1998 Pacific hurricane season

The 1998 Pacific hurricane season was a fairly average Pacific hurricane season. Despite this, it had nine hurricanes and six major hurricanes, which was well above average. The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and on June 1 in the central Pacific, and ended on November 30; these dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in that region. The first tropical cyclone developed on June 11, about ten days later than the normal start of the season. The final storm of the year, Hurricane Madeline, dissipated on October 20. Storm activity in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's warning zone was low, with just one tropical depression observed in the region. Two tropical cyclones from the eastern Pacific (Darby and Estelle) also entered the central Pacific; the former did so as a hurricane.

The most notable tropical cyclone of the year was Hurricane Isis, which killed fourteen people when it made landfall on southern Baja California Sur and coastal Sinaloa in Mexico. Isis caused considerable damage in the nation while destroying more than 700 homes and damaging dozens of cars. It later produced sporadic rainfall in the southwestern United States, leading to some traffic accidents. In addition to Isis, Tropical Storm Javier moved ashore the coast of Jalisco in Mexico; the country also experienced indirect effects from four other storms, all of which remained offshore. One tropical cyclone, Hurricane Lester, affected Central America, causing two deaths in Guatemala, and later brought heavy rains to southern Mexico. Three tropical cyclones brought light to moderate rainfall to the southwestern United States, and one hurricane produced rough surf along the coast of California. Hurricane Madeline contributed to a deadly and costly flood in southern Texas.

## Seasonal summary

The season produced 13 named storms, slightly below the average of 15 named storms per season. However, the season total of nine hurricanes was one above the average, and the total of six major hurricanes surpassed the average of three. Activity during the season was hindered by the northward movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ, which is normally situated south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, shifted northward into Central and Southern Mexico, making the cyclone closer to cooler sea surface temperatures, hence limiting the number of storms that formed during the season. Although a semi-permanent anticyclone persisted through the summer of 1998, causing most of the storms to remain at sea, some storm did threaten the Baja California Peninsula due to a weakness in the anticyclone. Except for Hurricane Kay, all of the storms of the season originated from tropical waves. Accumulated Cyclone Energy is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of a storm multiplied by its duration, so longer-lived hurricanes have higher ACEs. The total ACE for the season was 133.97 × 104 kt2. Because several storms in 1998 were long-lasting or intense, the season's ACE was near-normal. Hurricane Howard had the highest ACE, measuring 29.27 x 104 kt2.

## Systems

### Tropical Storm Agatha

A poorly defined tropical wave crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean on June 8. As it tracked westward under the influence of a ridge to its north, a broad circulation developed. Gradually, the dominant center of circulation became better defined, with increasingly organized convection and developing banding features. By early on June 11, the center became sufficiently associated with the convection for the National Hurricane Center (NHC) to classify the system as Tropical Depression One-E. This occurred while the area of unsettled weather was about 460 miles (740 km) south-southwest of Acapulco, Mexico.

The center of the depression was not initially well defined, with restricted outflow in the eastern half of the circulation. As such, the depression failed to attain any significant organization in the days subsequent to its formation. Later, an approaching tropical wave merged with the depression, resulting in a trend of intensification and increased organization. By June 13, the NHC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status, and gave it the name "Agatha". Agatha was about 650 miles (1,050 km) south-southeast of Cabo San Lucas when it became a tropical storm. As Agatha became a tropical storm, forecasters predicted that it would not strengthen further, due to its forecast track passing over cooler waters. However, Agatha quickly strengthened, developing a curved band of convection wrapping around its center, and early on June 11 it attained a peak intensity of 65 mph (105 km/h) while about 615 miles (990 km) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California. Agatha maintained peak winds for about 12 hours before moving over colder waters and gradually weakening. On June 15, it degenerated back into a tropical depression, and a day later, it dissipated over the open waters of the Pacific Ocean. The storm never affected land.

### Tropical Depression Two-E

A few days later, another westward-moving tropical disturbance paralleled the southern coast of Central America and Mexico. Convection in the area organized steadily, and late on June 19, the system developed into Tropical Depression Two-E about 260 miles (420 km) south-southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico. On becoming a tropical depression, the system maintained a large, elongated, low-level circulation with some banding features and restricted outflow due to wind shear. The National Hurricane Center first predicted that the depression would intensify, reaching winds of 50 mph (80 km/h), though two computer models projected it to quickly dissipate. Under the influence of a ridge over Mexico, the depression moved to the west-northwest, and, under the influence of increasing wind shear, the depression failed to organize significantly. By June 20, the circulation center was partially exposed, and was located to the northeast of the primary convection – traits that signal a weak storm. Two-E approached tropical storm status, though deep convection waned after the system moved over cooler waters. On June 21, the National Hurricane Center issued the last advisory on the depression, stating that the depression maintained a very well-defined, low-level circulation, but had no convection associated with the system. Locally heavy rains fell across southwest Mexico in association with this system, peaking at 5.55 inches (141 mm) at Las Gaviotas/Compostela.

### Hurricane Blas

On June 8, a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa. The wave remained weak and nondescript as it crossed the Atlantic Ocean and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on June 19. An area of convection developed and organized along the wave's axis, and the National Hurricane Center began to employ Dvorak classifications on June 20. Convective banding features increased as the broad circulation became better defined, and on June 22, the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Three-E about 575 miles (925 km) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Well-defined steering currents resulted in a general west-northwestward movement. Deep convection concentrated near the center, and about 12 hours after becoming a tropical depression, the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Blas about 400 miles (640 km) south of Puerto Angel, Oaxaca.

Tropical Storm Blas continued to organize as it moved parallel to the Mexican coast. Banding features increased, and on June 23 the storm attained hurricane status about 345 miles (555 km) southwest of Acapulco. The next day, an eye developed and became apparent on satellite imagery, while upper-level outflow became better defined. Blas quickly strengthened and reached its peak intensity on June 25, with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h), while about 575 miles (925 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of Baja California. Temperatures warmed in the convection around the eye, though the eye remained visible for several days as Blas turned west under the influence of a ridge to its north. On June 28, it degenerated into a tropical storm after entering an area of cooler water. Blas weakened to a tropical depression on June 30, and a day later was considered to have dissipated due to a lack of convection near the center. A remnant low-level cloud swirl persisted for several days, passing well to the south of Hawaii on July 5 before dissipating. The Associated Press attributed 4 deaths from a mudslide in Michoacán to Blas. However, as the primary convection remained offshore, the National Hurricane Center did not consider the deaths related to the hurricane. The threat of Blas prompted officials in Acapulco to close the port to all navigation.

### Tropical Storm Celia

On July 1, another tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa. It moved westward due to strong wind shear without further organization, and crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 11. An area of organizing convection developed along the wave axis, and Dvorak classifications began on July 13, while the tropical wave was south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. The cloud pattern soon became disorganized, and the area of disturbed weather continued west-northwestward. On July 16, convection increased and organized into banding features; early on July 17, the system developed into Tropical Depression Four-E about 150 miles (240 km) south of Manzanillo, Mexico. Soon after becoming a tropical depression, the storm rapidly organized and intensified into Tropical Storm Celia six hours after becoming a tropical depression. The tropical storm initially moved northwestward, and briefly threatened southern Baja California. As a result, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning on July 18 for La Paz southward. Shortly thereafter, a mid- to upper-level anticyclone turned Celia to the west-northwest and forced it to pass about 150 miles (240 km) south-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. On July 19, Celia attained maximum sustained winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) before moving over cooler waters and diminishing in convection. The storm degenerated into a tropical depression on July 20, and Celia dissipated early on July 21, well away from the Mexican coastline.

The precursor tropical disturbance produced locally heavy rainfall along the south coast of Mexico. Authorities in Mexico closed the port at Acapulco to small fishing and recreational boats, and advised larger craft to use caution. Damage from the storm, if any, is unknown.

### Hurricane Darby

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on July 4. It tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with little increase in convection, and crossed Central America into the Pacific Ocean on July 16. Three days later, convection began to increase along the wave axis while the wave was well to the south of Acapulco, Mexico. On July 21, Dvorak classifications began as the cloud pattern displayed curvature on satellite images. Convective banding features gradually developed, and it is estimated that the system organized into Tropical Depression Five-E early on July 23 about 720 miles (1,160 km) south of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula. Under the influence of a mid- to upper-level ridge to its north, the depression tracked west-northwestward. Convection became more concentrated as outflow organized further, and 18 hours after the depression first developed, it intensified into Tropical Storm Darby.

Located in an area conducive to further development, Darby attained hurricane status on July 24, subsequent to the development of a 17-mile (27 km)-wide eye. The eye became more distinct while surrounded by an area of deep convection, and on July 25 the hurricane reached peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) about 850 miles (1,370 km) southwest of Cabo San Lucas. The eye soon disappeared on satellite imagery, believed to be from an eyewall replacement cycle, and Darby's winds weakened to about 105 mph (169 km/h). A 25-mile (40 km) eye next developed, and on July 26, the hurricane re-intensified to reach peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). For a 30-hour period, Darby attained the characteristics of an annular hurricane, retaining a well-defined structure with few banding features for an extended period. The hurricane began to weaken while entering an area of cooler water and increased wind shear, and after crossing into the jurisdiction of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center, Darby weakened to a tropical storm on July 29. The storm degenerated into a tropical depression on July 31, and early on August 1, Darby dissipated a moderate distance north of the Hawaiian Islands. It never affected land.

### Hurricane Estelle

On July 18, a tropical wave exited the western coast of Africa, and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean with sporadic convection but no development. The wave moved across the Caribbean Sea and the southern Gulf of Mexico before crossing Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 28. Early on July 29, Dvorak classifications began on the system, and subsequent to the formation of banding features and a surface circulation, the system developed into Tropical Depression Six-E about 170 miles (270 km) southeast of Manzanillo, Mexico. The depression continued to organize, with increasing convection and distinct upper-level outflow, and early on July 30 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Estelle.

Tropical Storm Estelle gradually intensified as it tracked west-northwestward, a motion caused by a large anticyclone to its north. On July 31, the storm attained hurricane status about 550 miles (890 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of Baja California. Its intensification continued as a well-defined eye about 30 miles (48 km) in diameter became visible on satellite imagery, and on August 2 Estelle reached its peak intensity of 135 mph (217 km/h). The hurricane soon began to weaken as deep convection diminished and the eye disappeared on satellite imagery. Two days after peaking in intensity, Estelle weakened to tropical storm status. Late on August 4, the convection associated with the storm dissipated, and the next day the storm weakened to tropical depression status. Convection briefly re-developed on August 6, though increased wind shear and cooler water weakened the depression further. Two days later, Estelle dissipated about 400 miles (640 km) east-northeast of the Hawaiian Islands. High surf from Estelle impacted southern California, resulting in a number of lifeguard rescues. The storm disrupted the trade winds around Hawaii, resulting in light winds and rain showers on Kauai and Oahu.

### Tropical Storm Frank

On July 19, a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa. A mid-level circulation developed to the south of Cape Verde on July 22, though the wave became less distinct as it continued westward. The wave axis crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 31. Convection steadily increased, though it was not until August 4 that the convection began to organize. Dvorak classifications began on August 4, and subsequent to the formation of a low-level circulation the system developed into Tropical Depression Seven-E on August 6 about 550 miles (890 km) south of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula. The depression tracked generally northward, under the influence of a ridge over Mexico and a mid-level trough to its west. The center of the depression was initially elongated, with northerly wind shear impacting the structure of the cyclone. This at first prevented further strengthening, though convection increased and organized into banding features as it moved through an area of warm water. On August 8, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Frank, and it soon turned to the north-northwest, brushing the western coastline of Baja California. On August 9, Frank reached peak winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) about 105 miles (169 km) west-northwest of Ciudad Constitución. It turned to the northwest, with a portion of the circulation of the land, and steadily weakened after moving over cooler water. On August 10, Frank dissipated a short distance off Baja California.

On August 8, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for portions of the southwestern Baja California Peninsula. Officials ordered the evacuation of some residents near Cabo San Lucas, whose port was closed, due to the threat of mudslides. Gusty winds and moderate rainfall were reported in a localized area of Baja California Sur, with rainfall peaking at 9.61 inches (244 mm) at Santa Anita, near Los Cabos. Moisture from Frank extended into the southwestern United States, producing more than 2 inches (51 mm) of rain in southern California and Arizona. One news agency attributed three deaths to the storm, though elsewhere there were no reports of damage.

### Hurricane Georgette

A tropical wave was first observed in the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 4 in association with the Intertropical Convergence Zone. It tracked westward, and by August 9 a low-level circulation formed well to the south of Mexico. Banding features increased as the system detached from the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and on August 11, the system developed into Tropical Depression Eight-E about 730 miles (1,170 km) southwest of Acapulco. On becoming a tropical cyclone, the depression maintained an area of concentrated deep convection near the center. The National Hurricane Center initially predicted that the depression would slowly intensify and reach winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) within 72 hours. For much of the rest of the storm's duration, the National Hurricane Center underestimated the intensity of the cyclone.

The depression tracked steadily northwestward, caused by its location along the western periphery of a subtropical ridge. It would retain that direction for most of its remaining duration. Late on August 11, it intensified into Tropical Storm Georgette, and two days later it attained hurricane status after developing a 40-mile (64 km) eye about 615 miles (990 km) south-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. The eye became increasingly distinct while banding features became very well organized. Georgette attained peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) while centered 690 miles (1,110 km) west-southwest of the southern tip of Baja California. The hurricane soon moved over cooler water, and began to weaken as convection warmed and decreased. On August 16, it degenerated into a tropical storm, and Georgette dissipated on August 17 without ever affecting land.

### Tropical Depression One-C

An area of convection developed in association with a northward bulge of the near-equatorial convergence zone. It tracked west-northwestward under the influence of a ridge to its north, and organized into Tropical Depression One-C on August 19, about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands. The depression failed to organize significantly as it turned westward. High wind shear from an upper-level trough continually weakened the system, and on August 19, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued the final advisory on the tropical depression about 365 miles (587 km) south of Hilo on the island of Hawaii. It never affected land.

### Hurricane Howard

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 7. As it moved across the Atlantic Ocean, it failed to organize. On reaching the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 17, however, an area of convection developed along the wave axis. Dvorak classifications began the next day, and a broad center of circulation gradually formed. Convection was intermittent at first, though it gradually organized and persisted near the center, and on August 20, the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Nine-E about 345 miles (555 km) south of Puerto Angel, Mexico. It tracked generally west-northwestward, developing more pronounced banding features, and on August 21, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Howard. The center of Howard became embedded within the deep convection, and the storm quickly strengthened to attain hurricane status late on the 21st. An eye developed as outflow organized further, and Howard began to rapidly intensify to reach peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h) about 600 miles (970 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of Baja California. At the time of its peak intensity, the eye was small and located within a very cold central dense overcast.

Shortly after peaking in intensity, the eye of Hurricane Howard gradually became larger, resulting in a slight weakening trend. After weakening to winds of 125 mph (201 km/h), the eye reached a diameter of about 30 miles (48 km), and the structure of the hurricane transitioned into that of an annular hurricane, similar to that of Darby earlier in the season. Howard strengthened again into a Category 4 hurricane on August 25 before weakening slightly the following day. The hurricane retained annular characteristics for about 48 hours before moving over cooler water. On August 28, it weakened to a tropical storm, and early on August 30, Howard was considered to have dissipated. A small, low-level swirl of clouds devoid of convection persisted for a few days before dissipating. Howard never affected land.

### Hurricane Isis

Isis developed on September 1 out of the interaction between a tropical wave and a large, low-level circulation to the southwest of Mexico. It moved northward, striking the extreme southeastern portion of the Baja California Peninsula before attaining hurricane status in the Gulf of California. Isis made landfall at Topolobampo in the state of Sinaloa on September 3 and quickly lost its low-level circulation. The remnants persisted for several days before dissipating in the US state of Idaho.

In Mexico, Isis destroyed more than 700 houses and killed 14 people, primarily due to heavy rainfall of more than 20 inches (510 mm) in southern Baja California Sur. The rainfall caused widespread damage to roads and railways, stranding thousands of people. Moisture from the remnants of Isis extended into the southwestern United States, resulting in light rainfall, dozens of traffic accidents, and power outages for thousands of residents in San Diego County.

### Tropical Storm Javier

Javier is believed to have originated from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 22. A convective disturbance along the northern portion of the wave developed into Atlantic Hurricane Danielle on August 24, while the southern portion of the wave axis continued westward. The wave remained inactive and difficult to track as it crossed the Atlantic. On September 3, an area of convection began to develop near Acapulco, at the same time and location where the wave would have been based on extrapolation. The disturbance became better defined on September 5 as it tracked west-northwestward, and on September 6 the convection became sufficiently organized and persistent for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Eleven-E, while it was located about 200 miles (320 km) southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico.

Easterly wind shear initially dislocated the circulation center to the eastern edge of the convection. The subtropical ridge to its north resulted in a general west-northwest motion, and the depression slowly intensified into Tropical Storm Javier late on September 7. Banding features in the system did not organize significantly, and on September 8, Javier attained a peak intensity of 60 mph (97 km/h), which coincided with a sharp increase in convection over the center. Steering currents soon weakened, and the storm turned to the east while convection quickly decreased. By September 9, the center was exposed from the diminishing deep convection, and that night it degenerated into a tropical depression. On September 11, the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory on Javier, though later analysis indicates that it remained a tropical cyclone as it turned southeastward. At times, it became difficult to distinguish Javier from the broader area of disturbed weather that persisted over the tropical eastern Pacific, though a brief increase in convection and a ship report of winds exceeding 40 mph (64 km/h) indicate that Javier strengthened again into a tropical storm late on September 12. It turned to the northeast, and reached winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) before weakening due to waning convection. Javier made landfall about 35 miles (56 km) east-southeast of Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco early on September 14, and dissipated within 12 hours of moving ashore.

The National Hurricane Center advised small craft along coastal areas of Mexico to monitor the progress of the storm. Javier produced moderate rainfall along coastal regions of Mexico, including a 24-hour peak of 7.36 inches (187 mm) in Colima, 6.69 inches (170 mm) in Michoacán, and 3.34 inches (85 mm) in Jalisco. Puerto Vallarta reported the highest total rainfall, at 17.33 inches (440 mm). Damage, if any, is unknown.

### Tropical Depression Twelve-E

A tropical disturbance developed persistent convection in association with a low-level circulation, and organized into Tropical Depression Twelve-E late on October 1 about 350 miles (560 km) west-northwest of Manzanillo, Mexico. Within an environment of weak steering currents, the depression was initially forecast to track slowly west-northwestward and reach winds of 60 mph (97 km/h), but instead it drifted eastward before turning slowly to the west. The depression failed to organize and gradually worsened in appearance. Early on October 2, two ships reported southwest winds much further to the north, with the National Hurricane Center indicating that either the center was exceedingly small, that no center existed at the time, or that the center was located far to the north of the thunderstorm activity. Operationally, the center was relocated further to the north, then relocated about 115 miles (185 km) to the south six hours later based on visible satellite images, then again relocated to the north, coinciding with officials issuing the last advisory on the system. By early October 3, the depression possessed only intermittent convection, and later that day it dissipated to the southwest of the Baja California peninsula. Heavy rains from its eastern periphery fell across southwest Mexico, with a maximum total of 6.34 inches (161 mm) at Las Gaviotas/Compostela.

### Hurricane Kay

A small, low-level circulation separated itself from the Intertropical Convergence Zone on October 10, several hundred miles southwest of Baja California. The circulation was well defined, though its convection was initially minimal and disorganized. On October 12, the convection increased greatly, and the system was sufficiently organized to be classified Tropical Depression Thirteen-E early on October 13, about 715 miles (1,151 km) southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Dvorak classifications also indicated winds of about 35 mph (56 km/h). Operationally, the depression was forecast to intensify to reach peak winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) while tracking steadily west-northwestward.

The storm center was at first ill-defined, and post-season analysis estimates that it intensified into Tropical Storm Kay about 6 hours after developing. After becoming a tropical storm, Kay rapidly organized as it tracked generally westward. A pinhole eye developed in the center of the convection, and Kay attained hurricane status late on October 13, about 18 hours after developing. After remaining a hurricane for about 12 hours, the eye disappeared and the convection weakened, and early on October 14 Kay degenerated into a tropical storm. Within an environment of weak steering currents, the storm turned to the southwest, then to the south, after weakening to a tropical depression on October 15. Convection sporadically redeveloped, but failed to persist. Kay turned to the southeast and later to the east, and the system dissipated on October 17, about 330 miles (530 km) south-southwest of its origin. Kay never affected land.

### Hurricane Lester

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 29, and on October 5, an area of convection along the wave developed into Atlantic Hurricane Lisa. The wave axis continued westward, and after crossing Central America convection increased as it tracked northwestward, and the system organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen-E on October 15, about 200 miles (320 km) south of Guatemala. It moved northwestward and late on the 15th it intensified into Tropical Storm Lester, about 115 miles (185 km)/h) south of the border of Mexico and Guatemala, before attaining hurricane status on October 16. Lester continued westward and strengthened to reach a peak intensity of 115 mph (185 km/h) on October 22. Late on October 23, it degenerated into a tropical storm, and several days later, Lester dissipated on October 26.

Early in its lifetime, Lester produced heavy rainfall across southwestern Guatemala. The rainfall destroyed some houses and killed livestock, and a mudslide from the heavy precipitation killed two children. In Honduras, rainfall from the hurricane destroyed a bridge in Tegucigalpa, affecting about 1,000 people. Moisture brought around the northeast periphery of the Sierra Madre Occidental led to a narrow band of heavy rainfall along the upslope side of the mountain range, with a local precipitation maximum exceeding 14 inches (360 mm). Though no surface reports are available, it is estimated that tropical-storm-force winds occurred along coastal areas of southern Mexico.

### Hurricane Madeline

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 25, and remained disorganized while crossing the Atlantic Ocean before crossing Central America into the Pacific Ocean. It continued westward, and on October 15 began to steadily organize until developing into Tropical Depression Fifteen-E on October 16, about 230 miles (370 km) west-southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico. At the western end of a mid-level ridge, the depression tracked north-northwestward. 12 hours after first developing, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Madeline. Banding features gradually improved in organization, and late on October 17, Madeline attained hurricane status. On October 18, Madeline attained peak winds of 85 mph (137 km/h) about 95 miles (153 km) southwest of San Blas, Nayarit. Late on October 19, the hurricane degenerated into a tropical storm, and early on October 20, Madeline dissipated in the southern portion of the Gulf of California.

Some of the rainbands from Madeline moved over portions of southwest Mexico, with close to 9 inches (230 mm) falling at Cabo Corrientes. No damage or casualties were reported as a result of the storm in Mexico. Moisture from Madeline contributed to heavy rainfall across southeastern Texas, reaching over 22 inches (560 mm) in some locations. Thirty-one people died due to the flooding, and damage totaled \$750 million (1998 USD).

## Storm names

The following names were used to name storms that formed in the northeastern Pacific Ocean during 1998. No retired names were announced by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1999, so they were used again in the 2004 season. This is the same list used in the 1992 season.

For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line, all names are used in a series of four rotating lists. The next four names that were slated for use in 1998 are shown below, however none of them were used.

## Season effects

This is a table of all the tropical cyclones that formed in the 1998 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, intensities, areas affected, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all the damage figures are in 1998 USD.

## See also

- 1998 Atlantic hurricane season
- 1998 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- 1998 Pacific typhoon season
- Australian region cyclone seasons: 1997–98, 1998–99
- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1997–98, 1998–99
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1997–98, 1998–99
- List of Pacific hurricanes
- Pacific hurricane season

Hurricane season in the Pacific Ocean


Over the Limit (2010)

The 2010 Over the Limit was the inaugural Over the Limit professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on May 23, 2010, at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan. The name "Over the Limit" was a reference to its main event match being contested as an "I Quit" match. Over the Limit replaced WWE's previously annual May PPV, Judgment Day.

Nine matches took place at the event, eight of which were broadcast live on pay-per-view. In the main event, which was the main match from Raw, John Cena faced Batista for the WWE Championship in an "I Quit" match, while Big Show versus World Heavyweight Champion Jack Swagger was the main match from SmackDown. Matches on the undercard included Randy Orton against Edge, CM Punk facing Rey Mysterio, and Drew McIntyre defending SmackDown's Intercontinental Championship against Kofi Kingston. Other championships defended at the event were Raw's WWE Divas Championship and the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship, which was available to both brands.

The event drew 197,000 pay-per-view buys, and was attended live by 11,000 people. Reviews for the event were generally negative, with reviewers criticizing the endings of the matches, stoppages for blood, and predictable match results. Five wrestlers sustained legitimate injuries during the course of the show, being Batista, John Cena, CM Punk, Randy Orton, and Ted DiBiase Jr..

## Production

### Background

World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) had previously ran an annual May pay-per-view (PPV) titled Judgment Day. In 2010, WWE discontinued Judgment Day and replaced it with a new PPV titled Over the Limit. The event was held on May 23, 2010, at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan and featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The name "Over the Limit" was a reference to its main event match being contested as an "I Quit" match.

### Storylines

Over the Limit involved different wrestlers from scripted feuds, plots, and storylines that played out on WWE's television programs. Wrestlers portrayed a hero or a villain as they followed a series of events that built tension, and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches.

The main feud from the Raw brand heading into Over the Limit was between John Cena and Batista over the WWE Championship, and had been going on for several months. Cena retained the WWE Championship against Batista at the Extreme Rules pay-per-view in a Last Man Standing match, by taping Batista's ankles to the ringpost to ensure he could not stand up by the count of ten. The next night on Raw, Batista defeated Randy Orton and Sheamus to become the number one contender to the championship and earn a rematch against Cena. On the May 3 episode of Raw, they competed in a Beat the Clock challenge to determine the stipulation for their match. Batista defeated Daniel Bryan in 5:06, but Cena defeated Wade Barrett in 4:32 to win the challenge and the right to name the stipulation. The following week, Cena announced that the match would be an "I Quit" match.

The predominant feud from the SmackDown brand was between Jack Swagger and Big Show, over Swagger's World Heavyweight Championship. As part of the 2010 WWE Draft, Big Show was drafted to SmackDown, where he was named the number one contender upon his debut on April 30. Over the next several weeks, Big Show chokeslammed Swagger through the announce table, and interrupted a promo on the May 14 episode of SmackDown, in which Swagger was boasting about his accomplishments. As part of the segment, Big Show destroyed Swagger's trophies and memorabilia. The following week, Big Show mocked Swagger in promos throughout the show and distracted Swagger during Swagger's match with Kofi Kingston, allowing Kingston to win.

As part of the 2010 WWE Draft on April 26, Edge was drafted to the Raw brand. Later that night, Edge interfered in a match to determine the number one contender to the WWE Championship, spearing Randy Orton and preventing Orton from receiving a WWE Championship match. The following week, Edge hosted an edition of his talk show, The Cutting Edge, with Orton as his special guest. During the show, Edge justified his actions by saying he was trying to make an impact, and attempted to convince Orton to reform Rated-RKO, their former tag team. Instead Orton attacked Edge. The following week, Orton defeated Edge and Ted DiBiase Jr. in a handicap match, which led to "Pick Your Poison" matches on the May 17 episode of Raw, where Edge and Orton picked each other's opponents for the night. Edge faced The Undertaker, and lost intentionally by countout, while Orton faced Jack Swagger, and lost by disqualification when Edge interfered.

The rivalry between Rey Mysterio and CM Punk was continued from several previous pay-per-views. After months of feuding, Mysterio challenged Punk to a Straight Edge Society Pledge vs. Hair match at Over the Limit. Had Punk won, Mysterio would have joined the Straight Edge Society, Punk's faction which promoted the straight edge lifestyle. Had Mysterio won however, Punk agreed to have his head shaved. On May 14, Mysterio and Punk faced each other in a singles match, but the Straight Edge Society (Luke Gallows, Serena, and a mystery masked man) interfered and attacked Mysterio. The following week, Mysterio interrupted an initiation ceremony, in which Punk was shaving the heads of three men to induct them into the Straight Edge Society, and mocked Punk, claiming everyone would be laughing at Punk when he was shaved bald at Over the Limit. Later that night, Mysterio teamed with Montel Vontavious Porter to defeat Punk and Gallows in a tag team match. SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long announced That The Straight Edge Society will be Banned From Ringside during the match at the Pay-per-view

Another feud was over the WWE Intercontinental Championship between the defending champion Drew McIntyre and Kofi Kingston. SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long stripped McIntyre of the championship and fired him for repeatedly attacking Matt Hardy. Long set up a tournament to determine the new champion, in which Christian and Kingston qualified for the final by defeating Cody Rhodes and Dolph Ziggler. The following week, on the May 14 episode of SmackDown, Kingston defeated Christian to win the tournament and the championship. Immediately following the match, however, McIntyre presented Long with a letter from the WWE Chairman Vince McMahon, which stated that McIntyre had been reinstated to the roster and was still recognized as the Intercontinental Champion. As a result, WWE's official website announced that McIntyre would defend the championship against tournament winner Kingston.

The team of Chris Jericho and The Miz had begun feuding with The Hart Dynasty (Tyson Kidd and David Hart Smith) over the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship. The Miz's feud with The Hart Dynasty had begun while The Miz was one-half of the Unified Tag Team Champions with Big Show. During the Draft episode of Raw, The Hart Dynasty defeated ShoMiz to win the championship, which led to Big Show turning on The Miz. The following week, The Miz and Jericho, another former tag team partner of Big Show, teamed up to attack The Hart Dynasty. Jericho went on to defeat Smith to earn a championship match for himself and The Miz at Over the Limit.

After WrestleMania XXVI, Ted DiBiase had debuted a new gimmick of an arrogant millionaire, similar to his father (Ted DiBiase, Sr.)'s old gimmick. On the April 5 episode of Raw, DiBiase was given possession of the Million Dollar Championship and access to a trust fund by his father. DiBiase then began looking for a "Virgil", a manservant like his father used to have. He offered the position to R-Truth, who refused, leading to a feud between the two. After losing a match to John Morrison, DiBiase attacked him, prompting R-Truth to interfere and save Morrison. In retaliation, DiBiase paid The Colóns to attack R-Truth the following week.

In the only women's match scheduled on the card, Eve defended the WWE Divas Championship against the former champion, Maryse. Eve had won the championship on the April 12 episode of Raw, and in the weeks that followed she was attacked by Maryse, who was attempting to get revenge.

## Event

Prior to the pay-per-view, Montel Vontavious Porter defeated Chavo Guerrero Jr. in a dark match.

### Preliminary matches

The first match that was aired as part of the pay-per-view was Drew McIntyre defending his Intercontinental Championship against Kofi Kingston. Kingston took the early advantage, by performing a suicide dive to the outside of the ring on McIntyre. McIntyre threw Kingston in the ringpost, and went on the offense. Kingston was able to counter McIntyre's "Future Shock" DDT, and perform his finishing move, the S.O.S, to pin McIntyre for the victory and the championship. Following the match, McIntyre demanded that Teddy Long go out to the ring and reverse the decision, but instead McIntyre was attacked by Matt Hardy, who McIntyre had attacked on several occasions in the prior weeks.

The next match was a singles match between Ted DiBiase, who was accompanied by Virgil, and R-Truth. In the early stages of the match, Virgil caused a distraction, allowing DiBiase to take the advantage by performing a reverse neckbreaker and throwing R-Truth into the barricade at ringside. R-Truth was able to counter a move from the top rope, and went on to win the match by utilising his "Lie Detector" finishing move (a corkscrew flying forearm smash).

The third match on the card was a Straight Edge Society pledge vs. hair match, between CM Punk and Rey Mysterio. For this match, the other Straight Edge Society members (Serena and Luke Gallows) were banned from ringside. Early on in the match, Punk threw Mysterio headfirst out of the ring into the barber chair at ringside. Punk had suffered a cut to the head prior to the exchange, and while Mysterio was on the floor, the match was halted so that the blood could be cleaned up. While Punk's wound was being attended, he dropkicked Mysterio, who was on the ring apron, and began attacking him on the floor to restart the match. After Mysterio missed a splash from the top rope, Punk went to pin him, but Mysterio was able to perform a crucifix cradle on Punk for the victory. The other Straight Edge Society members attacked Mysterio after the match, but he was saved by Kane, which allowed Mysterio to handcuff Punk to the ring ropes and shave his head.

A tag team match for the Unified Tag Team Championship followed, between the champions The Hart Dynasty (Tyson Kidd and David Hart Smith), who were accompanied by their manager Natalya, and the team of Chris Jericho and The Miz. The Hart Dynasty took the early advantage, but Jericho and The Miz were able to isolate both Smith and Kidd in the ring at different points in the match, wearing them down. Natalya interfered by tripping up Jericho while The Miz had the referee distracted. The Hart Dynasty were able to capitalise, and performed the Hart Attack on The Miz for the pinfall victory.

The fifth match was between Edge and Randy Orton. Edge took early control of the match by driving Orton into the barricade outside the ring. Orton was able to recover, and performed a rope hung DDT on Edge. While setting up for his finishing move, the RKO, Orton appeared to injure his arm, and went outside the ring in an attempt to recover. Edge followed him, trying to perform the spear, but Orton was able to avoid it, and Edge hit the barricade. Neither man was able to return to the ring before the count of ten, and as a result, the match ended in a double countout.

The first major match of the night was between the World Heavyweight Champion Jack Swagger and his challenger, Big Show. Big Show dominated the match, with Swagger getting very little offense. As a result, Swagger got frustrated and hit Big Show with the World Heavyweight Championship title belt, and was disqualified. After the match, Swagger attacked Big Show with a steel chair, but Big Show was able to stop him with a chokeslam. Big Show then performed his knockout punch on Swagger, before leaving the area.

The penultimate match on the card saw Eve defend the WWE Divas Championship against Maryse. Maryse took the early advantage, but when she threw Eve outside the ring, and attempted to kick her, she kicked the ringpost instead, allowing Eve to take control with a series of dropkicks. Eve performed a standing moonsault and a sunset flip for a near-fall. Maryse countered a rolling senton splash attempt by Eve and went for her finishing move, the French Kiss; that was countered by Eve for the pin, who retained her championship.

### Main event

The main event was John Cena versus Batista for the WWE Championship in an "I Quit" match, where the object of the match is to force an opponent to say "I Quit". As the bell rang to signal the start of the match Batista gave Cena the chance to quit immediately, but Cena refused and hit Batista with the microphone. Despite this, Batista was able to take control, and locked in a submission hold, but Cena refused to say "I quit". Cena eventually countered the move into his own submission hold, the STF, and Batista passed out. As he had not said the words "I Quit" however, he had to be revived so the match could continue. Batista fought back, and was able to powerslam Cena through the announce table. As Cena was bleeding, the match was briefly halted so his wound could receive attention. The two fought into the crowd before ending up near the entrance ramp, with Batista hitting Cena with a steel chair. On the entrance stage, Batista got into a car, which had been placed on the stage for decoration, and attempted to run over Cena. Cena avoided it, and was able to pull Batista out of the car and slam him onto it. Cena performed his Attitude Adjustment on Batista onto the car, but when Batista refused to quit, Cena went for the move again. When it became clear that Cena was going to hit the Attitude Adjustment from off the car and onto the stage, Batista quit, making Cena the winner, but Cena performed the Attitude Adjustment again anyway, sending Batista through the stage to the floor. As Cena was celebrating retaining the championship, he was attacked by Sheamus to end the show.

## Reception

The event received generally negative reviews. Writing for Canadian Online Explorer's wrestling section, Matt Bishop derided the show, calling it "one of the worst WWE pay-per-view events in a long time" and awarded the show 5.5 out of ten.

Most of the negative comments centered around the following World Heavyweight Championship match, which ended in disqualification immediately following a double countout in the preceding Orton-Edge match due to injury. Bishop awarded the match 2.5 out of ten and said that the match "hurt the show in a big, big way". Kevin Eck of The Baltimore Sun also criticized the booking of the finish, remarking that "Swagger came off looking like anything but a credible champion". Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer also criticized the World Heavyweight Championship match, remarking that it was "almost an insult as a PPV main event". Bishop stated that the show was "hampered by several stoppages for blood" and a predictable ending to the main event between Cena and Batista.

Despite the generally negative reviews, the Mysterio-Punk match was highly praised. Bishop awarded the match 8.5 out of ten, and stated it was one of two matches, along with the Tag Team Championship bout, that were not "underwhelming in every aspect". Eck agreed, calling the Punk-Mysterio match the "most compelling match on the card" and stated that the Tag Team Championship match was "well-worked".

11,000 people attended Over the Limit at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, resulting in a gate of approximately \$675,000. In August 2010, WWE reported that the event had received 197,000 pay-per-view buys. The DVD of the event contained extras including a match between Bret Hart and The Miz for the WWE United States Championship and several promos from the weeks preceding the event.

## Aftermath

During the event, five wrestlers suffered legitimate injuries. Randy Orton dislocated his shoulder while Ted DiBiase suffered a concussion, and although they both appeared on Raw the following night, they did not wrestle. CM Punk required 13 staples to close the wound in his forehead he sustained during his match with Mysterio. Batista suffered a back and tailbone injury during his match with John Cena, who himself suffered a laceration and lost a tooth.

On the episode of Raw following Over the Limit, Bret Hart was announced as the new Raw General Manager. During Batista's promo at the beginning of the show, Hart interrupted and told him that if he wanted a rematch against Cena, he would have to qualify for the fatal four-way match at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view in June. Batista refused to wrestle, citing his injuries, and as a result Hart awarded the match to his opponent Orton by forfeit. Following Hart's decision, Batista quit WWE. This storyline was put in place as Batista was legitimately leaving WWE to pursue acting and a career in mixed martial arts.

Apart from Orton qualifying via forfeit, the other qualifying matches for the WWE Championship fatal four-way match saw Sheamus defeat Mark Henry and Edge defeat Jericho and Cena in a triple threat match.

On the May 28 episode of SmackDown, SmackDown General Manager Teddy Long announced a fatal four-way match for the World Heavyweight Championship would be taking place at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view. As the defending champion Jack Swagger automatically was part of the match, and as a result of his win by disqualification, Big Show received automatic entry. Later in the show, both The Undertaker and CM Punk qualified for the match as well, by defeating Rey Mysterio and Kane respectively. During his qualification match against Kane, Punk wore a mask to the ring in order to hide his newly-shaven head. During his match with Mysterio, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and broken nose and the following week, was deemed unable to participate in the match. WWE replaced him in the match by devising a storyline in which The Undertaker was found in a "vegetative state" by his on-screen half brother Kane on the following episode of SmackDown. That same broadcast, a battle royal to decide who would replace The Undertaker at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view was won by Rey Mysterio.

At the beginning of the May 28 episode of SmackDown, Drew McIntyre made Teddy Long read out a letter from the WWE Chairman Vince McMahon, which stated that as a result of attacking McIntyre at Over the Limit, Matt Hardy had been suspended without pay until further notice. On the same episode, McIntyre simultaneously continued his feud with Kofi Kingston by teaming with Jack Swagger in a loss to Kingston and The Big Show.

A second Over the Limit was held the following year, thus establishing the event as WWE's annual May PPV. Additionally, in April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the "WWE" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. Over the Limit would be a short-lived PPV, however, as it was discontinued after its 2012 event and was replaced by Battleground in 2013.

## Results

World Wrestling Entertainment pay-per-view event


Hoysala architecture

Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.

Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.

Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and 10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries. Medieval inscriptions displayed prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details.

## Temple deities

Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy.

Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants were Vaishnava by faith, records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.

Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu) with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity.

The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning "Lord of". The name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.

The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.

The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati. Various depictions of Lord Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations.

A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all the depictions Vishnu is holding four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name. Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the eagle (stealing the parijata tree).

## Temple complex

The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers (mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached. Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.

Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a "jagati". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a pradakshinapatha or "circumambulation path" for circumambulation around the temple, as the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature. Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the temple follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.

Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa, following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides. The Lakshmidevi temple at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram).

## Architectural elements

### Mantapa

The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration). The open mantapa which serves the purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples. Even the smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.

If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings. Pierced stone screens (Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall) and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.

A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two half-pillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or "nose" upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways.

The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika. The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable feature" of Hoysala art.

### Vimana

The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate. In temples with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance.

The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and above the porches.

Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple "eaves" projecting half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is broadly termed "horizontal treatment". The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.

### Sculpture

In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western (Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers) on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions, elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue.

Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.

The sthamba buttalikas are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of Chola art.

General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.

Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice.

Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance. The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.

## Research

According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist or soapstone as a basic building material.

Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples. The artistry of the Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.

## Notable craftsmen

While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi Jakanachari, a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in shorthand as Malli or simply Ma.

Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja, Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari.

## List of notable temples from the Hoysala era

## See also

- Architecture of India
- Vijayanagara architecture

Medieval Hindu temple style


Unity (Star Trek: Voyager)

"Unity" is the 17th episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager, the 59th episode overall. The episode first aired on the UPN network on February 12, 1997, as part of sweeps week. It was written by producer Kenneth Biller, and is the second episode to be directed by cast member Robert Duncan McNeill. It marked the first major appearance of the Borg in Voyager, which were kicked off with a teaser ending in the prior episode.

Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant far from the rest of the Federation. In this episode, while on an away mission, Chakotay is taken in by a group of former Borg who seek help from the crew of Voyager to reactivate their neural link. The ex-Borg force Chakotay to reactivate a Borg cube (a large Borg spaceship), but, in their new-found "Co-operative", the ex-Borg make the cube self-destruct, saving Voyager.

Biller was influenced by the story of the Tower of Babel in writing the episode, and also considered the dissolution of the Soviet Union to be an influence. The crew re-used the make-up and costumes of the Borg designed for the film Star Trek: First Contact, but sets were not re-used. A new fully computer generated Borg cube was created for "Unity", and the storyline of the episode was intended as a hint to those in the later two-part episode "Scorpion". According to Nielsen ratings, it received a 5.4/8 percent share of the audience on first broadcast. "Unity" was received positively by critics, with praise directed at McNeill's direction as well as Biller's plot.

## Plot

Commander Chakotay (Robert Beltran) and Ensign Kaplan (Susan Patterson) hear a distress call while scouting ahead for Voyager in a shuttlecraft. They land the vessel but come under fire from hostile aliens, killing Kaplan and injuring Chakotay. He wakes in a room with a woman called Riley Frazier (Lori Hallier). She informs him that she is part of a group of survivors on the planet from a variety of races. There are other groups nearby, including those that attacked him. She calls her group a "Co-operative".

Meanwhile, the USS Voyager discovers a derelict Borg cube and Captain Kathryn Janeway (Kate Mulgrew) decides that an investigation is required in order to learn more about the Borg's technology. An away team boards the cube, discovering that either an accident or another species disabled the vessel. They take a Borg drone back onto Voyager, where the Doctor (Robert Picardo) accidentally revives it.

After being told by Frazier to remain where he is, Chakotay breaks out of his room where he sees that all the people around him on the alien planet possess Borg implant technology in their bodies. Frazier explains that an electro-kinetic storm broke their link with the Borg hive mind. Instead, the separated drones settled on a nearby planet. Because the connection between them was deactivated, different groups soon started fighting each other over the planet's limited resources. As Chakotay's health gets worse, the ex-Borg offer to connect him to a joint mind to heal his injuries, and he reluctantly accepts. Once part of the hive mind, he sees a montage of their memories. The ex-Borg remove the connection device as soon as Chakotay's health improves, however a residual telepathic link lingers and allows Chakotay and Frazier to get closer.

After Voyager arrives, Frazier and her group want Janeway to re-activate the neuroelectric generator on the damaged cube to extend a new joint mind across the entire planet, in order to stop the infighting. Chakotay pleads their case, but Janeway decides not to help them. As Chakotay returns to Voyager on board a shuttle, the Co-operative are attacked by hostile groups and use their telepathic link to force him to travel to the Borg cube, with Voyager in pursuit. Both Chakotay and an away team board the cube, and despite a firefight, he manages to reactivate the generator. This creates the new joint mind as expected, but also activates the cube, which begins powering up to attack Voyager. Chakotay and the away team are beamed back to Voyager as the Co-operative trigger the cube's self-destruct before it can endanger the Federation ship. The planet's inhabitants thank Voyager, but as a result of their actions, Chakotay later questions the morality of the Co-operative's motives with Janeway, as it connected many of the former Borg together in a new hive mind without consulting them.

## Production

### Writing and background

The producers had wanted to bring the Borg into Voyager, which resulted in numerous pitches from a variety of writers. There were concerns from some of the crew that the events of the film Star Trek: First Contact effectively destroyed the Borg, but executive producer Rick Berman clarified both that the death of the Borg Queen in the film did not mean the destruction of the entire collective and that there were other Borg remaining in the Delta Quadrant. The alien race had made their first appearance in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Q Who" and, at the time of the original broadcast of "Unity", had recently appeared in First Contact. The idea of Borg being separated from the collective had previously been seen in the episode of The Next Generation entitled "I, Borg" with the resultant effect seen in the two-part "Descent". "Unity" was written by producer Kenneth Biller, with the final version of the script being submitted on November 7, 1996. Though the film had not been released at the time he drafted the episode, Biller had read the First Contact script before writing the "Unity" script.

Biller sought to give a more interesting look at the Borg, rather than simply focusing on their pursuit of assimilation. With this in mind, he thought of an idea based upon the Tower of Babel. He said that the Borg was a "incredibly interwoven, complex community" and "once you knocked it all down you would have all these people who spoke different languages, and couldn't communicate with each other. It occurred to me that a group of ex-Borg would be a very interesting community to explore." He wanted the potential reunification of the ex-Borg to be a moral dilemma. This was based on the growing favorable views of Communism in the Eastern bloc during the mid-1990s after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

### Direction and editing

"Unity" was the second episode of Voyager to be directed by Robert Duncan McNeill following "Sacred Ground" from earlier in the season. He felt a great deal of pressure working on the episode which introduced the Borg to Voyager, and complained to the producers that the aliens only appear on two and a half pages of the script. He felt pressure in trying to produce something significant regarding the Borg because of the release of First Contact a few months earlier, and wanted to do something equally as exciting but without being repetitive. Instead, he wanted to give the viewer a sense of suspense and mystery regarding the people that Chakotay meets even if they do not appear to be Borg. McNeill saw "Unity" as being a type of film noir, with Chakotay being seduced by the Devil during the course of the story, and wanted to have a strong focus on this direction throughout the episode.

This vision was included in the cinematography for the episode, with one scene having Captain Janeway stand over Chakotay's shoulder much in the same way that a guardian angel would. The set-up for that particular scene came from a collaboration between McNeill and actress Kate Mulgrew. From that, he developed a series of close-up shots to bring some intimacy to the scene. The montage scene in the episode was created by McNeill, Biller, Jeri Taylor, Bob Ledermen and Wendy Neuss using footage from the episodes "Q Who" in The Next Generation, "Caretaker" from Voyager, as well as both "Emissary" and "The Way of the Warrior" from Deep Space Nine.

McNeill also agreed with Biller's view that "Unity" was a metaphor for the break-up of the USSR, and McNeill read up on the subject before directing the episode, saying that "I think some of those ideas did come out in the story, even though it wasn't a really heavy, political episode. Yet there were some references and you could connect that to contemporary issues, individuality as opposed to group needs or desires." McNeill was very happy with the resulting episode, saying that the Borg "were not as one-dimensional as previously depicted, but still as evil as ever", and hoped to direct two or three more episodes in the following season. By the end of Voyager, he had directed four episodes overall; this signalled a change in direction for his career into directing full-time.

### Design and special effects

To represent the ex-Borg colony on the planet, sets previously used for the episodes "The Chute" and "Fair Trade" from earlier in the season were used. This was further extended by the use of a computer generated matte painting created by freelancer Eric Chauvin. Borg sets from First Contact were not re-used, but instead a new set was built. This new set measured 40 feet (12 m) in length curved around in a semi-circle, and McNeill was unsatisfied with this size. He said "It was the smallest set that I've ever seen in my life. We had no room on the stage to build a big Borg ship, because the other sets took up so much room." He hoped that they had hidden this on camera, with it instead appearing as a series of separate corridors within the Borg vessel. McNeill explained that he had the actors walk the length of the set past the camera at the end, at which point a cut was made and they would go back to the start of the corridor to start filming again.

Despite not using the sets, the episode did re-use the Borg costumes from First Contact, which McNeill described as "the scarier Borg" compared to those seen previously in The Next Generation. This caused some problems with filming as an animatronic Borg arm used for the film was malfunctioning, leading to the production being stalled for several hours. For First Contact, the Borg had been re-designed by Michael Westmore and Deborah Everton. The former and his makeup team had worked on the look of the heads, which included a variety of different Borg appliances which could be mixed and matched to create an ongoing variety of looks. For example, Westmore's colleague Jake Garber had created ten different eye pieces. Everton, meanwhile, created the costumes for the Borg, and wanted them to be more elaborate than in previous appearances. This has been done with a view that individuals should look as if they had been transformed from the inside out, rather than the other way around.

"Unity" also saw the first use of a fully computer generated Borg cube on screen. Those previously seen in the Star Trek franchise had been physical models, including the version seen in First Contact. It was constructed by Emile Edwin Smith at Foundation Imaging, who mapped a cube with an image before creating raised areas with further detail. In order to make it look more three dimensional, he added interconnecting tubes and edge pieces to the model. He explained on the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.startrek.current that the episode used around 90 percent of shots featuring the new cube, while the remainder were stock footage created for earlier episodes. Visual effects supervisor Mitch Suskin was pleased with the explosion of the Borg cube at the end of the episode, saying that "the only element was the explosion, the rest was accomplished in the CG domain. It was a real breakthrough. That was the first show that I really had no reservations about."

### Later influence

When later discussing the end of season episode "Scorpion" (part one), Brannon Braga said that the destroyed cube which appeared in "Unity" had a direct link to the action in that episode, as they wanted to hint at an alien species who could successfully fight the Borg. However, he also explained that there was no plans to bring back the "Co-operative" as seen in "Unity", saying that "The Co-operative is long gone, man. It's been months since we've seen the Co-operative. That's not to say we won't learn someday what happened to them. That's kind of an interesting question." They returned in "Delta Rising", an expansion for Star Trek Online, where they had grown to encompass a large number of liberated Borg, including their vessels.

It was originally intended to include a "Borg graveyard" in space in "Unity", similar to the vision of the destroyed Federation ships seen after the Battle of Wolf 359 in The Next Generation episode "The Best of Both Worlds". The scene was instead shown in the first part of "Scorpion". One link remained in the "Unity" script: Riley Frazier was stated to have been abducted by the Borg while she was on the USS Roosevelt during the battle.

## Reception

### Ratings

"Unity" was first broadcast on February 12, 1997, on the UPN network within the United States. According to the Nielsen ratings, it received a 5.4/8 share, meaning it was watched by 5.4 percent of all households and 8 percent of all households watching television at the time of broadcast. This broadcast was during sweeps week, a period used to calculate advertising revenue for the forthcoming quarter. During this time, networks will often attempt to maximise the potential ratings received by their programming. "Unity" was the highest rated episode of Voyager since the second part of "Future's End", broadcast on November 13, 1996.

In the United Kingdom, the episode was first broadcast on July 21, 1997 on Sky One where it was watched by 0.502 million viewers. This was the highest number of viewers for July for an episode of Voyager on that channel, the next best being "Coda" with 0.428 million. The most watched science fiction broadcast on the channel during that month was "Gethsemane", an episode of The X-Files, with 1.164 million viewers.

### Critical and fan reception

David Bianculli, while previewing the episode for the New York Daily News, called the plot "clever" and the suggestion that another alien race had defeated the Borg an "interesting possible springboard for future episodes". Regarding the direction and the writing, he said that McNeil directed with "a flair and pace that enhances all of Biller's many plot twists", and said that it was the best part of the season so far. Jamahl Epsicokhan, writing on his website Jammers Reviews, praised the special effects seen in "Unity", and added that "McNeill's direction is effective, the story is fresh and implicitly complex, the production is impressive, and the action and suspense works. This is not the best episode of Voyager, but it's among them." He gave the episode a score of three and a half out of four.

The episode was given a score of eight out of ten in Dreamwatch magazine, with the review saying that it delivered a "philosophical meditation on the nature of power" asking "does the possession automatically corrupt the possessor?" It praised the nature of the episode, saying the plot was "very clever". But the review said that the ending was ambiguous about whether or not Chakotay agrees with what he is doing on behalf of the Co-operative. When reviewing the third season for the website DVD Talk, Holly E. Ordway described "Unity" as being "noteworthy as an episode with more depth and complexity than the typical Voyager episode thus far", and said that it was likely to be remembered by the fans as the episode which introduced the Borg to the series. She added that the plot was "well thought out" and that the ending left the viewer with a moral dilemma over whether it was the right thing to do.

In his book Delta Quadrant, David McIntee gave the episode a rating of seven out of ten, while Anna L. Kaplan—writing for the magazine Cinefantastique—rated "Unity" as three and a half out of four. Lou Anders reviewed the episode for Star Trek Monthly, saying that McNeill did an "excellent job in his second foray as director, bringing a very dark and exciting feeling to the episode." Anders gave "Unity" a score of three out of five. The fan reaction to the episode was mostly positive, with the exception of those who were pushing for an ongoing liaison between Chakotay and Janeway; such fans did not approve of the implied temporary romantic entanglement between Chakotay and the ex-Borg Riley.

## Home media release

The first home media release of "Unity" was on a two-episode VHS cassette alongside "Darkling" on July 21, 1997 in the United Kingdom. The first VHS release in the United States was as a single episode release on September 3, 2002. "Unity" was released on DVD as part of the season three box set, released on July 6, 2004, in the United States. This was followed in the UK on September 6, 2004.

By the 2010s, this episode was also made available at various Internet streaming television providers of this period, including Netflix and CBS All Access.