their new realities as dignitaries with an imperial lineage".

### Italian nobility

The Tocchi were almost alone among the families of the Latin rulers of Greece to leave descendants lasting until modern times. Carlo III Tocco and his descendants claimed to be "princes of the blood", as they represented the heirs of both the Serbian and Byzantine imperial dynasties. Leonardo III's wife, and Carlo III's mother, was Milica Branković, daughter of the Serb ruler Lazar Branković and Helena Palaiologina, a daughter of Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of the Morea (r. 1428–1460). Following the extinction of the last certain male-line descendants of Thomas Palaiologos in the 16th century, the Tocchi represented the most senior line of his heirs. They continued to claim the title of Despot of Epirus until 1642, when Antonio Tocco abandoned it and replaced it with the title of Prince of Achaea, which his descendants continued to use. The claim to the latter title probably derived from Thomas Palaiologos. Thomas had married the heiress of Centurione II Zaccaria, the last Prince of Achaea (r. 1404–1432), and had inherited the territories of the principality upon Centurione's death in 1432.

During the centuries that followed their return to Italy, the nobility of the Tocchi was reinforced, mostly through a number of royal donations. Carlo III Tocco married Andronica Arianiti Comneno, a daughter of Constantine Komnenos Arianites, another claimant to various lands in Greece. It was with their son, Leonardo IV Tocco, that the Tocchi again became landed nobles as he was granted the fortress Refrancore in Piedmont by Constantine, ruling it with the title Lord (signore). Leonardo IV's grandson, Leonardo V Tocco, added to the family lands by purchasing the barony of Apice in 1639. Leonardo V's son, Antonio, who abandoned the despotal title, also increased the number of territories held by the family significantly. In 1665 he purchased the barony of Calabritto and in 1674, Antonio inherited the titles Prince of Montemiletto, Count of Monteaperti and Baron of Grumo, Montefalcione, Serra and Manocalzati from his father-in-law. From Antonio's time and onwards, the Tocchi mainly identified themselves through their ownership of Montemiletto.

Antonio's grandson, Carlo Antonio Tocco, purchased the baronies of Nocelle and Fontanarosa, but sold the Barony of Calabritto. Carlo Antonio's son, Leonardo VII Tocco, was made Duke of Apice in 1720, and would serve the Papal States and the Holy Roman Empire in high positions. In 1724 he is attested as captain of the cavalry of the pontifical guard in Rome and in 1725, he is recorded as Imperial Counsellor of State under Emperor Charles VI (r. 1711–1740). Among various other honors garnered in his lifetime, Leonardo VII was made a knight of the Order of Saint Januarius in 1738. Leonardo married Camilla Cantelmo Stuart, of the prominent Italian Cantelmo Stuart family, which claimed descent from, and kinship with, the Scottish and English royal House of Stuart. Leonardo thereafter assumed the full last name "Tocco Cantelmo Stuart" also used by their descendants, exemplified through the name of their son and Leonardo VII's heir, Restaino di Tocco Cantelmo Stuart, who inherited the titles of Camilla's family, gaining the title of Duke of Popoli. Restaino's son and heir, Carlo II di Tocco Cantelmo Stuart, gained the title Baron of Roccavallescura and of Pratola.

The Tocco family went extinct with the death of Carlo's grandson of the same name on 24 March 1884. This Carlo di Tocco Cantelmo Stuart, and his father Francesco before him, had been the leader of a faction of Bourbon legitimists who wished to restore the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Their titles were inherited by Carlo Capece Galeota, a descendant of Carlo II di Tocco Cantelmo Stuart. Capece Galeota died in 1908, and his heir and last living descendant, his daughter Maria Maddalena, died in 1933. Though the Tocco family survived long enough for the lands they claimed in Greece to be liberated from Ottoman control in the 19th century and incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece, it was never suggested that the Tocchi resume their ruling positions in their former lands.

## List of heads of the Tocco family (1357–1884)

Significant figures in the succession that were not heads of the family, such as Leonardo II Tocco, are indicated with beige background color.

## See also

- Chronicle of the Tocco

Italian noble family

County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos