Meteorological history of Hurricane Patricia

Hurricane Patricia was the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere and the second-most intense worldwide in terms of barometric pressure. It also featured the highest one-minute maximum sustained winds ever recorded in a tropical cyclone. Originating from a sprawling disturbance near the Gulf of Tehuantepec in mid-October 2015, Patricia was first classified a tropical depression on October 20. Initial development was slow, with only modest strengthening within the first day of its classification. The system later became a tropical storm and was named Patricia, the twenty-fourth named storm of the annual hurricane season. Exceptionally favorable environmental conditions fueled explosive intensification on October 22. A well-defined eye developed within an intense central dense overcast and Patricia grew from a tropical storm to a Category 5 hurricane in just 24 hours—a near-record pace. The magnitude of intensification was poorly forecast and both forecast models and meteorologists suffered from record-high prediction errors.

On October 23, two Hurricane Hunter missions both revealed the storm to have acquired maximum sustained winds of 205 mph (330 km/h) and a pressure of 879 mbar (hPa; 25.96 inHg). Since the peak intensity was assessed to have occurred between the missions, the National Hurricane Center ultimately estimated Patricia to have acquired winds of 215 mph (346 km/h) and pressure of 872 mbar (hPa; 25.75 inHg). This ranked it just below Typhoon Tip of 1979 as the most intense tropical cyclone on record. Patricia's exceptional intensity prompted the retirement of its name in April 2016. Late on October 23, Patricia made landfall in a significantly weakened state near Cuixmala, Jalisco. Despite weakening greatly, it was the strongest recorded landfalling Pacific hurricane with winds estimated at 150 mph (240 km/h). Interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico induced dramatic weakening, faster than the storm had intensified. Within 24 hours of moving ashore, Patricia degraded into a tropical depression and dissipated soon thereafter late on October 24.

## Origins

On October 11, 2015, an area of disturbed weather traversed Central America and emerged over the eastern Pacific Ocean. The disturbance moved slowly over the next few days, and coalesced into a Central American gyre—a broad monsoonal circulation. A tropical wave crossed the Caribbean and eventually reached Central America on October 15; the two systems merged the following day near the Gulf of Tehuantepec. A concurrent Tehuantepec gap wind event on the western side of the gyre, complemented by anticyclonic flow behind a cold front, enhanced vorticity and spurred the formation of an elongated area of low pressure on October 17. The broad system spanned several hundred miles from the Yucatán Peninsula into the eastern Pacific. A large, disorganized area of convection—showers and thunderstorms—accompanied the system, increasing in coverage substantially throughout the day. A strong pulse in the Madden–Julian oscillation—a propagating climate pattern associated with increased tropical cyclogenesis—may have aided in creating favorable conditions for further development.

Moving south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on October 18, the system consolidated and developed a small, defined circulation. Associated convection became more concentrated around its center. Another gap wind event soon impacted the system, temporarily delaying development of the disturbance into a tropical depression. The low soon relocated to the northeast, aligning itself east of the gap wind event which aided in development. A small, well-defined circulation formed by early on October 20 within a broader cyclonic circulation. With increasing deep convection, the system is estimated to have become a tropical depression, assigned the identifier Twenty-E, by 06:00 UTC. Upon its designation, the depression was situated roughly 205 mi (330 km) south-southeast of Salina Cruz, Mexico.

## Rapid intensification

Located south of a mid-level ridge and the continuing gap wind event, the nascent depression moved slowly west-southwest on October 20. Initial environmental conditions were modestly favorable, allowing for steady intensification. The depression achieved tropical storm status by 00:00 UTC on October 21; the National Hurricane Center (NHC) assigned it the name Patricia accordingly. Throughout much of October 21, Patricia moved through a region of drier, more stable air and over relatively cool sea surface temperatures. Both of these factors served to delay intensification of the cyclone. The system unraveled substantially, with banding features dissipating and the low-level circulation becoming poorly defined. Once clear of the hindering factors, convection blossomed over Patricia late on October 21 and a central dense overcast formed over the center. Simultaneously, the storm accelerated west-northwest.

Exceptionally favorable atmospheric conditions, consisting of little wind shear, anomalously high sea surface temperatures of 87 to 88 °F (30.5 to 31 °C), and high moisture levels yielded an environment highly conducive to rapid intensification. Consequently, Patricia commenced explosive intensification late on October 21. Patricia reached hurricane strength shortly after 00:00 UTC on October 22, featuring prominent outflow, well-defined banding features, and a developing eye. Upon becoming a hurricane, Patricia was located 230 mi (370 km) south of Acapulco, Mexico. In the following 12 hours, a well-defined 12 mi (19 km) wide eye formed within a ring of intense convection—with cloud tops of −80 to −90 °C (−112 to −130 °F)—forming "an almost perfectly symmetric [central dense overcast]". Data from NOAA Hurricane Hunters investigating the cyclone indicated Patricia to have reached Category 4 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale by 18:00 UTC; maximum sustained winds were estimated at 130 mph (210 km/h) alongside a barometric pressure of 957 mbar (hPa; 28.26 inHg) at this time.

### Forecast errors

The rapid intensification of Patricia was well-anticipated but poorly forecast. Meteorologists at the NHC indicated the possibility of such in the system's first advisory as a tropical depression. They noted the only inhibiting factor would be how quickly the storm could organize an inner core. Just before the onset of rapid intensification, the agency was unable to utilize the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme rapid intensification guidance due to technical errors. This likely contributed to even greater errors in the agency's forecast. Initial forecasts were consistently conservative with intensity and dramatic strengthening was not explicitly shown until rapid intensification was already underway.

At 03:00 UTC on October 22, the NHC forecast Patricia to achieve major hurricane status in 36 hours; less than 15 hours later, the system exceeded their forecast peak. Strengthening into a Category 5 hurricane was not forecast at all until Patricia had already reached such intensity, although in the intermediate advisory immediately before Patricia's upgrade to Category 5, the NHC noted that "Patricia could become a category 5 hurricane overnight", and in the preceding tropical weather discussion, noted that "Patricia could ... reach Category 5 intensity". This trend continued throughout the rapid intensification period, resulting in some of the largest errors on record through 48 hours; they were the worst-ever for the Eastern Pacific since the NHC took over operations for the basin in 1988. All forecast models saw enormous errors, most of which performed worse than the official NHC forecasts. No model accurately prognosticated the magnitude nor rate of the intensification. The EMXI—an output from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts—saw the largest average error with 98.5 mph (158.5 km/h) at 48 hours.

## Peak strength

During the overnight hours of October 22–23, Patricia turned northwest and decelerated slightly as it reached the western edge of the mid-level ridge. Rapid development continued into October 23, and the hurricane reached Category 5 status by 00:00 UTC, with winds estimated at 175 mph (282 km/h). Convection cooled even further, with cloud tops colder than −130 °F (−90 °C) surrounding an 8 mi (13 km) wide eye by 03:00 UTC. In a 24-hour span, Patricia's winds increased by 120 mph (190 km/h) and its central pressure fell by 95 mbar (hPa; 2.81 inHg). Around 06:00 UTC, an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft measured flight-level winds of 221 mph (356 km/h) and the aircraft's stepped frequency microwave radiometer (SFMR) observed surface winds of 210 mph (340 km/h). Furthermore, the final dropsonde observation from that mission at about 06:45 UTC indicated a central pressure of 879 mbar (hPa; 25.96 inHg). Rapid development continued after the aircraft left the hurricane, as the three pressure readings during the mission indicated that the pressure fell at a rate of more than 7 mbar (hPa; 0.207 inHg) per hour. Their findings also revealed an extraordinarily tight pressure gradient of 24 mbar (hPa; 0.709 inHg) per nautical mile, among the steepest gradients on record.

Based on continued improvement of the hurricane's satellite appearance, Patricia is assessed to have achieved its peak intensity around 12:00 UTC on October 23; the storm was situated about 150 mi (240 km) southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico. Maximum winds are estimated at 215 mph (346 km/h) alongside a pressure of 872 mbar (hPa; 25.75 inHg), making Patricia the second-most intense tropical cyclone ever observed. It is possible that Patricia surpassed the all-time record of 870 mbar (hPa; 25.69 inHg) set by Typhoon Tip in 1979 given the rate of deepening observed during the early morning mission. The violent, compact core of Patricia was roughly 25 mi (40 km) wide with the radius of maximum winds extending only 7 mi (11 km).

Little change in strength took place for the next six hours; a shortwave trough crossing the Baja California Peninsula turned Patricia to the northeast and induced acceleration. Another reconnaissance mission around 18:00 UTC recorded a central pressure of 879 mbar (hPa; 25.96 inHg). The aircraft was battered by severe turbulence (the result of updrafts and downdrafts) and the crew experienced maximum g-forces of +3.0 and -1.5.

## Landfall and dissipation

Late on October 23, radar imagery depicted the formation of a secondary outer eyewall, indicative of an eyewall replacement cycle. By 20:30 UTC, the final pass by reconnaissance, the hurricane's flight-level winds fell by 60 mph (97 km/h) and its central pressure rose at 8 mbar (hPa; 0.236 inHg) per hour. Coinciding with the eyewall replacement cycle was an increase in southwesterly wind shear, a factor that further accelerated Patricia's degradation. The hurricane's eye soon became cloud-filled and rapid weakening ensued at an unprecedented pace.

At 23:00 UTC, the cyclone made landfall at Cuixmala in the municipality of La Huerta, Jalisco—about 55 mi (89 km) west-northwest of Manzanillo—with winds of 150 mph (240 km/h) and an estimated pressure of 932 mbar (hPa; 27.52 inHg). This made Patricia the strongest hurricane to strike Mexico's Pacific coast, exceeding an unnamed storm in 1959 and Madeline in 1976 (the latter of which has not been reanalyzed). Although Patricia was operationally thought to have made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane with winds of 165 mph (266 km/h) and a pressure of 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHg), reanalysis of available data suggested that the hurricane weakened more rapidly than originally thought: an automated station in Cuixmala measured a pressure of 934.2 mbar (934.2 hPa; 27.59 inHg), while Josh Morgerman in Emiliano Zapata, just inside the eye of Patricia, measured a pressure of 937.8 mbar (hPa; 27.69 inHg). His observations also indicated a pressure gradient of 11 mbar (hPa; 0.325 inHg) per nautical mile.

Patricia's winds at landfall are relatively uncertain, and the 150 mph (240 km/h) value is based upon the Knaff–Zehr–Courtney pressure–wind relationship and an extrapolation of a 54 mbar (hPa; 1.59 inHg) filling using the Dvorak Technique. An additional equation stemming from work by Willoughby (1993) yielded a landfall intensity of 147 mph (237 km/h). A NOAA automated weather station at the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, at an elevation of 280 ft (85 m), recorded sustained winds of 185 mph (298 km/h) and a maximum gust of 211 mph (340 km/h). Further raw data from this station indicated unrealistically high sustained winds of 266 mph (428 km/h) and a maximum gust of 1,138 mph (1,831 km/h). Based on the station's distance from Patricia's eye, outside the radius of maximum winds, the observations from this station are considered unreliable. The highest reliably measured winds of 98 mph (158 km/h) occurred in Pista between 22:30 and 23:00 UTC on October 23 before the anemometer failed.

Even faster weakening ensued through October 24 as the hurricane traversed the Sierra Madre mountains; its eye disappeared from satellite imagery within hours of moving ashore. The system weakened below hurricane strength by 03:00 UTC as it passed west of Guadalajara. Patricia accelerated inland between a trough over Northwestern Mexico and the ridge over the Gulf of Mexico. Convection dramatically decreased in organization and the low- and mid- to upper-level circulation centers of the cyclone soon decoupled. The system degraded into a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC as little organized convection remained, and the storm dissipated shortly thereafter over central Mexico. Unimpeded by the mountains of Mexico, the mid- to upper-level circulation of Patricia, accompanied by considerable moisture, continued northeast and interacted with a cold front over the western Gulf of Mexico. The new system produced flooding rains across large areas of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.

## Records

With maximum sustained winds of 215 mph (346 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 872 mbar (hPa; 25.75 inHg), Hurricane Patricia is the second-most intense tropical cyclone ever observed, just shy of Typhoon Tip in 1979 which had a minimum pressure of 870 mbar (hPa; 25.69 inHg). It is also the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere. It exceeded the previous sustained wind record of 190 mph (310 km/h) set by Hurricane Allen in 1980 and the pressure record of 882 mbar (hPa; 26.05 inHg) set by Hurricane Wilma in 2005, both in the Atlantic basin. In the Eastern Pacific basin, north of the equator and east of the International Date Line, the previous basin record-holder was Hurricane Linda in 1997 with winds of 185 mph (298 km/h) and a pressure of 902 mbar (hPa; 26.64 inHg). Reconnaissance also found a pressure gradient of 24 mbar (hPa; 0.709 inHg) per nautical mile early on October 23, among the steepest gradients ever observed in a tropical cyclone.

On a global scale, Patricia's one-minute maximum sustained winds rank as the highest ever reliably observed or estimated globally in a tropical cyclone, surpassing Typhoon Haiyan of 2013, although the intensity of Haiyan was only estimated via satellite imagery (T8.0, the highest rating on the Dvorak scale). Since no aircraft reconnaissance was available for Haiyan, the record set by Patricia is uncertain and comparing the intensities of the two storms is problematic. According to the World Meteorological Organization, Typhoon Nancy of 1961 also produced 215 mph (346 km/h) sustained winds; however, it is widely accepted that Western Pacific reconnaissance during the 1940s to 1960s overestimated cyclone intensity and Nancy's record is considered questionable. The most powerful wind gust produced by a tropical cyclone, as well as the highest non-tornadic winds ever recorded, is still retained by Cyclone Olivia in 1996: 253 mph (407 km/h) was observed on Barrow Island, Western Australia.

The magnitude of Patricia's rapid intensification is among the fastest ever observed. In a 24-hour period, 06:00–06:00 UTC October 22–23, its maximum sustained winds increased from 85 to 205 mph (137 to 330 km/h). This represents a record increase of 120 mph (190 km/h). During the same period, Patricia's central pressure fell by 95 mbar (hPa; 2.81 inHg). This fell just short of the world-record intensification set by Typhoon Forrest in 1983, which featured a pressure drop of 100 mbar (hPa; 2.953 inHg) in just under 24 hours. With a pressure of 932 mbar (hPa; 27.52 inHg), Patricia is the strongest landfalling Pacific hurricane on record. The previous record was 941 mbar (hPa; 27.79 inHg) set by Hurricane Odile in 2014. Similarly, the hurricane featured the fastest weakening while still over water in NHC's area of responsibility, with a pressure rise of 54 mbar (hPa; 1.59 inHg) in the five hours before it made landfall. Furthermore, a dropsonde observed a 700 mbar height temperature of 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in the eye of Patricia. This is one of the highest temperatures ever observed in a tropical cyclone's eye worldwide.

## See also

Other record-strength tropical cyclones:

- Hurricane Linda in 1997 – Previous record intensity in eastern Pacific basin, during a similarly strong El Niño event
- Typhoon Megi in 2010 – Research reconnaissance observed similarly intense sustained winds
- Typhoon Goni in 2020 – Strongest landfalling tropical cyclone by 1-minute sustained winds
- Typhoon Nancy in 1961 – Tied with Patricia for the highest winds observed in a tropical cyclone, considered unreliable
- Typhoon Tip in 1979 – Most intense tropical cyclone recorded in terms of pressure
- Hurricane Wilma in 2005 – Previous record low central pressure in the Western Hemisphere, still record low for the Atlantic
- Hurricane Allen in 1980 – Previous record high sustained winds in the Western Hemisphere, still record high for the Atlantic
- Typhoon Forrest in 1983 – Record-fastest intensification of any tropical cyclone; underwent a 100 mbar (hPa; 2.953 inHg) pressure drop in just under 24 hours

Meteorological histories of individual tropical cyclones


Battle of Chochiwon

The Battle of Chochiwon was an early engagement between United States and North Korean forces during the Korean War, taking place in the villages of Chonui and Chochiwon in western South Korea on July 10–12, 1950. After three days of intense fighting, the battle ended in a North Korean victory.

The United States Army's 21st Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division was assigned to delay two advancing North Korean People's Army divisions following communist victories at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan earlier in the month. The regiment deployed along roads and railroads between the two villages, attempting to slow the advance as much as possible.

Aided by air strikes, U.S. Army units were able to inflict substantial damage on the North Korean armor and other vehicles but were overwhelmed by North Korean infantry. The two understrength U.S. battalions fought in several engagements over the three days and suffered massive losses in personnel and equipment, but were able to delay the North Korean forces for several days, allowing the remainder of the 24th Infantry Division to set up blocking positions along the Kum River near the city of Taejon.

## Background

### Outbreak of war

On the night of June 25, 1950, 10 divisions of the North Korean People's Army launched a full-scale invasion of the nation's neighbor to the south, the Republic of Korea. Advancing with 89,000 men in six columns, the North Koreans caught the South Korean Army by surprise, resulting in a disastrous rout for the South Koreans who were disorganized, ill-equipped, and unprepared for war. Numerically superior, North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance, pushing steadily down the peninsula against the South Koreans who could muster just 38,000 men to the front line to oppose them. The majority of the South Korean forces retreated in the face of the invasion; by June 28, the North Koreans had captured the capital Seoul and forced the government and its shattered forces to withdraw further southward.

Meanwhile, the United Nations Security Council voted to send assistance to the collapsing country, and United States President Harry S. Truman subsequently ordered ground troops into the nation. However, U.S. forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II, five years earlier. At the time, the closest force was the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army, stationed in Japan under the command of William F. Dean. Tellingly, the division was under strength, and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending. Yet despite these deficiencies, the division was ordered into South Korea, tasked with taking the initial "shock" of the North Korean advances until the rest of the Eighth Army could arrive and establish a defense.

### Early engagements

The plan was to airlift one battalion of the 24th Infantry Division into South Korea via C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft and quickly block advancing North Korean forces while the remainder of the division was transported on ships. The 21st Infantry Regiment was identified as the most combat-ready of the 24th Infantry Division's three regiments, and the 21st Infantry's 1st Battalion was selected because its commander, Lieutenant Colonel Charles B. Smith, was the most experienced, having commanded a battalion at the Battle of Guadalcanal during World War II. On July 5, Task Force Smith engaged North Korean forces at the Battle of Osan, delaying over 5,000 North Korean infantry for seven hours before being routed and forced back.

During that time, the U.S. 34th Infantry Regiment set up a line between the villages of Pyongtaek and Ansong, 10 miles (16 km) south of Osan, to fight the next delaying action against the advancing North Korean forces. The 34th Infantry Regiment was similarly unprepared for a fight; in the ensuing action, most of the regiment withdrew to Chonan without engaging the enemy. The 1st Battalion, left alone against the North Koreans, resisted their advance in the brief and disastrous Battle of Pyongtaek. The 34th Infantry was unable to stop North Korean armor. After a 30-minute fight, the 34th mounted a disorganized retreat in which many soldiers abandoned equipment and retreated without resisting the North Korean forces. The Pyongtaek—Ansong line was unable to delay the North Korean force significantly or inflict heavy casualties on them.

The regiment subsequently retreated to Chonan, where, the next night, the 3rd Battalion was heavily engaged in another delaying action. The 34th Infantry lost its commander, Colonel Robert R. Martin, and two-thirds of its 3rd Battalion's strength. The exhausted 34th Infantry Regiment retreated to the Kum River, near the 24th Infantry Division's headquarters. The 24th Infantry Division would make one final delaying action before it would be forced to make its final stand around Taejon, the only major defensible city left before the Pusan Perimeter being established by the Eighth Army.

## Battle

Having pushed back U.S. forces at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan, the North Korean 4th Infantry Division, supported by elements of the 105th Armored Division, continued its advance down the Osan—Chonan road, up to 12,000 men strong under division commander Lee Kwon Mu in two infantry regiments supported by dozens of tanks. Behind it, the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division had yet to engage the American forces.

### Airstrikes

By July 7, the 21st Infantry Regiment had been established at Chochiwon, one of two roads to the Kum River and Taejon. The regiment was ordered to keep the road through the region open so supplies and ammunition could flow through it to the 34th Infantry Regiment on the front lines. The Americans spent several days unloading supplies from locomotives in the village. After blowing up all bridges north of the town, 1st Battalion was established on the Chochiwon road at Chonui, 12 miles (19 km) south of Chonan. Supporting it were one battery of 155-mm howitzers from the 11th Field Artillery Battalion and A Company of the 78th Heavy Tank Battalion with M24 Chaffee light tanks, as well as B Company of the 3rd Engineer Combat Battalion which was assigned to construct roadblocks and prepare bridges for demolition.

Around mid-afternoon on July 9, observers with the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, spotted a column of 200 vehicles led by 11 North Korean T-34 tanks, subsequently calling for an airstrike. For the next few hours, the U.S. Air Force ravaged the North Korean column with repeated bombings and strafing, and by sunset, half of the vehicles were destroyed or burning, and a large portion of the infantry had also been killed. The next day, a similar airstrike by B-26 Invaders, F-80 and F-82 Twin Mustang aircraft of the Fifth Air Force took place around Pyongtaek, with 38 North Korean tanks, seven half-tracks and 117 other trucks destroyed, in addition to a large number of infantry. Much of the village of Chonui was left burning, although South Korean soldiers and civilians had already abandoned it. In addition, the airstrikes caused some of the largest losses of North Korean armor of the war and were a major blow against the T-34 tanks, which had been so successful during previous encounters.

### Fight at Chonui

Meanwhile, the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, back at Chonui remained understrength. Half of the force had constituted Task Force Smith at Osan. B and C Companies were thus still refitting at Chochiwon, leaving A and D Companies to hold the line with a handful of replacements to fill the extra positions. The battalion numbered around 500 men in total. The 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the south road of Chonui, northwest of Chochiwon, and prepared to meet and delay the advancing North Korean forces, while the 3rd Battalion emplaced behind it in reserve. Around 0555 on July 10, the Americans began to detect North Korean movement through the morning fog. Fifteen minutes after daybreak, a whistle blew, immediately followed by small arms fire on the American positions. American forces at first fired indiscriminately into the fog until the regimental commander, Richard W. Stephens, stopped them. At 0700, the 1st Battalion then came under heavy mortar fire, and A Company on the leftmost ridge was assailed with fire from higher ground by North Korean forces of the 4th Infantry Division. The American forces began using 4.2-inch mortars on the North Korean positions to prevent them from advancing directly on their positions. Around 0800, the fog began to lift, and the Americans spotted four T-34 tanks in the village and subsequently called for another airstrike.

North Korean forces, meanwhile, flanked the American positions under cover of fog. The Koreans passed around the Americans' right flank and attacked the mortar positions in the rear. T-34 tanks also joined in the fight and also passed around the American flanks while obscured by the fog. Around 0900, the North Korean forces in Chonui initiated a frontal assault on the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry's positions. An observer with the unit called in artillery and pushed back the North Korean infantry inflicting heavy casualties on the assaulting force. By 1100, the North Korean infantry, supported by several T-34s, was pressing on A Company's position, which was undermanned. At 1125, the requested airstrike came in; American aircraft rocketed the T-34s to no effect while strafing the Korean forces attacking A Company. The aircraft were able to push back the attack for several minutes before running out of ammunition and being forced to leave. The North Korean troops immediately resumed their assault.

One of A Company's platoons, under the command of Lieutenant Ray Bixler, faced most of the pressure of the North Korean assault. Tank fire had destroyed the American wire communications to their artillery, which began to fall on their own positions, believing that they had been overrun with North Koreans before Stephens could call it off. In the meantime, at 1135, Bixler's platoon was surrounded and destroyed; most of the platoon's men were killed in their foxholes by the North Korean infantry. Following this, men on the right flank began deserting their positions regardless of Stephens' efforts to keep them there. Finally, at 1205, Stephens ordered his men to withdraw. American forces had great difficulty retreating through the wet rice paddies, and a disorganized retreat followed as they attempted to pull back. During the retreat, several U.S. aircraft returned and, mistaking the soldiers of the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry for North Koreans, began to strafe them. The aircraft inflicted no casualties, but the battalion overall had suffered 20 percent casualties, with 33 killed and 35 wounded during the engagement, as well as 14 killed in the mortar company.

### American counterattack

As the 1st Battalion retreated, Stephens ordered the 3rd Battalion to counterattack the North Koreans on the ridge to regain the position. The American attack was aggressive, and the 3rd Battalion regained most of the ground, rescuing 10 Americans captured in the first attack in the process. During the attack, the 3rd Battalion uncovered evidence of North Korean war crimes; six men from the 1st Battalion's heavy mortar company were discovered executed, with their hands tied behind their backs. Several M24 Chaffee light tanks, newly arrived from Pusan, were brought in the 3rd Battalion's assault, the first use of U.S. armor in the war. The M24s disabled a T-34 while suffering two destroyed throughout the day. During this time, the North Korean 4th Division pressed southward, bypassing Chonui to the west. Following it was the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division, one day behind, granting the Americans time to rest and prepare new defenses. The 3rd Battalion held the position until just before 2400 when it withdrew to its previous position with most of the equipment that had been lost by the 1st Battalion earlier in the day. At that position, the men discovered North Korean forces occupying its old foxholes, and K Company engaged in a one-hour firefight to drive them off. Meanwhile, 1st Battalion withdrew south to new blocking positions 2 miles (3.2 km) outside of Chochiwon.

At 0630 on July 11, four T-34s advanced on the 3rd Battalion's position, passing through a minefield without suffering any casualties. Following the tanks, about 1,000 North Korean infantry of the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division conducted a double envelopment of the battalion, setting up roadblocks in its rear to prevent resupply and evacuation of wounded. Simultaneously, heavy mortar fire struck the battalion's command post, destroying its communications center and ammunition stocks and inflicting heavy casualties. American forward observers were unable to communicate with the artillery due to the lack of communications equipment. The attack by the North Koreans was well coordinated, and North Korean forces driven from the position in the night had likely been able to gather intelligence about the battalion's position. In the ensuing fight, American forces were overwhelmed again, fighting in desperate hand-to-hand combat.

North Korean machine guns continued to assault the American lines, and Americans who had expended their ammunition were forced to use their weapons as clubs. Of 667 men in the 3rd Battalion, over 60 percent became casualties, including the battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Carl Jensen, and much of the battalion staff. Shattered, the 3rd Battalion was forced to withdraw in small groups, many of its soldiers already captured or forced to escape on foot through the countryside back to American lines. Most of the retreating men were also captured. Remaining soldiers formed a provisional company of 150 for the retreat. Ninety percent of the battalion's equipment, including weapons and helmets, was lost. Another four of the M24 tanks were also destroyed without disabling any of the North Korean T34s.

### Chochiwon falls

Under Smith, the 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the road into Chochiwon, resting the night of July 11 with no contact from the North Koreans until the next day. Just after dawn on July 12, the American battalion first encountered North Korean patrols. This was followed by an attack on their left flank by a North Korean force estimated as battalion-sized at 0930. Soon afterward, some 2,000 North Koreans began a direct assault on the 1st Battalion's position, supported by heavy artillery. Stephens decided the understrength battalion, with its large percentage of replacements, could not hold its position long and ordered it to withdraw. Smith subsequently moved the battalion from the line one company at a time, and the retreat was orderly. By nightfall, the entire regiment had moved by truck to a blocking position at Taepyong-ni, across the Kum River close to Taejon. In the meantime, U.S. forces on the westerly Kongju road fought a series of minor engagements to delay North Korean forces traveling down that road before retreating across the Kum River.

## Aftermath

The U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment suffered 228 killed, 61 wounded, 215 captured, and 27 missing in the battle; a total of 531 casualties. Of those, 130 of the captured and 20 of the missing died. Additionally, 23 other American units engaged in the region suffered 31 killed, 79 wounded, 15 captured, and 9 missing; in total, a further 134 casualties. This brought the total number of casualties for the three days to 665 and made Chochiwon the bloodiest battle for American forces yet in the conflict, greater than the casualty counts at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan combined. The loss of materiel was also great, with the 21st Infantry Regiment losing enough equipment and materiel to outfit two rifle battalions and enough clothing to equip 975 men. Against these losses, North Korean casualties could not be estimated due to a lack of communication among fighting units, which limited the value of American signals intelligence.

Despite these losses, the U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment was praised for its efforts to defend Chochiwon and Chonui. Roy Appleman, a historian for the U.S. Army, called it "the most impressive performance yet of American troops in Korea." Indeed, the regiment delayed North Korean forces for three days in the fighting, despite suffering heavily in casualties and equipment losses, and in doing so, the action bought enough time for the rest of the 24th Infantry Division to set up defenses around Taejon. The 21st Infantry Regiment subsequently joined the 34th Infantry Regiment and the 19th Infantry Regiment in setting up positions along the Kum River near Taejon. The 24th Infantry Division would again be overrun and forced to retreat during the Battle of Taejon there over the next week. However, the delaying actions of the division would give the U.S. forces in Pusan time to set up the Pusan Perimeter, where the North Korean and UN forces would fight for several months in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, eventually defeating the North Korean Army.

Part of the Korean War

Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950

Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea

Battles of the Korean War involving the United States

Tank battles involving the United States


William Adam (architect)

William Adam (1689 – 24 June 1748) was a Scottish architect, mason, and entrepreneur. He was the foremost architect of his time in Scotland, designing and building numerous country houses and public buildings, and often acting as contractor as well as architect. Among his best known works are Hopetoun House near Edinburgh, and Duff House in Banff. His individual, exuberant style built on the Palladian style, but with Baroque details inspired by Vanbrugh and Continental architecture.

In the 18th century, Adam was considered Scotland's "Universal Architect". However, since the early 20th century, architectural critics have taken a more measured view, Colin McWilliam, for instance, finding the quality of his work "varied to an extreme degree". As well as being an architect, Adam was involved in several industrial ventures and improvement schemes, including coal mining, salt panning, stone quarries and mills. In 1731 he began to build up his own estate in Kinross-shire, which he named Blair Adam. He was the father of three architects; John, Robert and James, the last two were the developers of the "Adam style".

## Biography

### Early life

William Adam was born in Linktown of Abbotshall, now a neighbourhood of Kirkcaldy, Fife, and was baptised on 24 October 1689. He was the only surviving child of John Adam (d. c. 1710), a mason, and Helen Cranstoun, daughter of William Cranstoun, 3rd Lord Cranstoun. His paternal grandfather was Archibald Adam, a laird in Angus. Adam probably attended the grammar school in Kirkcaldy until 1704, when he turned 15, and thereafter learned the craft of masonry, possibly from his father. It is often suggested that Adam was apprenticed to Sir William Bruce at Kinross House, although the dates make this unlikely. John Fleming suggests that if Adam trained under Bruce at all, it must have been at Hopetoun House which Bruce was building from 1699 to 1703. By 1717 Adam was a fully qualified member of the Kirkcaldy masons' guild, and before 1720 he travelled to France and the Low Countries, visiting country houses and viewing the canal at Ostend.

In 1714, Adam entered into a partnership with William Robertson of Gladney, a local laird, to set up a brickworks at Linktown. The venture was successful, and Adam has been credited with introducing the manufacture of Dutch pantiles into Scotland. On 30 May 1716, Adam married Robertson's daughter Mary, and the couple moved into his home, Gladney House, at Abbotshall.

### Rise to fame

It is not known how William Adam became a successful architect from these beginnings, but by 1721 he was engaged on major projects at Floors Castle, where he executed a design by Vanbrugh, and designing extensions to Hopetoun House. John Gifford links Adam's rise with the retirement of James Smith, the most prominent architect of the early 18th century, who was in his 70s by this time. Like Smith, Adam was a trained mason, had social connections through his family, and had the financial backing of successful business ventures. It was in 1721 that Adam became a Freemason being initiated in The Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel), No.1.

However, unlike the Episcopalians Smith and Bruce, Adam was a Presbyterian Whig, in a time of Whig domination of the British government. Scottish Episcopalians were associated with Jacobitism, and as such found little favour with the ruling Hanoverian regime. Sir William Bruce, for example, was imprisoned on at least three occasions between 1693 and his death in 1710, merely on account of his principles. Adam's beliefs were much more acceptable, although he did manage to maintain relations with the exiled Jacobite, and amateur architect, John Erskine, Earl of Mar. Adam's political stance allowed him to acquire influential patrons such as John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair, and Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, who, besides being his clients, attempted to secure government positions and contracts for him. For example, Sir John Clerk unsuccessfully proposed Adam for city architect under the "Town of Edinburgh Bill", which would have seen him overseeing new public works in the capital. In 1727, Stair tried, again unsuccessfully, to have Adam appointed Surveyor of the King's Works in Scotland, although the following year he acquired the lesser position of Clerk and Storekeeper of the King's Works in Scotland, under the Master of Works Sir John Anstruther. In 1730 Adam was appointed principal Mason to the Board of Ordnance in North Britain.

In 1727 Adam and Sir John Clerk travelled to London, visiting a number of country seats along the way, including Cliveden, Wilton, and Wanstead House. In London, Adam attempted to make further political contacts, as well as seeking out an engraver for his projected book of architectural plans, which would eventually become Vitruvius Scoticus. Also while in London, he sat to William Aikman for his portrait.

### Architect, entrepreneur, and laird

By 1728, Adam was firmly established as a successful architect with numerous ongoing business concerns, including coal mining, salt panning, quarrying and agricultural improvements, although in that year occurred the death of his partner and father-in-law William Robertson. For the same year, William Adam and Alexander McGill are called architects in the subscribers' list to James Gibbs's Book of Architecture. On 21 February 1728, Adam was made a burgess of Edinburgh, and moved with his family to a property on the Cowgate, where he later built a large tenement.

His business activities continued to expand. Since the commission for Hopetoun in 1721, he had leased quarries near Queensferry which provided the stone for his building contracts. Starting in 1734, he leased lofts, granaries and warehouses in Leith, and leased coal mines and salt pans at Cockenzie, and later at nearby Pinkie he built a canal in 1742–44, to serve the mines. Other engineering works included an aqueduct cut through a hill at Inveresk, and in 1741, an attempt to promote a Forth and Clyde canal, a project eventually realised by others some 30 years later. His main concern from 1731 became Blair Crambeth, the estate in Kinross-shire, near Kelty, which he purchased that year for £8,010 Scots. Renaming the estate Blair Adam, he set about expanding and improving it, planting trees, enclosing land, and setting up coal mines. He established the village of Maryburgh to house the miners, and built a small house, although he seldom visited for any length of time.

### Later life

In 1741 Adam was forced to initiate legal proceedings against William, Lord Braco, to retrieve unpaid fees arising from his work at Duff House. There was no formal contract, and client and architect disagreed on costs for carved stonework. Adam sued for £5,796 12s 111⁄3d, and the matter was initially resolved in his favour. However, Braco was a stubborn opponent, and dragged out the proceedings, which were not resolved until just before Adam's death.

After the Jacobite rising of 1745, Adam's position as Mason to the Board of Ordnance brought him a number of large military contracts in the Highlands. In 1746, the position of Master Carpenter to the Board of Ordnance became vacant, and Adam was quick to put forward his son John's name for consideration, although he was unsuccessful in securing him the post. His three eldest sons were all involved in the family business by 1746, James and John both leaving Edinburgh University early to join their father.

William Adam succumbed to illness in late 1747, dying the following summer. He was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh, where John Adam designed the family mausoleum built in 1753. This was restored by Edinburgh City Council and Historic Scotland in 1997 to mark the 250th anniversary of his death.

Adam created a personal library at Blair Adam which held a range of over 140 architectural works from Italy, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Britain. Upon his death, he bequeathed his library to his sons.

## Architectural works

Adam used a wide variety of sources for his designs, and created an inventive personal style of decoration. His chief influences were from English Palladianism, and several of his houses have been likened to designs reproduced in Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus, but Adam mixed these with English Baroque motifs from Gibbs and Vanbrugh. He relied greatly on a range of French, Italian and English pattern books, including Gibbs' Book of Architecture, from which he borrowed freely with little regard for consistency of style. In addition, he took inspiration from earlier Scottish renaissance architecture, and from his predecessors Bruce and Smith. During his nearly 30-year career as an architect, Adam designed, extended or remodelled over 40 country houses, and undertook numerous public contracts. He also laid out landscape garden schemes, for instance at Newliston and Taymouth Castle.

### Country houses

His first commission seems to have been for extensions to Hopetoun House, near Edinburgh, for Charles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun. Hopetoun had been built only 20 years before by Sir William Bruce, and Adam was retained to rebuild the south-east wing. These works, completed in 1725, aimed to give the east front a bold new facade, stepping forward at the ends with curved sections. According to John Fleming, "nothing so ambitious or imaginative had ever before been attempted in Scotland". Over the following years, Adam would return to Hopetoun, building the south colonnade from 1726, the north wing from 1728, and finally the pavilions from 1736. These were not finished until 1742, the year of the Earl's death, and the completed scheme was finished by Adam's sons after his own death. Adam also laid out the gardens, possibly to designs by Bruce, whose axial style they follow.

Other early designs included Drum House, which boasted Scotland's first venetian window, and Mavisbank, both near Edinburgh. Mavisbank House, constructed between 1723 and 1727, was the first Palladian villa in Scotland, a collaboration between Adam and the owner, amateur architect Sir John Clerk of Penicuik. The latter claimed much of the credit, and certainly criticised some of Adam's suggestions, although evidence suggests Adam got his way on a number of points. As at Hopetoun, here Adam enjoyed an unusually close relationship with his client, despite their differences of opinion. His most ambitious early work was the baroque, Vanbrugh-inspired house at Arniston, near Gorebridge. Built for Robert Dundas, a lawyer and politician linked to the Earl of Stair, Arniston includes extensive grounds laid out by Adam, with a parterre and cascade, and a main avenue centred on Arthur's Seat to the north. The stucco work to the hall at Arniston is one of Adam's finest Vanbrughian interiors.

Duff House, Adam's major work of the 1730s, demonstrates his accretion of local and foreign influences, presenting itself as "a medieval castle in baroque dress". Built between 1735 and 1739, Adam acted as contractor and architect to William, Lord Braco. James Gibbs had recently built another house for Lord Braco, but he declined the commission for Duff, recommending Adam for the job. The main facade of Duff House is remarkable for its height, and with the tall corner towers the impression is of a highly vertical house. This style is related to the designs produced by the exiled Jacobite Earl of Mar, an amateur architect who collaborated with Adam at the House of Dun. Charles McKean compares Duff to the 17th century Drumlanrig Castle, and places it within the Scottish architectural tradition. Like Drumlanrig, and Heriot's Hospital (1620s–1690s) in Edinburgh before it, Duff House has a double-pile block flanked by taller square corner towers. The "baroque dress" at Duff derives from Vanbrugh, and particularly Eastbury Park (1724–38) in Dorset. Designs for pavilions and quadrant wings were never executed due to Lord Braco's dispute with Adam. Braco never occupied or fitted out the house for the same reason.

Adam's other houses of the 1730s include House of Dun in Angus, Tinwald in Dumfriesshire, Lawyers House in Perthshire, and Haddo House in Aberdeenshire. His early, unexecuted design for House of Dun, a collaboration with the Earl of Mar, is interesting, as it appears to show a traditional tall Scottish tower house, complete with spiral stairs within the walls, but externally clad in neo-classical detailing; Adam clearly took some inspiration from the Scottish vernacular. Chatelherault, the Duke of Hamilton's "Dogg Kennel" and hunting lodge near Hamilton, was completed in 1743. His redecoration of the Duke's apartment in Holyroodhouse was Adam's most important interior design commission. In the 1730s Adam extended Taymouth Castle and laid out gardens, although his work was largely demolished to make way for the present building in the 19th century. Adam's approach here mirrored the work of Bruce at Balcaskie, extending a Scottish tower house to form a near-symmetrical architectural composition.

After 1740, Adam built only two houses, Cumbernauld House for the Earl of Wigton, and Cally House for Alexander Murray, which was not complete until 1763. From 1746, Adam was acting as "Intendant General" and contractor, overseeing the building of Inveraray Castle to a Gothic design by Roger Morris. His role was to correspond with the architect on behalf of the client, Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, and Adam also offered Morris his own advice on detail design. He also provided an early draft for the layout of the new town at Inveraray. His last architectural work was for Lord Lovat in 1744, for a new house at Castle Dounie. The stone was supplied, but construction never started as Lord Lovat was "out" in the Jacobite rising of 1745, and his property was sacked by government troops.

### Public buildings

Adam's first public building commissions were in Aberdeen, where he built the town house, or town hall, from 1729 to 1730, since demolished, and Robert Gordon's Hospital from 1730 to 1732, now an independent school. The original Edinburgh Royal Infirmary on Infirmary Street was an imposing building designed by Adam in 1738, although based on a standard Ordnance Board barrack block. One of the first infirmaries in the world, it was founded by physician Alexander Monro, and was demolished in 1884. Remnants of the building can be found on various sites in the city. Also in Edinburgh, Adam built George Watson's Hospital from 1738 to 1741, demolished 2004, which in the 19th century was incorporated by David Bryce as part of the new Royal Infirmary. In 1745, work was completed on William Adam's "New Library" for the University of Glasgow, also since demolished. Adam's town house for Dundee has also been demolished; Haddington Town House remains but is much altered. Adam built only one church, Hamilton Old Parish Church, in 1733 while working on nearby Chatelherault.

The last Jacobite rising occurred in 1745, when "Bonnie Prince Charlie" attempted to seize the British throne, aided by rebellious Scottish Highlanders. In the aftermath of this unsuccessful coup, the Highlands were extensively militarised by the government, and Adam's Ordnance Board work consequently multiplied. He and his sons carried out works at Fort Augustus, Fort William, Carlisle, and the castles of Dumbarton, Stirling, Edinburgh, Blackness, and Duart. He was engaged in 1747 to provide the mason work and brickwork for Fort George near Inverness, although the project only began shortly before Adam's death. Every summer until 1760, one of his sons spent the summer at Fort George, supervising the works under Colonel Skinner, the chief engineer for North Britain.

### Vitruvius Scoticus

In the 1720s Adam planned to publish a book of architectural drawings of Scottish houses, including his own work and that of others. His Vitruvius Scoticus was started and named in response to Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus. He commissioned some engravings during his 1727 trip to London, and had begun to collect subscriptions. Further engraving were completed in Edinburgh in the 1730s by Richard Cooper. The project then stalled, possibly due to the lack of subscriptions (only 150 were collected, compared to over 700 for Vitruvius Britannicus), although it may have been revived around the time of Adam's death. In 1766, John Adam attempted to restart the project and collect fresh subscriptions, although nothing came of this. The book was finally published in 1812 by John's son William, and contained 160 plates, including 100 of Adam's own designs.

## Legacy

William Adam's dominant position in Scottish architecture is reinforced by his lack of contemporaries. Colin McWilliam, in The Buildings of Scotland: Lothian, wondered "whether Scottish architecture at this period... would have achieved very much without him."

Adam's death coincided with the final defeat of the Jacobite threat in 1746, and the advance of the Scottish Enlightenment, which resulted in new styles of building becoming popular. The development of Neoclassicism in the late 18th century was paralleled by a revival of the "castle" form of house, which would lead to the Scottish baronial style. Neither idiom however, owed much to the work of William Adam. As a practical man rather than a theorist, Adam never developed a strong enough style to exert a direct influence on the course of building design.

His main bequest to architectural history were his three architect sons, and in particular Robert Adam, whose success as developer of the "Adam Style" far outran that of his father. Although Robert formed his own style through lengthy study in Rome, John Fleming detects traces of his father's influence on all three of the brothers' work, and suggests that the Adam principle of "movement" in architecture was partly inspired by William's admiration for Vanbrugh. More concretely, Fleming notes that working with their father gave the brothers a solid grounding in the technical aspects of architecture, and introduced them to a set of clients which they might never otherwise have had access to.

### Critical appreciation

Although his contemporaries acclaimed Adam's "genius for architecture", recent architectural historians have found his work of more variable quality. In the 18th and 19th centuries, he was accepted as Scotland's "Universal Architect", and at the end of the 19th century, MacGibbon and Ross suggested in The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland that William was "at least" the equal in talent of his son Robert.

In the 20th century, a more critical view of Adam's work was taken. For example, Ian Hannah in The Story of Scotland in Stone (1934) found Adam to be "a rather ordinary classical architect". Arthur T. Bolton, in the introduction to his definitive work on Robert and James Adam (1922), dismissed the father's work as "heavy and ordinary", and a mere "compilation of ideas... from Vanbrugh and Gibbs to Kent". John Fleming lamented his "ad hoc improvisation from source books, improperly digested", and decided that he "cannot be allowed great distinction as an architect". John Summerson disregards Adam's work, in Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830 (1953), as it does not fit into the English Palladian orthodoxy, although John Dunbar suggests that "he could express himself convincingly enough in that idiom", for instance at Haddo House. Dunbar found Adam's work "as remarkable for its eclecticism as for its unevenness of quality", and he went on to stress William Adam's "robustness and directness", and found these "appropriate to the artistic climate of North Britain". Gifford also stresses Adam's Scottish context, pointing out that Scotland was in many ways a foreign country during his working life, and indeed was a separate country to England until 1707. Adam should, he argues, be seen not as a provincial British architect, but as "the architect of Scotland".

John Fleming and Colin McWilliam are in agreement that Adam was at his best as a collaborator. Fleming's comment that Adam "was at his best when guided by a man of taste who knew his own mind", is echoed by McWilliam, who suggests that William Adam "always did his best, but did his best architecture... when he was in touch not only with his source books, but with other lively minds".

## Family

William Adam and Mary Robertson had ten surviving children:

- Janet ("Jenny") (b. 1717), born at Linktown, later managed their brothers' London business.
- John (b. 3 July 1721), born at Linktown, took over Blair Adam and the other family businesses, as well as practising architecture.
- Robert (b. 3 July 1728), born at Linktown, architect, and best known of the Adam brothers.
- James, (b. 21 July 1732) architect, business partner of Robert.
- William ("Willie") (b. 1738)
- Elizabeth ("Betty"), with Janet, managed their brothers' London business.
- Helen ("Nellie")
- Margaret ("Peggy")
- Mary, married Rev John Drysdale FRSE (1718–1788), minister of the Tron Kirk with the rare distinction of being twice the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (1773 and 1784), though now chiefly remembered for his friendship with economist Adam Smith.
- Susannah, married Sir John Clerk of Eldin, son of Sir John Clerk of Penicuik.

The birth dates of their five younger daughters are not recorded. In addition another son, named William, and two daughters died in infancy.

After William Adam's death, his oldest son John, inherited the family business, and immediately took his brothers Robert and James into partnership, which would last until the late 1750s when Robert established himself in London. William Adam's obituary in the Caledonian Mercury noted that "it is fortunate he has left behind him some promising young men to carry on what he has so happily begun". John Adam passed Blair Adam on to his own son, lawyer and politician William Adam KC, whose descendants continue to own the estate, and have included several notable politicians, soldiers and civil servants.

## See also

- :Category:William Adam buildings

Scottish architect, mason, and businessman


2015–16 Bengaluru FC season

The 2015–16 season was the third in the history of Bengaluru Football Club. It began on 1 June 2015 and concluded on 31 May 2016, with competitive matches occurring between January and May. The club ended their I-League campaign as champions for the second time, only winning by two points ahead of second placed Mohun Bagan. In the Federation Cup, Bengaluru were eliminated early in the first round, suffering defeat to Aizawl. In the AFC Cup, Bengaluru managed to make it past the Round of 16, defeating Kitchee. The victory had qualified the club for the quarter-finals which would take place the next season.

Prior to the start of the season, Bengaluru were very active making squad changes. Players who have been with the club since their first season such as Sean Rooney and domestic players Darren Caldeira, Malemngamba Meitei, Pawan Kumar, and Robin Singh left after their contracts expired. Club captain Sunil Chhetri and midfielder Thoi Singh had also left the club for Indian Super League clubs Mumbai City and Chennaiyin respectively. Both would return on loan after the 2015 ISL season. Forward Kim Song-yong was signed by head coach Ashley Westwood to replace Rooney. Midfielder Michael Collins was signed a couple weeks after the start of the I-League season as an injury replacement to Josh Walker. Indian youth internationals Amrinder Singh and Seiminlen Doungel were also brought in by Westwood, alongside young prospects Daniel Lalhlimpuia, Malsawmzuala, and Nishu Kumar from the AIFF Elite Academy.

Due to the Indian Super League, Bengaluru didn't start playing competitive matches until January. The team began their league campaign positively with five victories from their first seven matches putting them first in the table. A defeat by title contenders Mohun Bagan in February saw Bengaluru slip to second. The club wouldn't return to first place until the final month of the campaign. Bengaluru had won five of their last seven matches, clinching the title with a 2–0 victory against Salgaocar with one match left to play. After the I-League season, Bengaluru participated in the Federation Cup and were eliminated in the first round by Aizawl. The club also participated in the AFC Cup, Asia's secondary international club competition. Bengaluru's Asian campaign began slowly with two defeats to open the group stage, but three victories in a row helped push the club to finish second in the table. In the Round of 16, the club took on Kitchee and won 3–2. The victory qualified Bengaluru for the quarter-finals, which would take place during Bengaluru's next season.

Bengaluru's top goalscorer for the third season in a row was captain Sunil Chhetri, who scored 9 goals from 20 matches. The club had four representatives win an individual award following the I-League season. Amrinder Singh was awarded as the best goalkeeper, John Johnson as best defender, Eugeneson Lyngdoh as best midfielder, and Ashley Westwood as best coach. This season would also be Westwood's last as head coach with him departing at the end of his contract.

## Background

Bengaluru had begun the previous season by winning the Federation Cup. The club defeated Dempo in the final on 11 January 2015 at the Fatorda Stadium, their first ever domestic cup championship. The club entered their second I-League campaign as the defending champions, having won the 2013–14 title. After a slow start to the season – not earning a victory in the first three matches, two of them defeats – Bengaluru would go on to win 10 of their last 17 matches, not suffering a single defeat, and were favorites to win their second title in a row, something that has not been done before in I-League history. The club entered the last match day in second place, two points behind Mohun Bagan. Coincidently, Bengaluru were to take on Mohun Bagan at home. Despite having the home advantage and taking the lead before halftime through John Johnson, Mohun Bagan defender Bello Razaq managed to score an 87th minute equalizer and help his side to a 1–1 draw. The draw meant that Bengaluru finished as runners-up to Mohun Bagan.

In February 2015, Bengaluru played in the AFC Champions League qualifiers for the first time. The club were defeated in extra time 2–1 by Malaysian club Johor Darul Ta'zim. The result meant that Bengaluru dropped down to the AFC Cup, Asia's secondary club competition. In the AFC Cup, Bengaluru finished second in their group, winning every match besides the two against Persipura Jayapura. The club were drawn against South China of Hong Kong in the Round of 16. Bengaluru were defeated 2–0 at the Mong Kok Stadium and thus knocked-out of the competition.

Bengaluru players returned for pre-season on 27 July 2015. After just failing to retain the league title and being knocked-out in the AFC Cup, head coach Ashley Westwood stated in a press conference that Bengaluru were "looking at players who can come in and affect an AFC Cup game". Westwood also commented on the upstart Indian Super League and the disruption to the I-League season stating "We've had two years to prepare for the ISL. The elite players in the country are prepared to withstand a 40-50 game season."

As soon as the previous season ended, it was announced that Sean Rooney would be leaving the club to sign with Oakleigh Cannons in Australia. Also let go were goalkeeper Pawan Kumar, midfielders Darren Caldeira and Malemngamba Meitei, and forward Karan Sawhney after their contracts expired. Also released from the side were club captain Sunil Chhetri, midfielder Thoi Singh, and forward Robin Singh. All three would go on to join Indian Super League sides. It was later revealed by Bengaluru CEO Parth Jindal that the players were released as part of an agreement between the club and ISL that Chhetri, Thoi, and Robin would be loaned back to Bengaluru after the 2015 season.

Bengaluru made their first signings of the season on 3 June 2015, bringing in North Korean forward Kim Song-yong from Royal Wahingdoh and midfielder Seiminlen Doungel from Shillong Lajong. It was then announced two days later on 5 June that the club had extended the contracts of 10 players: Eugeneson Lyngdoh, Josh Walker, Shankar Sampingiraj, Rino Anto, Lalchhuanmawia, Udanta Singh, Lalthuammawia Ralte, C. K. Vineeth, Beikhokhei Beingaichho, and Siam Hanghal. In July 2015, Bengaluru brought in India international midfielder Alwyn George from Dempo.

In October 2015, Bengaluru signed Indian youth international defender Salam Ranjan Singh on loan from Pune. The next month, the club completed the triple signing of youth internationals Nishu Kumar, Malsawmzuala, and Daniel Lalhlimpuia from the AIFF Elite Academy. Bengaluru then completed their signings in December 2015, bringing in goalkeeper Amrinder Singh on loan from Pune.

Prior to the start of the season, Westwood stated that the club "managed to work fairly consistently over the last four weeks. Got some new boys in and it’s always nice to have new faces to push the ones that are here who are getting a little comfortable. We’re stronger...".

### Transfers

In

Out

Loans in

Loans out

## Pre-season

To prepare for the upcoming season, Bengaluru played two friendlies in August against the India under-19 side. In their first match on 8 August 2015, Bengaluru won 5–2 with Sunil Chhetri opening the scoring the 5th minute. The India under-19 side then scored two goals before halftime and went into the break with the 2–1 lead. In the second half, Bengaluru came back and scored four goals through Alwyn George, N.S. Manju, Eugeneson Lyngdoh, and Robin Singh. Bengaluru's second match against the under-19 side was on 12 August. Bengaluru once again went into halftime down, losing 1–0 at the break, but managed to score five in the second half to win 5–2 again.

In addition to the two friendly matches, Bengaluru also participated in the 2015–16 Bangalore Super Division to prepare for the I-League season. One of the matches included an 11–0 victory over Income Tax on 27 December 2015.

## Competitions

### Overall

Last Updated: 25 May 2016
Source : Competitions

### Overview

### I-League

#### Summary

##### January

Bengaluru kicked off their season with an away game against Salgaocar on 9 January 2016. Bengaluru took an early lead when C.K. Vineeth put a pass from Kim Song-Yong in the net. However, just before the half time, Jackichand Singh was brought down by Eugeneson Lyngdoh in the penalty area and Salgaocar were awarded the penalty. Darryl Duffy converted the penalty and equalized for Salgaocar. In the second half, Sunil Chhetri converted the free-kick into the goal in 61st minute and Bengaluru FC won the game 2–1, registering their sixth consecutive win against Salgaocar in all competitions. Bengaluru played the next game against I-League debutant Aizawl F.C. Curtis Osano's header from Keegan Pereira's free-kick in 27th minute was enough for Bengaluru to secure three points. In the first home game of the season, Bengaluru played Shillong Lajong. C.K. Vineeth registered the fastest goal of the season (38 seconds) for Bengaluru. Bengaluru doubled the lead when Kim Song-Yong scored his first goal for the team in 35th minute. Kim scored the brace in the 60th minute and Bengaluru reached the top of the table with the 3–0 and the third consecutive win. In the next away game against Mumbai F.C., Bengaluru quickly conceded the lead as Arata Izumi and Son Min-chol scored a goal each within 11 minutes. In spite of fair possession and counter-attack, Bengaluru couldn't convert their chances and faced the first loss of the season. The loss also ended Bengaluru FC's unbeaten streak of 16 games in the league dating back to previous season's game against Sporting Clube de Goa on 28 February 2015. In the month's last game, Bengaluru FC faced East Bengal and registered their first every away victory against the Kolkata side with a solitary goal by the captain Sunil Chhetri in the 60th minute and finished the month at the top of the table.

##### February

Bengaluru FC flagged February off with a home game against Sporting Clube de Goa. After missing an early chance, Bengaluru lost the lead when Odafa Onyeka Okolie scored in the 9th minute. Bengaluru's attack were unable to convert chances against 10-men Sporting until C.K. Vineeth found the back of the net in 64th minute. However, the home team's joy was short lived as Odafa completed his brace in 74th minute and Bengaluru faced first loss at home in the season. In the next home game Bengaluru FC faced I-League debutant DSK Shivajians F.C. Bengaluru were leading 2–0 with a goal each from Sunil Chhetri and Kim Song-Yong, but due to a defensive error from Bengaluru FC, DSK Shivajians pulled one back by a goal from ex-Bengaluru player Sampath Kuttymani, just before the half time. Bengaluru FC finished the game 4–1 with two more goals in the second half from substitutes Shankar Sampingiraj and Seminlen Doungel, and reclaimed the top spot. In the next game against the defending champion, Mohun Bagan, after the goalless first half, Lalchhuanmawia was sent off by the referee. Jeje Lalpekhlua finally broke the deadlock in 73rd minute from Cornell Glenn's pass. Mohun Bagan doubled the lead by Sony Norde's goal and Bengaluru FC faced second defeat at home and third defeat of the season. After facing a string of defeats, Bengaluru FC got back to winning ways against Aizawl F.C., when C.K. Vineeth's second half goal was enough to secure 3 points.

##### March

Bengaluru played the solo game I-League game in March against Shillong Lajong F.C. on 2 March 2016. Man of the match Udanta Singh scored his first ever goal in the I-League and gave Bengaluru FC the lead in the 36th minute. Bengaluru then maintained the lead with solid defending and sealed the game in 82nd minute when Kim Song-Yong's header doubled the lead from the corner kick of Udanta Singh.

##### April

Bengaluru played the first game of April against Mumbai F.C. Bengaluru's attack did not yield any results in the first half and remained goalless. Bengaluru continued the attack in the second half. After series of missed chances and almost a penalty, the substitute Daniel Lalhlimpuia broke the deadlock in 81st minute and Bengaluru FC registered their first ever win against the Mumbai team. Playing the next game against DSK Shivajians F.C., Bengaluru FC had a chance to move to the top of the table with a win. Returning from his injury Eugeneson Lyngdoh, gave the lead to the visitors in 34th minute from Sunil Chhetri's free kick, but 3 minutes later, Aser Pierrick Dipanda equalized and the score remained unchanged till the end of the game and Bengaluru FC remained in second position behind Mohun Bagan based on head-to-head record, with an extra game in the hand. Bengaluru FC next faced East Bengal F.C. in a potentially title deciding match on 10 April 2016. After starting aggressively, Bengaluru FC made a mistake in the midfield and Do Dong-hyun gave the lead to East Bengal in 27th minute. However, the lead was short lived as Eugeneson Lyngdoh brought Bengaluru FC on par in the next minute. Bengaluru continued the attack in the second half and they were rewarded with two more goals by Kim Song-Yong and Malsawmzuala. With the win, Bengaluru FC moved to the top of the table for the first time since February, and 2 points ahead of Mohun Bagan and 5 points ahead of East Bengal. With just 3 points required to seal the second title in three years, Bengaluru FC next faced Salgaocar on 18 April 2016. Eugeneson Lyngdoh struck early in 8th minute to give the early lead to the blues. Seminlen Doungel sealed the game in 87th minute when taped Sunil Chhetri's pass in the net and Bengaluru FC registered seventh straight win against the Goan club and also won 2015–16 I-League title with one round to go. Reacting to the title win, the manager Ashley Westwood said:

> This victory feels a lot better. In the first one, people said it was a fluke given it was our first year. We should have won the second year also as we were the best side by a mile. We went 13 games undefeated. and lost with three or four minutes to go. I wanted that to never happen again. We have won it at home, in front of our own fans and a game to spare. All along the season I said 32 points will win it, two points a game and that has been proven right. We haven't had the best squad and not the best individual talents. Individuals win you games and not the league. That's what has happened. You saw a really well oiled side, all players and staff pulling in the right direction wanting to force the ball over the line.

Having secured the title, Bengaluru FC played the last game of the season against the defending champions Mohun Bagan. Ashley Westwood fielded the reserve side and Bengaluru FC faced massive 5–0 defeat in the inconsequential game.

#### Matches

#### Table

#### Results summary

#### Results by round

### AFC Cup

The draw for 2016 AFC Cup took place on 10 December 2015 and Bengaluru FC were placed in Group H alongside Malaysia Super League winner Johor Darul Ta'zim, Lao Premier League winner Lao Toyota FC and General Aung San Shield winner Ayeyawady United from Myanmar.

#### Group stage

Bengaluru FC started their campaign in the away game against Vietnamese team Lao Toyota F.C. A defensive lapse by Curtis Osano and an excellent free-kick just outside the penalty box from Phatthana Syvilay meant that Bengaluru were trailing by 2–0 at the 30 minutes mark. In the second half, Lao Toyota were reduced to 10 men, but Bengaluru were unable to capitalize on the chances created. However, C.K. Vineeth pulled one back in the stoppage time, and the score ended at 2–1 in the favour of the home team. Injury-ridden Bengaluru FC faced defending AFC cup champions Johor Darul Ta'zim at home. The game was decided by a solitary goal from Mohd Safiq Rahim in 55th minute and Bengaluru succumbed to second consecutive defeat in the AFC cup. Bengaluru FC finally secured its first win against Ayeyawady United when the solitary goal from the captain Sunil Chhetri in the first half was enough to secure 0–1 win for the team.

In the second half of the group stage, Bengaluru FC resumed the campaign against Ayeyawady United at home. In what turned out to be the highest scoring match involving Bengaluru FC, the home team won the game 5–3 in spite of missed chances and defensive blunders. Bengaluru FC registered their third consecutive win in the group stage with 2–1 home win against Lao Toyota. A goal each from Eugeneson Lyngdoh and Kim Song-Yong in each half took Bengaluru FC to a win and with the win the team also advanced to round of 16 for the second year in running. In the final game of the group stage, Bengaluru FC faced the group leader Johor Darul Ta'zim, who maintained their perfect record against Bengaluru FC with 3–0 win and handed them their third consecutive defeat.

#### Knock-out stage

##### Round of 16

Bengaluru FC faced Hong Kong team Kitchee SC, the group F winner, in the single-legged round of 16 game at the Mong Kok Stadium. After conceding early lead in 7th minute, Bengaluru FC came back strong and Sunil Chhetri scored two goals in succession. However, Kitchee equalized just before the half time and the first half ended at 2–2. Daniel Lalhlimpuia struck immediately in the second half and gave the lead back to Bengaluru FC in 51st minute. Even though Bengaluru FC missed a few easy chances in the second half, they managed to hold on to the lead and entered quarter-finals for the first time, played during 2016–17 season.

### Federation Cup

As the winner of 2015–16 I-League, Bengaluru FC were paired against 8th ranked team Aizawl F.C. for the quarter-final round. On 30 April 2016, in the first leg of quarter finals, Bengaluru FC took an early lead in 15th minute with a goal from Eugeneson Lyngdoh, however Alfred Jaryan equalized for the home team in 38th minute. Aizawl struck the final blow in the dying minutes when Joel Sunday scored the winner for the home team, leaving Bengaluru FC trailing after the first leg. Bengaluru FC suffered a shock defeat in the home leg as well, as the team went down 2–3 to Aizawl. C.K. Vineeth's first half equalizer and Sunil Chhetri's successful penalty proved insufficient as Bengaluru FC were ousted from the Federation cup on 3–5 aggregate loss.

## Accolades

Ashley Westwood was adjudged Best Coach of I-League by All India Football Federation, whereas John Johnson won the Best Defender, Eugeneson Lyngdoh won the Best Midfielder, and Amrinder Singh won the Best Goalkeeper awards. Ashley Westwood was chosen as the Coach of the Year and Udanta Singh as Young Player of the Year by Football Players' Association of India. Bengaluru FC were also awarded Best Organizers by the I-League for the 2015–16 season. At Bengaluru FC award night, John Johnson was Players' Player of the season, and Rino Anto was awarded Fans' player of the season.

## Team management

## Player statistics

### Appearances and goals

Updated: 25 May 2016

### Top scorers

Source: soccerway
Updated: 25 May 2016

### Clean sheets

Source: soccerway
Updated: 25 May 2016

### Disciplinary record

Source: soccerway
Updated: 25 May 2016

## See also

- 2015–16 in Indian football

[Beng](Category:2015–16_I-League_by_team "wikilink") [Bengaluru FC seasons](Category:Bengaluru_FC_seasons "wikilink") [2010s in Bangalore](Category:2010s_in_Bangalore "wikilink")

2015–2016 football season for Bengaluru Football Club


Itcha Range

The Itcha Range, also known as the Itchas, is a small isolated mountain range in the West-Central Interior of British Columbia, Canada. It is located 40 km (25 mi) northeast of the community of Anahim Lake. With a maximum elevation of 2,375 m (7,792 ft), it is the lowest of three mountain ranges on the Chilcotin Plateau extending east from the Coast Mountains. Two mountains are named in the Itcha Range; Mount Downton and Itcha Mountain. A large provincial park surrounds the Itcha Range and other features in its vicinity. More than 15 animal species are known to exist in the Itcha Range area, as well as a grassland community that is limited only to this location of British Columbia. The Itcha Range is within territory which has been occupied by aboriginal peoples for millennia. This area has a relatively dry environment compared to the Coast Mountains in the west.

In contrast to most mountain ranges in British Columbia, the Itcha Range represents an inactive shield volcano. This highly dissected volcanic edifice consists of a variety of rock types, including basanite, hawaiite, trachyte, rhyolite, phonolite and alkali olivine basalt. They were deposited by different types of volcanic eruptions characterized by passive lava flows and explosivity. Two stages of eruptive activity have been identified at the volcano along with three sub-phases that are limited only to the first stage of development. The main body of the Itcha Range is between 3.8 and 3.0 million years old and thus over two million years ago it passed the most active shield stage of life. A period of dormancy lasting for almost a million years followed, which was interrupted by the post-shield stage of volcanism 2.2 to 0.8 million years ago. More recent volcanic activity in and around the Itcha Range might have occurred in the last 340,000 years to produce cinder cones.

The Itcha Range is part of an east–west trending volcanic zone called the Anahim Volcanic Belt. This consists of large shield volcanoes, small cinder cones, lava domes and lava flows that become progressively younger from west to east. Several explanations have been made regarding the creation of this feature, each citing a different geologic process. If volcanic activity were to resume at the Itcha Range, Canada's Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) is prepared to notify people threatened by eruptions.

## Geography

### Location and terrain

The Itcha Range is situated on the northern Chilcotin Plateau, a subdivision of the Fraser Plateau which in turn is one of the main subdivisions of the large Interior Plateau. It is bordered on the west by the Ilgachuz Range, another mountain range on the Chilcotin Plateau. The Itcha Range is located within one of British Columbia's many territorial divisions known as the Range 3 Coast Land District.

Stream erosion has played a significant role in dissecting the mountain range, and many of its peaks are dotted with glaciers. This dissection has resulted in a variety of landforms, such as valleys, crags and domes. Small graveled creeks flow from alpine mountains out onto the regional prairies where there are pale blue rock-bottomed lakes, including the so-named Itcha Lake. Three streams drain the Itcha Range, namely Corkscrew Creek, Downton Creek and Shag Creek. Although the Itcha Range has been dissected by stream erosion and subsequently glaciated, its original shape has been largely preserved. Rocks in the Itcha Range are a variety of colours, including red, white and yellow.

### Climate

The climate of the Itcha Range is influenced by the presence of the Coast Mountains to the west, which disrupt the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and causes them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the Coast Mountains before reaching the Interior Plateau, casting a rain shadow over the Itcha Range.

In contrast to the Coast Mountains, the Interior Plateau experiences a precipitation peak in the summer months, reflecting the influence of summer convective storms, and most of winter precipitation falls as snow. The mean annual precipitation for the area ranges from about 40 to 80 cm (16 to 31 in) while the mean annual temperature is approximately 3 °C (37 °F), with a summer mean of 12.5 °C (54.5 °F) and a winter mean of −8 °C (18 °F).

### Flora and fauna

The Itcha Range area is home to a grassland ecosystem that has not been found elsewhere in southern or central British Columbia. It is dominated by communities of Altai fescue and lichen. Extensive and diverse alpine and subalpine vegetation is also present in the area, some species of which are at the northernmost or southernmost of their range.

Several animal species inhabit around the Itcha Range. Among them are cougars, wolves, grizzly bears, black bears, moose, mule deers, mountain goats, beavers, coyotes, red foxes, muskrats, martens, river otters, lynx and wolverines. Also present is the largest herd of woodland caribou in southern British Columbia, as well as the most northerly population of California bighorn sheep in North America.

## Geology

### Background

A number of mechanisms have been proposed to interpret the origin of volcanism in the Anahim Volcanic Belt. This includes rift propagation and melting of mantle associated with lithospheric fracturing due to flexuring of the crust along the northern edge of the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate. However, insignificant evidence exists to support these hypotheses. The most common and best mechanism used to explain Anahim Belt volcanic activity is a stationary hotspot. This is supported by a well-defined progression in age of volcanism from west to east along the belt that compares well with the age trend of the Yellowstone hotspot track. The North American Plate moves westward over the hotspot at a rate of between 20 and 30 mm (0.79 and 1.18 in) per year. Nazko Cone, a volcanic cone east of the Itcha Range, is centred near the Anahim hotspot.

The Anahim hotspot is underlain by a low-velocity anomaly that extends approximately 400 km (250 mi) into the mantle north of the Juan de Fuca slab. However, this low-velocity anomaly may extend deeper southward beneath the Juan de Fuca slab. Coupled with the well documented temporal progression of surface volcanism, this has led to the conclusion that the Anahim hotspot is supplied by a mantle plume over slab edge flow. A small high-velocity anomaly east of Nazko Cone marks the eastern extent of the Anahim hotspot track.

Magmatism in the Anahim Volcanic Belt can be traced as far back as 10–14 million years ago with the emplacement of dike swarms and plutons as well as the eruption of rhyolite flows and breccias on the British Columbia Coast. The slow continuous westward motion of the North American Plate during the late Neogene positioned the Anahim hotspot further east at the Chilcotin Plateau where volcanic activity built the Rainbow Range shield volcano 8.7 to 6.7 million years ago. Volcanism then shifted eastwards, in displacement contrary with the North American Plate's movement, 6.1 million years ago to construct the Ilgachuz Range shield volcano. Renewed volcanic activity southeast of the Ilgachuz Range starting 3.5 million years ago led to the creation of the Itcha Range, the youngest of the three Anahim shield volcanoes. The Itcha Range continued to be an area of Anahim hotspot volcanism well into the Quaternary period (2.58 million years ago to present).

### Structure

The Itcha Range is the smallest shield volcano in the Anahim Volcanic Belt in terms of area covered. Unlike the Rainbow and Ilgachuz ranges, the Itcha Range is composed of small coalescing volcanic units rather than a stratiform volcanic pile. It is, in many respects, similar to the small alkaline shields found in Kenya and Ethiopia along the East African Rift. About 60% of the shield is exposed while roughly 40% of it remains buried under glacial drift deposits. This suggests that the Itcha Range was glaciated repeatedly during the Pleistocene epoch. Glacial striae on polished surfaces of some of the oldest volcanic rocks in the eastern part of the shield and the local presence of drift deposits throughout the stratigraphy indicate that glaciation and volcanism were contemporaneous through much of the volcanic history of the Itcha Range.

With a maximum elevation of 2,375 m (7,792 ft), the Itcha Range is the lowest of the three Anahim shield volcanoes. Its highest point is Mount Downton, which is situated in the middle of the shield. Just to the northeast is Itcha Mountain, the second highest peak with an elevation of 2,290 m (7,510 ft). These peaks are situated on top of the shield, which has a topographic prominence of about 690 m (2,260 ft).

The Itcha Range has a broad, gently sloping structure typical of shield volcanoes. It is mainly composed of 70 to 150 m (230 to 490 ft) thick felsic lava flows that were erupted from a central vent. These are overlain by 1 to 4 m (3.3 to 13.1 ft) thick mafic alkaline lava flows and at least 30 small cinder cones. Hawaiite is the dominant rock type, but alkali olivine basalt and spinel lherzolite-bearing basanite is also present. They merge laterally with lavas of the much older Chilcotin Group, which surrounds the Anahim Volcanic Belt. However, the exact nature of the relationship between the Anahim Volcanic Belt and the Chilcotin Group is unknown.

Exposed in the middle of the mountain range is an assemblage of deformed andesite to dacite lava flows and volcanoclastic sediments. These basement rocks were created during the late Mesozoic era, long before the Itcha Range formed. They are similar to rocks found in the Hazelton Group, situated north of the Itcha Range, and the Ootsa Lake Group of the Intermontane Belt.

### Volcanic history

Two stages of volcanic activity constructed the Itcha Range. The first stage, referred to as the felsic shield-building stage, occurred between 3.8 and 3.0 million years ago. Three phases comprise this stage; a pre-explosive phase, an explosive phase and a post-explosive phase. Analysis of the first trachyte magmas to erupt during the pre-explosive phase suggest they were relatively fluid as shown by their areal extent. Eruptions became more viscous during the explosive phase, followed by more viscosity during the post-explosive phase. As a result, the volume of erupted material became smaller over time. The increasing viscousness of felsic lava during the shield-building stage suggests a maturing plumbing system underneath the Itcha Range, which may have consisted of multiple, isolated, cupola-type magma chambers.

A 900,000‐year‐long period of quiescence followed after the felsic shield-building stage, during which time erosion ate away at the shield's gentle slopes. This quiescence was followed by a mafic capping stage between 2.2 and 0.8 million years ago, but renewed activity might have occurred in the last 340,000 years. Alkali olivine basalts of the mafic capping stage were derived from the fractionation of a clinopyroxene, olivine and oxide assemblage. However, the associated hawaiite lavas may have derived from an alkali olivine basalt parent by the fractionation of a clinopyroxene-dominated assemblage at higher pressures. As volcanic activity waned during the mafic capping stage, lava flows became more viscous and decreased in volume. This suggests that parental magmas may have been derived by increasingly smaller degrees of partial melting with time. If volcanic activity of the Itcha Range is related to a hotspot, this temporal and spatial evolution would suggest a waning heat source.

The main body of the shield erupted over an area of about 300 km2 (120 sq mi). Volcanic activity associated with the Itcha Range extended 20 km (12 mi) south to the Satah Mountain area where lavas erupted along a north-northwest trending fault system and covered an additional area of 250 km2 (97 sq mi). Although the Satah Mountain volcanic field is not part of the Itcha Range, it is linked to the range by a volcanic ridge.

#### Felsic shield-building stage

The felsic shield-building stage began with the eruption of phonolite, trachyte, phonolitic trachyte, quartz-trachyte and rhyolite lava. Subsequent volcanism of the pre-explosive phase produced a basal sequence of aphyric trachyte lava flows and domes with minor altered flow-banded rhyolite, sulfide-bearing rhyolitic tuffs and a few thin hawaiite lava flows. This activity was concentrated at the summit of the volcano as shown by the increasing thickness of volcanic material towards the summit. A hydrothermally altered aphyric trachyte dike, which forms a narrow ridge linking Mount Downton and Itcha Mountain, might have been the source for these eruptions.

After the basal trachytes were erupted, the explosive phase produced alkali-feldspar porphyritic trachytes, which erupted as pyroclastic deposits with minor, small lava flows and domes. The explosive eruptions produced pumice flows, bedded tuffs, debris flows, reworked polymict debris flows and lava flows less than 20 m (66 ft) thick. The porphyritic trachytes erupted at the summit of the shield and flowed towards the northeast and east. Because the porphyritic pyroclastic deposits are buried by younger volcanic rocks and glacial drift deposits, the maximum thickness of them is unknown.

The felsic shield-building stage ended with the post-explosive phase. This phase of activity created small volcanic plugs, lava flows, minor pyroclastic flows, channelized debris flows and a few glassy dikes at the summit of the shield volcano. These consist of alkali-feldspar porphyritic quartz-trachyte and trachyte. Alkali-feldspar quartz-trachyte plugs formed in rhyolites and trachytes of the pre-explosive phase, as well as pyroclastic deposits and feldspar trachyte lava flows of the explosive phase. Later activity produced trachyte and phonolite plugs and lava flows. This volcanism occurred mainly at the shield's summit and on its western flank. Massive lava flows from this volcanic activity have a thickness of about 100 m (330 ft) while three successive lava flows at the summit have a combined thickness of more than 200 m (660 ft). Lava from the western flank flowed over basement rocks and trachytes of the pre-explosive phase. In contrast, lava from the summit flowed over pyroclastic rocks and lava flows of the explosive phase. Mount Downton and Itcha Mountain were formed during this eruptive period. The final volcanic event of the post-explosive phase produced 7 to 10 m (23 to 33 ft) thick trachyte lava flows on the western flank.

#### Mafic capping stage

During the mafic capping stage, basanite, alkali olivine basalt and hawaiite erupted mainly from small parasitic cones, tuff rings and fissures in the eastern half of the shield. Eruptions occurred subglacially, subaqueously and/or subaerially as shown by a wide range in the degree of vesicularity, freshness and glass content of the lavas. In most cases, each parasitic cone produced three or four lava flows from breaches in the cone walls. These were erupted as pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā, but the tops of the lava flows are commonly missing due to erosion. Hawaiite was the most extensively erupted lava of the mafic capping stage, occurring mostly at the southern end of the Itcha Range but also in its interior.

Volcanism of the mafic capping stage began with the eruption of aphyric hawaiite lava flows. These were extruded from dikes and dissected cinder cones in the central and southeastern parts of the Itcha Range. Alkali olivine basalts were erupted contemporaneously from younger better preserved cinder cones and form lava flows reaching 30 m (98 ft) thick. Once the alkali olivine basalt flows cooled, they formed well-developed columnar joints. Feldspar-phyric, highly vesiculated hawaiites and benmoreites were later erupted from several vents on the summit of Itcha Mountain.

In the northwestern and northeastern parts of the shield volcano, basanite lava flows were erupted and are volumetrically subordinate. These represent the youngest known lavas of the Itcha Range. However, a cinder cone in the middle of the shield could be much younger, perhaps as young as the basanites at Nazko Cone to the east, which were erupted 340,000 to 7,100 years ago. The older basanites in the Itcha Range may have been erupted contemporaneously with the late feldspar hawaiites.

### Parasitic cones

Parasitic cones of the Itcha Range shield were formed mainly during the Early Pleistocene mafic capping stage between 2.2 and 0.8 million years ago. These secondary vents are monogenetic in nature, meaning each cone was only active for a single eruption sequence before becoming extinct. The duration of volcanic activity at these cones can last from hours to years. Parasitic cones of the Itcha Range are small cinder cones situated at the summit and flanks of the shield volcano.

## Human history

### Naming

The Itcha Range has had at least two forms of names throughout its history. It was originally named the Itcha Mountains as identified in the 1930 BC Gazetteer. This form of name remained official until March 13, 1947, when it was changed to its current form, Itcha Range, as part of an official government policy. Larger mountain ranges throughout British Columbia, such as the Coast Mountains, retained their gazetted names whereas smaller ones, especially ranges of larger groupings, were subjected to renaming. In more casual speech, the Itcha Range is referred to as the Itchas. The name Itcha is indigenous in origin, coming from the local Tsilhqot'in people.

Mount Downton was named by D. M. MacKay, a member of the British Columbia Land Surveyors (BCLS) who conducted topographical surveys in the area. He named it after Geoffrey M. Downton, another BCLS member who is credited for first noting the hydroelectric potential inherent in the elevation differential between the Bridge River and Seton Lake on opposing sides of Mission Ridge above Shalalth in December 1912. This name for the mountain was adopted on February 7, 1947. The name Itcha Mountain was adopted on March 4, 1954, for the range's second highest peak.

### Occupation

Indigenous people of the Dakelh and Tsilhqot'in tribes have inhabited the area for hundreds of years. In pre-contact times, these people lived a nomadic lifestyle. They did not build permanent structures in which to live, as they moved from region to region to find food and resources. Animals such as martin, moose and caribou were hunted and trapped by the Dakelh and Tsilhqot'in tribes. In summer, these people gathered roots, plants and a volcanic glass called obsidian. Anahim obsidian was traded widely throughout the Interior and up and down the Coast from the community of Bella Coola. Arrowheads and knives were made from obsidian because when it breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture, it creates very sharp edges. A modified form of this lifestyle is practiced by some indigenous people to this day.

Settlers arrived in the area from Bella Coola in the early 1900s to establish ranches. One particular ranch, the Home Ranch, used the Blackwater Trail between the Ilgachuz and Itcha ranges to carry supplies and cattle to be sold at cattle sales in the small city of Quesnel. Remains of this ranch are still present, as well as many trails that were used as supply routes.

The Itcha Range and the surrounding area were designated as a Class A provincial park in 1995 to protect the alpine grasslands, wetlands and wildlife habitats. This 111,977 ha (276,700 acres) protected area was named Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park after the Itcha and Ilgachuz ranges, the latter of which is also in the park.

## Monitoring and volcanic hazards

Like other volcanoes in the Anahim Volcanic Belt, the Itcha Range is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma system is. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide an accurate indication of activity under the range. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if the Itcha Range becomes highly restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption; the system might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting. If the Itcha Range were to erupt, mechanisms exist to orchestrate relief efforts. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would respond to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that would affect Canada.

Because of the remote location of the Itcha Range, future eruptions are not a major hazard. Future volcanism is most likely in the form of basaltic cinder cones, but eruptions of felsic magma can not be ruled out. The most immediate hazard relating to future eruptions is of local concern only and includes the possibility of forest fires by lava flows and the disruption of local air traffic if an eruption column is produced. Volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure, as well as damage to other aircraft systems.

## See also

- Geology of British Columbia
- Volcanism of Western Canada
- List of volcanoes in Canada

Mountain range in British Columbia, Canada