Ray Kennedy

Raymond Kennedy (28 July 1951 – 30 November 2021) was an English footballer who won every domestic honour in the game with Arsenal and Liverpool in the 1970s and early 1980s. Kennedy played as a forward for Arsenal, and then played as a left-sided midfielder for Liverpool. He scored 148 goals in 581 league and cup appearances in a 15-year career in the English Football League and also won 17 caps for England between 1976 and 1980, scoring three international goals.

Kennedy turned professional for Arsenal in November 1968. He made his first-team debut 10 months later, and went on to win the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1970, the First Division and FA Cup Double in 1970–71, and then play on the losing side in the 1972 FA Cup Final. His form then declined, and he was sold to Liverpool for a club record £200,000 fee in July 1974, at the same time that Bill Shankly resigned as manager. He initially struggled at the club, but after manager Bob Paisley converted him to a left-sided midfielder he went on to help Liverpool to become the dominant club of English football from 1975 to 1982. During his time at the club Liverpool won the First Division five times (1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, and 1981–82), the FA Charity Shield four times (1976, 1977, 1979 and 1980), the European Cup three times, (1977, 1978, and 1981), and the UEFA Cup (1976), UEFA Super Cup (1977), and League Cup (1981). He also picked up runners-up medals in the FA Cup (1977), UEFA Super Cup (1978), League Cup (1978), and World Club Championship (1981) and won the Match of the Day'''s Goal of the Season award in 1978–79.

He was a strong player with an excellent first touch, intelligence, and all round ability. This allowed him to transition from a forward to a midfielder during his time at Liverpool. Despite his trophy successes with Arsenal and Liverpool, after winning six caps for the England under-23 side he was unable to translate his club form into a good international career, and was used as a stand-in for Trevor Brooking before he retired from international football in frustration in March 1981. His only international tournament appearance was at Euro 1980. Bob Paisley described him as "one of Liverpool's greatest players and probably the most underrated".

Kennedy joined Swansea City for a £160,000 fee in January 1982 and added a Welsh Cup winners medal to his collection four months later. However the effects of Parkinson's disease began to reduce his effectiveness on the pitch, and he dropped into the Fourth Division with Hartlepool United in November 1983. During the 1984–85 season he spent a brief time as player-manager of Cyprus club Pezoporikos and later played for Northern League club Ashington. He was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in November 1984. His life after football was difficult, as he had to deal with the effects of Parkinson's, the loss of his business, and the breakdown of his 15-year marriage. He remained reliant on charity to fund his medical expenses, and was forced to sell his medal collection and caps in 1993.

## Club career

Ray Kennedy was born on 28 July 1951 in Seaton Delaval, a former pit village in Northumberland, to Martin and Veronica Kennedy, a coal miner and housewife respectively. He was the eldest of four children: Trevor, Michael, and Janet. He was spotted playing schoolboy football by a scout at Port Vale, and began training at Vale Park after manager Stanley Matthews came to the Kennedy home to persuade him to sign schoolboy forms at the club. However at the age of sixteen Matthews felt Kennedy was "too slow to be a footballer". Kennedy was considered to be too big and clumsy to be a professional, and groundskeeper Dennis Dawson said he was the only man at the club to see any potential in the youngster. He was released by the club after being told that he would never make it as a professional.

Kennedy returned to his native north-east in March 1967 and started working in a sweet factory whilst playing as an amateur for New Hartley Juniors, where he built a successful attacking partnership with former England schoolboy international Ian Watts. The pair scored 142 goals between them, and helped the club to win the East Northumberland Junior League, the Northumberland FA Junior Cup, the East Northumberland Junior League Cup, the North East Youth Challenge Cup, the East Northumberland Junior League Charlton Trophy, the Tynemouth Junior League Challenge Cup and the Magpie Trophy.

### Arsenal

Kennedy was spotted by Arsenal playing for New Hartley Juniors, and though the scouts had initially gone to the game to watch his striker partner Watts, Kennedy had impressed enough to win an apprentice contract with Arsenal in May 1968. He then signed professional forms with the club in November 1968. He had a difficult task though to win a first-team place, as manager Bertie Mee used only 15 players throughout the entire 1968–69 season, during which time Kennedy made 20 appearances for the Reserve team as they claimed the Football Combination Division One title.

He made his first-team debut on 29 September 1969, against Glentoran in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and his First Division debut as a substitute on 18 October, a 1–1 draw with Sunderland at Roker Park. He scored his first goal for the Gunners in the reverse fixture against Sunderland at Highbury, which ended in a 3–1 win. He went on to appear as a 77th-minute substitute in the first leg of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final against Belgian club Anderlecht at Constant Vanden Stock Stadium, and scored a late goal in a 3–1 defeat. Though he did not appear in the second leg, his goal proved to be decisive as Arsenal claimed a 4–3 aggregate victory to win the first European trophy in the club's history.

Charlie George broke his ankle on the opening game of the 1970–71 season, and Kennedy replaced him as John Radford's strike partner for the following game, and went on to feature in the remaining league fixtures of the campaign as Arsenal went on to be crowned champions. They exited the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup with defeat to German side 1. FC Köln at the quarter-final stage, though after their draw with Lazio in the First Round Kennedy was attacked by some of the Lazio players in an Italian restaurant, and in the ensuing brawl police pulled a gun on teammate Eddie Kelly; Kennedy later said he was targeted by the Lazio players due to his "cheeky face". Back in the league, he scored his first hat-trick in victory over Nottingham Forest, though he admitted after the match that he was "still expecting to be dropped any minute". Arsenal overtook Leeds United to win the league title on the final day of the season, Kennedy scoring the only goal of the game with a late header in a 1–0 victory over North London derby rivals Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. In the FA Cup, Arsenal progressed past Yeovil Town, Portsmouth (following a replay), Manchester City, Leicester City (following a replay), and Stoke City (following a replay), before meeting Liverpool in the final at Wembley Stadium. Liverpool led early in extra time, but goals from George Graham and Charlie George won the game for Arsenal and secured only the fourth Double in English football. Kennedy had missed a number of good chances throughout the match, though he later pointed out that "nobody really remembers anything bad if you win".

Arsenal endured a poor start to the 1971–72 season, and as a result Mee purchased Alan Ball from Everton for £220,000. They went on to go 14 games unbeaten over the winter, closing the gap on leaders Manchester City to four points. They were knocked out of the European Cup at the quarter-final stage by eventual winners Ajax. They ended the season in fifth place, and gifted Derby County the league title by denying Liverpool what would have proved to be a decisive victory on the penultimate day of the season. Arsenal returned to Wembley to defend the FA Cup, but lost 1–0 to Leeds United; Kennedy had lost his first-team place late in the season after fatigue began to affect his form, and was only named as a substitute for the final before he came on for Radford after 73 minutes. He scored 19 goals in 55 appearances to finish as the club's top goalscorer for the second successive season.

He struggled at the start of the 1972–73 season, his confidence and form suffered as defenders marked him more closely and poor diet saw his weight rise to over 14 stone (200 lb; 89 kg). Captain Frank McLintock remarked to the management that Kennedy was only operating at 60% capacity, and Kennedy was fined £200 before he began to shed weight and rediscover his form. Arsenal finished the season in second place, and he scored just nine league goals throughout the campaign. Arsenal reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, where they were beaten by Sunderland.

Arsenal dropped into mid-table throughout the 1973–74 season, with McLintock's departure signalling the demise of the Double-winning team. Kennedy failed to score from 6 October to mid-January, and speculation rose of possible moves to Sunderland, Newcastle United, or Aston Villa. In February, he released a statement saying that "my game has gone downhill since I got married but has started to pick up again now I am in bachelordom... I feel that I am better off without her". He ended the season in good form, though Mee had already decided to move him on and replace him with Brian Kidd.

> I couldn't believe it when he left and felt it was a great shame to have broken up our partnership which had wobbled slightly but which I was sure would come together again with a little time.

### Liverpool

In July 1974, Kennedy was sold to Liverpool for a club record £200,000. Manager Bill Shankly resigned on the same day as the transfer was made, though had admired Kennedy for years and stated that "maybe it will be said that one of the last things I did at this club was to sign a great new player". Shortly after the move Kennedy got back in touch with his estranged wife, and the pair began living together in Ainsdale. New manager Bob Paisley handed Kennedy his debut in place of John Toshack against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge on 31 August 1974, and it took Kennedy just 22 minutes to open his goalscoring account as the Reds went on to record a comfortable 3–0 win. Liverpool ended the 1974–75 season as runners-up to Derby County in the league. Kennedy featured just 25 times in the league as Toshack formed an effective combination with Kevin Keegan up front, and started to become frustrated and disillusioned in the club.

Bob Paisley felt Kennedy could perform as a midfielder, and after Kennedy replaced an injured Peter Cormack against Middlesbrough on 1 November he went on to make the number five shirt his own for the rest of the decade. His new position allowed him to use his vision and distribution to create chances for his teammates, whilst still allowing him to make runs into scoring positions to add goals himself. Liverpool won the league title in 1975–76 with a final day victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers to beat Queens Park Rangers into second place. They also secured the UEFA Cup, knocking out Hibernian (Scotland), Real Sociedad (Spain), Śląsk Wrocław (Poland), Dynamo Dresden (Germany), and Barcelona (Spain), before facing Belgian side Club Brugge in the final. Liverpool were losing 2–0 in the first leg of the final at Anfield, before Kennedy scored the first of Liverpool's three goals to overturn the deficit; in the return leg at the Olympiastadion, Liverpool drew 1–1 to win the tie 4–3 on aggregate.

Liverpool opened the new season by claiming the 1976 FA Charity Shield with a 1–0 win over Southampton, and went on to win the league largely on their home form, Kennedy's goal in a 2–1 win over title contenders Ipswich Town on 30 April proving to be decisive. Though Liverpool failed to win any of their last four league matches, they finished one point clear of Manchester City in second. Liverpool won the European Super Cup with a comprehensive 7–1 victory over German club Hamburg. Liverpool also reached the 1977 FA Cup Final, but lost the chance to follow Arsenal's feat at achieving the Double as they were beaten 2–1 by bitter rivals Manchester United. In the European Cup, Liverpool beat Crusaders (Northern Ireland), Trabzonspor (Turkey), AS Saint-Étienne (France), and FC Zürich (Switzerland) to reach the final against German side Borussia Mönchengladbach. In the final at Rome's Stadio Olimpico, Keegan was fouled by Vogts and won a late penalty which Phil Neal converted to give Liverpool a 3–1 victory.

Following a 0–0 draw with Manchester United in the 1977 FA Charity Shield, a disappointing start to the 1977–78 season saw Liverpool out of the title race early on whilst they exited the FA Cup at the Third Round. They did though recover to post a second-place finish in the league after winning nine of their last 12 matches, to end the campaign seven points behind Nottingham Forest. They progressed to the League Cup Final after Kennedy scored the winning goal past former club Arsenal in the semi-final. However Liverpool lost out 1–0 to Nottingham Forest in the replay of the final at Old Trafford. Despite these domestic disappointments, Liverpool went on to reach the final of the European Cup after defeating Dynamo Dresden, Benfica (Portugal), and Borussia Mönchengladbach; Mönchengladbach manager Udo Lattek singled out Kennedy as the best player of the semi-final, as Kennedy scored a goal and provided assists for both Kenny Dalglish and Jimmy Case in the second leg. In the final Liverpool faced Club Brugge at Wembley, and successfully defended the trophy after seeing out a 1–0 win.

Liverpool's chances of winning a third successive European Cup were ended with defeat to Nottingham Forest in the First Round. However they opened the league campaign with six straight wins and dominated the league by finishing eight points clear of second-placed Forest, scoring 85 goals and conceding just 16 in the process. His goal against Derby County on 24 February won him Match of the Days Goal of the Season award. Writing in his autobiography, Paisley named the 1978–79 team as the best championship team he had been associated with during his 40 years with the club. Manchester United again denied them the chance to win the Double however, as United knocked Liverpool out of the semi-finals of the FA Cup following a replay at Goodison Park. Liverpool also lost the 1978 European Super Cup, following a 4–3 aggregate defeat to Anderlecht.

Liverpool won the 1979 FA Charity Shield with a 3–1 victory over Kennedy's former club Arsenal, but a knee ligament injury caused Kennedy to miss a small number of games early in the season. Kennedy also felt that left-back Alan Kennedy was not up to the required standard, saying "he took five years off my career... Alan had no nerves and not much brain... we didn't gel on the pitch". Alan blamed nerves for his difficulty in finding Kennedy with accurate passes. Kennedy also began to face problems off the pitch, resulting in both he and Jimmy Case being arrested after they attacked a hotelier who had confused Kennedy with his namesake Alan. The pair pleaded guilty to affray and were fined £150 each; despite this and other similar incidents, Kennedy did manage to avoid his off field antics affecting his form or discipline on the pitch. Kennedy later said "it was a good friendship" but "we were bad for each other". Liverpool finished two points clear of second-place Manchester United in the league, with Kennedy claiming nine goals in 56 appearances. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, where they were beaten by Arsenal in a replay following three draws in two replays and the original tie. In the summer Kennedy signed a new four-year contract with the club.

Liverpool retained the Charity Shield by beating West Ham United 1–0, however despite only losing eight league games all season they won 17 and drew 17 of their remaining fixtures and ended the 1980–81 season in fifth place, nine points behind champions Aston Villa. In the League Cup, they knocked out Bradford City, Swindon Town, Portsmouth, Birmingham City, and Manchester City to reach the final against West Ham United. They then beat West Ham 2–1 in a replay of the final to claim the first League Cup in the club's history. They also reached the European Cup final after getting past Oulun Palloseura (Finland), Aberdeen (Scotland), CSKA Sofia (Bulgaria), and Bayern Munich (Germany). In the semi-final against Bayern, Kennedy was named as captain as both Graeme Souness and Phil Thompson were injured, and went on to score what proved to be the winning away goal at the Olympiastadion, cementing his reputation as a semi-final specialist. Liverpool then beat Spanish club Real Madrid 1–0 in a dour final to win a third European Cup.

Following the sale of Jimmy Case, Kennedy began to become disillusioned with Liverpool, and was sent off twice in the space of a few weeks early in the 1981–82 season – the first red cards of his career. He made his final league appearance for the club on 5 December, when he scored in a 2–0 win over Nottingham Forest at the City Ground. His final cup game for the club came eight days later, in a 3–0 defeat to Brazilian side Flamengo in the 1981 Intercontinental Cup at Tokyo's National Stadium. He was replaced in the team by Ronnie Whelan. Liverpool went on to win the league title after finishing four points ahead of second-place Ipswich Town, and Kennedy's 15 league appearances in the first half of the campaign were enough to earn him another league championship medal. Sunderland attempted to sign him on loan in January 1982, but were denied by Liverpool, and Kennedy could not agree personal terms with manager Alan Durban so was not signed by Sunderland on a permanent transfer.

> "Ray's contribution to Liverpool's achievements was enormous and his consistency remarkable. So much so, in fact, that on the rare occasions he missed a match his absence was felt deeply simply because he was a midfield power house with tremendous vision and knowledge of the game... In my view he was one of Liverpool's greatest players and probably the most underrated."

### Later career

In January 1982, Kennedy was signed by Swansea City on a four-year contract for a £160,000 fee to play under former teammate John Toshack. The Swans had an unsuccessful attempt to win the league title, and five defeats in their final six games saw them end up in sixth place, 17 points behind champions Liverpool. They did though win the Welsh Cup after beating South Wales derby rivals Cardiff City 2–1 in the final at Vetch Field. Despite voicing his concerns over the team and his own future at the club to Toshack, Kennedy was appointed club captain for the 1982–83 season. He became injured with niggling hamstring problems in mid-season, and after one increasingly rare performance he was described by the local press as seemingly "unwilling to work and his usual composure on the ball was lacking". Kennedy's declining physical abilities were actually due to Parkinson's disease, though he would not be diagnosed with the condition until after his retirement. Toshack stripped Kennedy of the captaincy and suspended him from Vetch Field for two weeks. He was placed on the transfer list in March 1983, and Swansea went on to be relegated into the Second Division. The club's financial problems worsened and players were asked to take a cut in wages to help ease the crisis, but Kennedy refused. Toshack was sacked in October 1983 and Kennedy agreed to have his contract terminated.

Kennedy signed with Mick Docherty's Hartlepool United of the Fourth Division in November 1983. Docherty was sacked the following month, and unsuccessfully attempted to report the club for negotiating an illegal contract with Kennedy. His assistant, Billy Horner, stepped up to manage the club for a second time in the face of a mounting financial crisis. Hartlepool were forced to apply for re-election at the end of the season, and Kennedy was promoted to player-coach for his help in boosting support for the club's re-election campaign. However, he left Victoria Park in summer 1984 to take up the position as player-manager of Cypriot side Pezoporikos. He became increasingly unable to play the game though due to his body's physical decline, and after a poor start to the 1984–85 season he returned to England in December against the board's wishes and handed in his resignation the following month, to allow him to run the Melton Constable public house in Seaton Sluice, Whitley Bay. In January 1985, he joined Northern League side Ashington, managed by former teammate Colin Todd, but could only manage six appearances after suffering from increasingly alarming stiffness in his right leg due to his worsening Parkinson's disease. Unable to turn out for his own Melton Constable Sunday League team, he soon found daily life difficult to cope with.

## International career

Kennedy won six England under-23 caps , following his first appearance in a win over Wales at the County Ground on 5 January 1972.

Don Revie gave Kennedy his first cap on 24 March 1976 in a friendly with Wales at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham; Kennedy scored the opening goal as England won the game 2–1. However, he was never able to establish himself as England's left-sided midfielder of choice due to the form of Trevor Brooking. He played in British Home Championship games against Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland, before he was dropped for the next seven games. He travelled with the squad for the 1977 tour of South America, and also that year claimed two more international goals in qualifying games against Luxembourg. He then dropped out of the England picture under new manager Ron Greenwood. He was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 1980 in Italy, playing against Belgium and Italy before he was dropped for England's final group game against Spain. He retired from international football on 17 caps in March 1981, citing dissatisfaction with the England hierarchy. Liverpool manager Bob Paisley wrote in his autobiography that "for England he [Kennedy] was played quite wrongly in a defensive role, being asked to pick people up. Ray closes people down by positional skill and does not need to chase around the pitch". Kennedy stated that "I feel more pride in the red jersey of Liverpool than the white shirt of England" and that "I am resigning here and now as Greenwood's bridesmaid".

## Style of play

Kennedy was a strong player with average speed, good technical ability, and an excellent first touch. Arsenal coach Don Howe compared Kennedy to Tommy Lawton, and stated that Kennedy had "all the hallmarks of a classical centre forward, size, strength, bravery and skill, heading ability and a powerful left-foot shot". He had a good temperament, and could not be provoked by harsh opposition challenges. A psychological examination conducted on behalf of Arsenal revealed that Kennedy rated highly for his ability to respond to coaching; was rated above average for aggressiveness, determination, guilt-proneness (accepting responsibility for the team); was scored average for drive/ambition, self-confidence, emotional control, and mental toughness; and scored below average for leadership, conscientiousness, and trust.

Arsenal goalkeeper Bob Wilson said that Kennedy "had an alarming lack of self esteem... but there was an underlying fearsome strength, an assassin's eye and a hard-man interior". After Liverpool manager Bob Paisley moved Kennedy into midfield, he said that "Ray Kennedy was born to play. A natural, great ability and an obvious Liverpool player who could be moulded. I knew he could play anywhere." He showed very minor signs of Parkinson's disease as early as 1970, such as fatigue after games and slowed movement in his right arm, though it was not until 1982 that it began to have a noticeable effect on his game.

## Later life

Kennedy was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease by a specialist on 4 November 1984. He gave permission for his image to be used to promote a public campaign to increase awareness of the disease. His involvement in the Parkinson's Disease Society led to him meeting his childhood hero Muhammad Ali. He was also invited to do some coaching at Sunderland in the 1986–87 season by manager Lawrie McMenemy, and worked as a part-time coach from February to April 1987, at which point he was promoted to first-team coach.

His wife, Jennifer, left him in October 1987 after he punched her in the face and kicked her down the stairs of the family home; this ended a difficult 15-year marriage blighted by frequent infidelity on his part. They had two children: Cara (born July 1976) and Dale (born January 1981). Former Liverpool teammate Ray Clemence recalled how Kennedy "worked hard and played hard". Other teammates Steve Heighway and Phil Thompson noted that Kennedy was a "quiet man", though "women were always chasing after him" and "off the pitch he needed to be handled quite gently, and everything had to be organised just right otherwise there would be trouble". Completing a bad end to 1987, his licence at the Melton Constable was revoked. His prescribed L-DOPA medication also became less effective and he became increasingly isolated. His condition improved when he began injections of apomorphine. He was reliant on the Professional Footballers' Association to pay his medical expenses, and his divorce as well as business and tax problems wiped out his savings. A testimonial match was held between Arsenal and Liverpool in April 1991. A charity appeal was also set up to help pay his living costs. In late 1992 he began suffering from extreme paranoia, mostly due to the side effects of his medication, but regained his mental faculties following a short stay in hospital.

He published his autobiography Ray of Hope in 1993, co-authored by Dr. Andrew Lees, who at that time treated Kennedy for Parkinson's disease. Later that year he sold his collection of medals and international caps to raise funds. In 2002, he was reported as living alone in a bungalow in New Hartley. In an interview two years later, he said that he suffered from loneliness and hallucinations due to his condition and the side effects of his medication. Following the interview a Liverpool fan bought Kennedy a computer, which allowed him to make friends on football chat rooms. Kennedy remained a favourite amongst Liverpool supporters decades after leaving the club, and was voted in at No. 25 on the 2013 poll '100 Players Who Shook The Kop'. He died on 30 November 2021, at the age of 70.

## Career statistics

### Club

### International

## Honours

Arsenal

- Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: 1970
- Football League First Division: 1970–71
- FA Cup: 1971; runner-up: 1972

Liverpool

- Football League First Division: 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82
- FA Charity Shield: 1976, 1977 (shared), 1979, 1980
- UEFA Cup: 1976
- FA Cup runner-up: 1977
- European Cup: 1977, 1978, 1981
- UEFA Super Cup: 1977; runner-up: 1978
- Football League Cup: 1981; runner-up: 1978
- World Club Championship runner-up: 1981

Swansea City

- Welsh Cup: 1982

Individual'''

- BBC Goal of the Season: 1978–79

English footballer (1951–2021)

England men's under-23 international footballers

English expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus

Hartlepool United F.C. non-playing staff

Men's association football player-managers


Oslo Airport, Fornebu

Oslo Airport, Fornebu (Norwegian: Oslo lufthavn, Fornebu), was the primary international airport serving Oslo and Eastern Norway from 1 June 1939 to 7 October 1998. It was then replaced by Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, and the area has since been redeveloped. The airport was located at Fornebu in Bærum, 8 km (5.0 mi) from the city center. Fornebu had two runways, one 2,370 m (7,780 ft) 06/24 and one 1,800 m (5,900 ft) 01/19, and a capacity of 20 aircraft. In 1996, the airport had 170,823 aircraft movements and 10,072,054 passengers. The airport served as a hub for Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), Braathens SAFE and Widerøe. In 1996, they and 21 other airlines served 28 international destinations. Due to limited terminal and runway capacity, intercontinental and charter airlines used Gardermoen. The Royal Norwegian Air Force retained offices at Fornebu.

The airport opened as a combined sea and land airport, serving both domestic and international destinations. It replaced the land airport at Kjeller and the sea airport at Gressholmen. In 1940, it was taken over by the German Luftwaffe, but civilian air services began again in 1946 and it was then taken over by the Norwegian Civil Airport Administration. The airport at first had three runways, each at 800 m (2,600 ft), but these were gradually expanded, first the north–south runway and finally the east–west one to the current length in 1962. The same year the terminal moved south to the final location. A large-scale expansion to the terminal was made during the 1980s.

## Facilities

At the time of closing, the airport consisted of a single terminal with three satellites: two domestic and one international. The service building had three stories, one for arrival, one for departure and one for administration. Airplane capacity at the airport was 20 craft; five planes parked at the international terminal could be served with jetbridges, while passengers had to walk outdoors to get to domestic planes. The airport terminals were 36,000 m2 (390,000 sq ft), of which 16,000 m2 (170,000 sq ft) were for the public. In the main hall of the terminal were two murals made by Kai Fjell, both which have been preserved. The largest was the 310 m2 (3,300 sq ft) Arrival and Departure which was completed in 1968 and covered three stories.

At the north part of the airport, located where the former main terminal was until 1964, were the offices of the Air Force and Fred. Olsen Airtransport, the main hangar for Braathens SAFE, as well as mechanical facilities for SAS and Fred. Olsen. The fire station and snowplowing facilities were also located there, along with the main radar center. All the terminal buildings built until the early 1960s were still intact until the closing of the airport.

In 1989, about 5,500 people worked at Fornebu. Of these, 3,600 worked for the airlines, including ground services. The airport administration had 350 employees, including administration, air control, fire fighters, meteorology and maintenance. The remaining 500 people worked for other public offices, including the police and customs, as well as service employees working for private companies involved with passenger services.

Fornebu had two runways: a main 2,200 m (7,200 ft) east–west runway and a secondary 1,800 m (5,900 ft) north–south. Only the main runway was used under ordinary weather conditions, with the north–south runway only being used if there was strong winds from the north and for general aviation, helicopters and ambulance aircraft. The main runway was equipped with instrument landing system category 1. Under ordinary weather conditions, flights to Fornebu were to, as soon as possible, divert southwards along the Oslo Fjord to avoid noise pollution to residential areas. However, when necessary, a direct approach could be made eastwards from Drammen or westwards from Grefsenåsen. Until 1996, Oslo Air Traffic Control Center (Oslo ATCC) was located at Fornebu. It had the responsibility to oversee all air traffic in southeastern Norway, bordering to Dovre in the north, almost to Stavanger in the west, halfway to Stockholm to the east and almost to Denmark in the south.

Since Fornebu is located on a peninsula, all transport to the airport needed to go via Lysaker. A branch from the motorway European Route E18 allowed access to the airport. Lysaker Station is on the Drammen Line, and was served by both local and regional trains, including services to Oslo Central Station. In addition, Stor-Oslo Lokaltrafikk offered bus transport to the airport from Asker and Bærum, including Lysaker. A limited number of services were extended to Snarøya. An airport coach connected the airport to the city center.

## Airlines and destinations

In 1996, the airport had 170,823 aircraft movements and 10,072,054 passengers, making it the busiest airport in the country. It served as the main hub for Braathens SAFE, one of three main hubs for SAS and as one of many for Widerøe.

Prior to 1 April 1994, all air transport in Norway was restricted to airlines that had received concession from the ministry. On the primary domestic routes, the traffic was split between SAS and Braathens SAFE, although both had services to Trondheim and Stavanger. SAS had a monopoly to Bergen and Northern Norway (Alta, Bardufoss, Bodø, Harstad/Narvik, Kirkenes, Longyearbyen and Tromsø), while Braathens SAFE had a monopoly to the other primary airports in Southern Norway (Haugesund, Kristiansand, Kristiansund, Molde, Røros and Ålesund). Widerøe had a monopoly on the regional state-supported routes (Brønnøysund, Florø, Førde, Sandane, Sogndal and Ørsta–Volda), and also served Stord and Sandefjord.

Following Norway joining the European Economic Area (EEA), the airline industry was deregulated, allowing any airline from any EEA member country to make domestic or international flights to Norway. However, by 1994 there was no available slots at Fornebu during the morning and evening rush hours, limiting the number of new routes that could be established. After the deregulation, Fornebu could not offer slots to new airlines, and SAS and Braathens could not establish as many competing routes as they wanted to. However, domestic services were provided by both SAS and Braathens SAFE to Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, Bodø, Harstad/Narvik, Tromsø and Longyearbyen. The remaining domestic airports were only served by the incumbent. In addition, Teddy Air offered services to Fagernes.

International services were provided by 21 airlines to 28 destinations. SAS had international flights to Amsterdam, Brussels, Billund, Copenhagen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Helsinki, London-Heathrow, Manchester, Munich, New York, Nice, Paris, Stockholm and Zurich. Braathens SAFE offered international services to Alicante, Billund, London-Gatwick, Málaga, Newcastle and Stockholm. Lufthansa offered flights to Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich. Other foreign airlines that provided services to their main hubs included Aeroflot (Moscow-Sheremetyevo), Air France (Paris-Charles de Gaulle), Air Malta (Valletta), TAP Air Portugal (Lisbon), AirUK (London-Stansted), Alitalia (Milan), British Airways (London-Heathrow), Dan-Air (London-Gatwick), Delta Air Lines (New York-JFK), Iberia (Madrid) and (Barcelona), Icelandair (Reykjavík), KLM (Amsterdam), LOT Polish Airlines (Warsaw), Pan Am (New York-JFK) and Sabena (Brussels).

## History

### Background

Aviation in Oslo started in 1909, when Carl Cederström of Sweden made exhibition flights from fields at Etterstad. Following this, the Norwegian Army decided that it needed a military land airport, and established itself at Kjeller, outside Oslo, in 1912. Kjeller Airport served as the main airport for Norway until the 1930s, being the main base of the newly established Norwegian Army Air Service and the first place to have air services.

In 1918, the first Norwegian airline, Det Norske Luftfartrederi, was established, and plans were made to start flying to Trondheim. The following year, civil aviation was discussed in the Norwegian Parliament for the first time. Norsk Luftfartsrederi wanted to start seaplane routes from Oslo, and applied to the state to be allowed to lease 2 ha (4.9 acres) of the island Lindøya for 99 years. The Oslo Port Authority recommended that the application be denied, since it was already in negotiations with the state to purchase the island and seaplane services would interfere with ship traffic. The ministry recommended a ten-year lease. Sam Eyde, who was a member of parliament, recommended that the state should be responsible for all airports, and suggested a state-owned seaplane airport be built at Gressholmen. However no money was granted for construction of the airport until 1926, when Gressholmen Airport opened. Gressholmen was served by Norsk Luftfartsrederi and Deutsche Luft Hansa.

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the politicians became less satisfied with the solution. Kjeller was considered too far away from the city center (about 20 km (12 mi), but along the mainline railway), while travel to Gressholmen needed to be made by ferry. The politicians also wanted to have a combined land- and seaplane airport, and it had become clear that serving Gressholmen was interfering with ship traffic. A committee was established to look into the matter. While considering many locations, it made detail surveys of only two places: Ekeberg, located southeast of the city center, and Fornebu, to the southwest.

### Construction

At the time, Fornebu was a mostly unpopulated area. Until 1907, a lumber mill was located at Snarøya on the southern tip. From 1921, Snarøya had received a coach service, and had grown with many single dwellings. About 1.5 km (0.93 mi) northeast of Fornebu is the town of Lysaker, which had a railway station on the Drammen Line. The committee decided to purchase 90 ha (220 acres) on the northern part of the peninsula. The Fornebu solution would be more expensive, but would yield a larger airport and better landing conditions. The formal decision to build the airport was taken in 1934.

It was the Municipality of Oslo which built the airport, having bought the land from the Municipality of Bærum. Construction was to serve as work creation for the unemployed, and workers were selected based on how long they had been unemployed and the number of people in their family. Because the need for workplaces was greatest in the winter, most of the construction was done during the winters of 1935, 1936 and 1937. Not until 1937 was a normal 48-hour week throughout the year introduced. 1,000,000 m3 (35,000,000 cu ft) of rock was blasted and, along with garbage from Oslo, used to fill in the swamps and depressions. Because of the delays, plans were changed and three runways were built, two 800 m (2,600 ft) long and one 700 m (2,300 ft) long. The airport was equipped with a control tower; administration building; a hangar with a workshop; and a service building. Docks for seaplanes were constructed about 1 km (0.62 mi) to the south, on the east shore of the peninsula.

In 1934, there were three domestic airlines in Norway: Det Norske Luftfartsselskap (DNL), Norske Luftruter and Widerøe's Flyveselskap. All three applied to the state for subsidies to operate routes. DNL applied for a ten-year concession with a annual subsidy to fly Oslo–Kristiansand–Amsterdam, continuing northwards to Ålesund. Widerøe applied for NOK 265,000 per year for a three-year concession for the seaplane routes Oslo–Bergen and Bergen–Trondheim. Norske Luftruter applied for NOK 250,000 per year for a route from Bergen to Copenhagen via Kristiansand and Oslo. The following year, parliament passed a long-term plan for construction of airports, which would be located in Oslo, Telemark, Kristiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, Ålesund and Trondheim. In each case, the municipalities would have to purchase land and build the airport, but the state would reimburse 50% of the investments. Due to the high cost burden on the municipalities, only Stavanger Airport, Sola and Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik were operational by the time Fornebu opened.

### Opening and war

The first aircraft at Fornebu was a Lufthansa Junkers Ju 52 in September 1938. It had flown a scheduled route to Kjeller, and the captain had continued to Fornebu to try the new airport. On 16 April 1939, the seaplane section came into regular use. The first seaplane was a Ju 52 operated by DNL to Copenhagen. The official opening was on 1 June 1939. The first aircraft to land after the official opening was a Douglas DC-2 operated by KLM from Amsterdam. The first departure was on the Danish airline Det Danske Luftfartsselskab, when a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 took off to Copenhagen. The captain made a mistake, and took off from the parking space instead of the runway. In addition to these two routes, Luft Hansa started flights to Germany and DNL flew to Amsterdam. During the fall, DNL also flew from Perth, Scotland, via Oslo to Stockholm, but this route was soon canceled.

As part of the invasion of Norway by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940, German Luftwaffe-aircraft landed at Fornebu. There was no attempt by the civilian airport authorities to hinder this, such as driving cars onto the runway, although several German aircraft collided with each other during the landing. A KLM aircraft had a scheduled service that morning, and the captain was ordered to leave the passengers, take the crew and return to Oslo. On 12 April, the airport was bombed by the British Royal Air Force. On 14 April, the KLM captain was granted permission to fly back to Amsterdam with the crew, albeit without any passengers. The German military used Fornebu heavily during the war, but it was never of any strategic importance, since it was located far from any battle zones. During the war, the airport officially remained owned by the municipality. By orders of the German authorities, the main north–south runway was expanded to 1,200 m (3,900 ft), and all facilities not yet built were completed. However, during the war all other runways than the main north–south were taken out of use. At the north end of the runway, the Luftwaffe built several hangars and a prison camp. Prisoners were used to keep the runways free of snow during winter, by marching along them and stomping the snow down.

In May 1945, as German forces were ousted from Norway, the airport was taken over by the Allies and the Royal Norwegian Air Force. None of the civilian airlines were in operation, and the Air Force started flying commercial flights. In addition to previous lines, a route was started to Northern Norway, although it had to be terminated for the winter. Due to the lack of qualified personnel, the international services had to be terminated as well. In early 1946, management of the airport was transferred back to the municipality. Due to the technological development of aviation during the war, the runway needed to be expanded. The 1,200 m (3,900 ft) runway was sufficient for Douglas DC-3 aircraft, but insufficient for larger Douglas DC-4s. The latter were all used by American Overseas Airways, DNL on its North America routes and British European Airways on its route to London, which were all transferred to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen.

### Expansion

On 1 November 1947, Norsk Spisevognselskap established a restaurant at the airport. In 1946, DNL launched plans to expand the north–south runway to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) by taking into use the whole peninsula. In addition, it wanted a second east–west runway to be built. The state took over ownership of the airport—without compensation—in 1946, albeit with the clause that if the airport ever should close, the real estate should be returned to the municipality. Stavanger Airport had been a candidate for intercontinental travel, but a state committee in 1949 decided that instead this should be shared between Fornebu and Gardermoen. Another committee was established in 1948, and in 1950 it recommended that all airport services in the Oslo region should be concentrated at Gardermoen, and that a new motorway be built to the airport. Among politicians and planners, there were two main ideologies: The first, which dominated in political circles, stated that Fornebu's close proximity to the city center was a key to reaching a market in Oslo and for the growth of the airlines. The second emphasized that, in the long run, Fornebu could not fulfill the requirements of a central airport, and that a better location should be established.

Following the political processes, the north–south runway was extended to 1,600 m (5,200 ft). With the completion of this, intercontinental traffic was moved from Gardermoen to Fornebu. In 1946, Overseas Scandinavian Airlines System had been established between DNL, DDL and the Swedish Aerotransport. The same year, shipowner Ludvig G. Braathen established Braathens South American and Far East (Braathens SAFE), which started with charter flights using DC-4s. The first civilian route was operated by KLM, who started the route Oslo–Kristiansand–Amsterdam in March 1946. From 1 April, DNL operated a route to Copenhagen, followed a week later with the route via Stavanger to London, using DC-3s. The third DNL route was to Stockholm using Ju 52s, and the fourth via Gothenburg and Copenhagen to Zurich and Marseilles. In May, DNL started routes to Trondheim and Tromsø, and later onwards to Kirkenes. It also started a direct service to Copenhagen. In October, routes were established via Kristiansand to Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris. Finally, a route was started via Copenhagen to Prague and to Stavanger. In 1946, DNL had 47,000 passengers (although not all flew through Fornebu). The company operated six DC-3s and five Ju 52s.

In 1947, Icelandair started flights to Reykjavík and the same year British European Airways transferred its London route from Gardermoen to Fornebu. DNL bought three Short Sandringham flying boats which were put into service along the coast as the "Flying Coastal Express". They remained in service from 1947 until May 1950, but proved expensive in operation. In 1949, Braathens SAFE introduced scheduled flights from Fornebu using DC-3s; it had long-haul flights to the Far East, with stops in Amsterdam, Geneva, Rome, Cairo, Basra, Karachi, Bombay, Calcutta and Bangkok before arriving in Hong Kong. Following the establishment of Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) in 1949, all international concessions were transferred to that company, and Braathens SAFE started domestic services, although it kept its existing concessions on international routes until 1954.

Braathens SAFE's first domestic service was via Tønsberg Airport, Jarlsberg to Stavanger, and later a route to Trondheim. These were both operated with Heron aircraft. At first the Trondheim route was flown to Lade, but were quickly transferred to the current airport at Værnes. Loftleiðir started flights to Reykjavík in 1952.

In 1953, work started with expanding the north–south runway to 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and building a new east–west runway which also was to become 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The same year a new commission was established, which in 1957 recommended that the east–west runway be expanded to 3,300 m (10,800 ft) and the north–south runway to 2,150 m (7,050 ft). Local residents and politicians were opposed to the expansion plans, and Akershus County Council voted against them. The ministry then chose to expand the east–west runway to only 2,200 m (7,200 ft) and leave the north–south runway untouched. The plans would allow the east–west runway to be expanded to 2,800 m (9,200 ft) in the future, if necessary. The north–south runway had difficult landing conditions, in part because of the residential areas north of the line. From 1959, the ministry denied jet aircraft from using the then longer runway. In the 1950s, SAS started using Convair 440s, while Braathens SAFE took into use Fokker F-27s. Both companies later also took into use Douglas DC-6s.

In 1952, SAS started flights to Bodø Airport and in 1955 to Bergen Airport, Flesland. In 1955, Braathens SAFE also started flights to Kristiansand and Farsund Airport, Lista, and the following year to Notodden Airport, Tuven. That year also saw some of its Trondheim flights land at Hamar Airport, and in 1957 at Røros Airport. In 1958, Ålesund Airport, Vigra was opened and became served by Braathens SAFE. The Røros stops were terminated in 1958, but reinstated in 1963 after the runway had been extended. The Hamar stops were permanently terminated in 1959.

In 1960, Finnair started flying to Helsinki, although direct flights were not introduced until 1971. After 1962, the east–west runway became the main runway. Along with the runway expansion, a new service building, with a capacity for 2 million passengers, was opened in 1964. It was located about half a kilometer (quarter of a mile) south of the former terminal. Designed by Odd Nansens Arkitektkontor, it had two stories, one for arrivals and one for departures, and two wings, one for domestic and one for international flights. It included a central hall that had a panorama view over the aircraft. The expanded facilities allowed SAS to take into use Sud Aviation Caravelle jets on the Copenhagen routes, although they were also occasionally used to Bodø.

### Cramped quarters

Three airports were opened in Finnmark in 1963, all served by SAS: Alta Airport, Kirkenes Airport, Høybuktmoen and Lakselv Airport, Banak. The following year, SAS also started flights to Tromsø Airport. In 1966, Lufthansa started flights to Hamburg, and later also introduced services to Düsseldorf, Frankfurt and Munich. During the 1960s, SAS introduced Caravelles on most of the domestic routes.

During the 1970s, Douglas DC-8s were also taken into use. Pan American World Airways had flights to New York City from 1967 to 1973 and from 1976 to 1978. Braathens SAFE started taking delivery of Boeing 737-200s and Fokker F-28s in 1969, and these gradually took over most of the domestic routes. In 1970, Air France and Swissair started flying to Fornebu from Paris and Zurich, respectively. They were supplemented by Aeroflot's Moscow route in 1972.

In 1971, a state committee recommended that Gardermoen be expanded to take a larger share of the traffic from Fornebu. At the same time, a new main airport was eventually to be built at Hobøl. From 1971, charter flights were moved to Gardermoen, although SAS and Braathens SAFE were granted dispensation so they only needed to serve one Oslo airport. On 1 July 1971, Widerøe also started serving domestic routes to Fornebu, with the opening of a regional airport in Sogn og Fjordane. These routes were served using de Havilland Canada Twin Otter and later de Havilland Canada Dash 7 aircraft, although regular services to all airports were not introduced until the late 1970s, with the introduction of the Dash 7. The last four primary airports were opened during the 1970s. Braathens SAFE started flights to Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget in 1972, Molde Airport, Årø in 1972 and Harstad/Narvik Airport, Evenes in 1973. In 1975, SAS started flights to Haugesund Airport, Karmøy.

During the 1980s, the airport was again deemed too small. In 1983, all charter flights operated by SAS and Braathens were forced to move to Gardermoen. Additional foreign services were introduced, namely Sabena to Brussels in 1985, Dan-Air to London-Gatwick and Newcastle in 1986 and Alitalia to Milan in 1988. During a period of reconstruction at Gardermoen, Trans World Airlines also served Fornebu, and the same year Pan American reintroduced its route to New York. Air Europe also started to fly from London-Gatwick to Fornebu. An additional storey was added to the service building, allowing office space to be moved there and free up space for check-in and traveler service on the two main storeys. Two satellites were built for the domestic terminal, one each for Braathens SAFE and SAS, allowing increased waiting area for travelers. The international terminal was expanded with a five-gate pier with jetbridges. A multi-story parking house was also built.

Norsk Air started serving Fornebu following the opening of Fagernes Airport, Leirin in 1987. The route was closed within a year, but taken up again by Coast Air in 1990. From 1996, the route was taken over by Teddy Air.

In 1989, Braathens SAFE started its first international scheduled service since 1960, from Fornebu to Billund in Denmark. Two years later, the company started flying to Newcastle, after Dan-Air had withdrawn from the route, and to Malmö in Sweden. That year also saw the start of Norway Airlines, who started a base at Fornebu and offered flights to London-Gatwick, as well as to Stockholm, in cooperation with Transwede, and to Copenhagen, in cooperation with Sterling Airlines. In 1992, both Norway Airlines and Dan-Air went bankrupt, and Braathens SAFE started flights to London-Gatwick. It terminated the Malmö route in 1994. After the deregulation, Braathens SAFE also introduced flights to Alicante, Málaga, Rome and Stockholm. Widerøe introduced international services to Gothenburg and Berlin.

In 1994, the domestic and international flights to the European Union were deregulated, and the number of international services increased and Fornebu received airlines such as Air Malta, Air Portugal, AirUK and LOT Polish Airlines. Other airlines to fly from Fornebu during the 1980s and 1990s includes Delta Air Lines, Northwest Orient and Tower Air. Domestically, Braathens SAFE introduced flights to Bergen, Bodø, Harstad/Narvik and Tromsø.

### Closure

During the 1960s, a political debate started concerning whether or not a new main airport should be built for Oslo and Eastern Norway. A government report launched in 1970, suggested surveys for five locations: Gardermoen, Hurum, Askim, Nesodden and Ås. Hobøl was preliminarily selected and areas reserved for a future airport. During the 1970s, the Labour Party became concerned that Hobøl was located too centrally in relation to the growth areas around Oslo, and instead wanted to use Gardermoen, in an attempt to force the population growth further north. Commercial interests and the airlines supported Hobøl. In 1983, Parliament decided to abandon the plans for Hobøl and continue with a divided solution. Fornebu would be expanded, and all charter traffic be moved to Gardermoen. From 1988, all international traffic would also be moved, making Fornebu a purely domestic airport.

Increased traffic in the mid-1980s changed the politician's interests, and in 1988 Parliament voted to build a new main airport at Hurum, located on the same side of Oslo as Fornebu, but further away. However, new weather data showed that Hurum was unsuitable, and the location was discarded. There were accusations that the data was fabricated to manipulate the political decision. In 1992, parliament made a final vote that started construction of a new airport at Gardermoen and mandated the closure of Fornebu.

Financing of the airport at Gardermoen would be done through a state loan issued to a limited company owned by the Civil Airport Administration. This company would build and operate Gardermoen, but from 1 January 1997 it also took over operation of Fornebu. After the last aircraft took off from Fornebu on 7 October 1998, 300 people spent the night transporting 500 truckloads of equipment from Fornebu to Gardermoen. The new airport opened on the morning of 8 October 1998.

Some locals wanted to keep Fornebu as a regional airport for the Oslo and Bærum area. The proposal was to keep part of the runway and terminals and allow aircraft such as the Bombardier Dash 8, Fokker 50 and British Aerospace 146 to use the airport. Proponents argued that a similar role was filled by Stockholm-Bromma Airport and Chicago's Midway Airport.

The opening of Gardermoen had a strategic impact on aviation in Norway. Despite the deregulation of the market in 1994, the lack of free slots at Fornebu made it impossible to have free competition, since no new airlines could establish themselves and no new international airlines could fly to Fornebu. Gardermoen allowed this to happen, and from 1 August 1998, Color Air started with flights from Oslo, pressing down prices on domestic routes. Although the airline went bankrupt the following year, the losses for Braathens were so high that it was taken over by SAS. The gap was then filled by Norwegian Air Shuttle.

### Redevelopment

Since closing in 1998, the former airport site has been renovated and redeveloped. The grounds are now home to the headquarters of Telenor (NBBJ architects, 2001), regional and international offices for Equinor (formerly Statoil, a-lab architects (no)), Telenor Arena (HRTB architects, 2009), as well as other office and housing projects. Prior to redevelopment, the airport site was used in the music video for Norwegian artist Hanah's 2001 song "Hollywood Lie".

Several buildings from the former airport have been preserved, including the control tower, the terminal building and two distinctive aircraft hangars. In the western part of the peninsula, a 50m x 20m section of former runway 06/24 has been restored in memory of the airport. In the northwest, the seaplane base "Kilen Sjøflyklubb" is still in operation.

## Accidents and incidents

- On 26 May 1946, a DNL Junkers Ju 52 en route to Stockholm crashed into the houses at Halden Terrasse after take-off, due to a technical error on the aircraft. All people on board were killed, but no-one on the ground.
- On 20 November 1949, a Dutch DC-3 crashed in Hurum while approaching Fornebu. All but one of the passengers, plus all the crew, died.
- On 14 April 1963, Vickers Viscount TF-ISU Hrímfaxi of Icelandair Flugfélag Islands crashed at Nesøya on approach to Fornebu. All 12 people on board were killed.
- On 23 December 1972, Braathens SAFE Flight 239, with a Fokker F-28 from Ålesund to Oslo, crashed in Asker during approach to Fornebu. Forty people were killed, while five people survived. This was the first-ever fatal accident with an F-28, and until 1989 the deadliest air accident in Norway.
- Braathens SAFE Flight 139 occurred on 21 June 1985, when a Boeing 737-200 from Braathens SAFE en route from Trondheim Airport, Værnes to Fornebu was hijacked by a drunk student who demanded to talk to the prime minister and minister of justice. The plane landed at Fornebu, and the hijacker eventually surrendered his gun in exchange for more beer. No-one was injured in the incident.

1939-1998 airport in Oslo, Norway.

Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in the European Theater


Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations is a visual novel adventure video game developed and published by Capcom. It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan, and has since been released for several platforms, including a Nintendo DS version that was released in 2007 in Japan and North America and in 2008 in Europe. It is the third game in the Ace Attorney series, following Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney (2001) and Justice for All (2002).

The story follows defense attorneys Phoenix Wright and Mia Fey, who defend their clients in five episodes. Among other characters are Phoenix's assistant and Mia's sister Maya, her cousin Pearl, and prosecutor Godot. The gameplay is split into courtroom sections, where the player cross-examines witnesses and tries to discover contradictions in their testimonies, and investigations, where they gather evidence and talk to witnesses.

The game was directed and written by Shu Takumi as the last game in an Ace Attorney trilogy; he also wanted it to be the final entry in the series, as he felt he had explored Phoenix's character fully. Because he was satisfied with the gameplay in Justice for All, he did not introduce any new gameplay mechanics in Trials and Tribulations. Flashbacks were used as a major theme in the game; this originated in Takumi trying to come up with a way of handling dialogue-integrated tutorials, and deciding to use a flashback to a case from when Mia was a rookie attorney.

The game has received generally favorable reviews, with reviewers liking the story, writing, character designs and music, but with some criticizing the lack of new gameplay mechanics. Additionally, the Wii version was criticized for using resized graphics from the Nintendo DS version, without any modifications to make them appear better on a larger screen. The Nintendo DS version was a commercial success in North America, with pre-orders being more than double the amount Capcom had estimated.

A high-definition version of the first three Ace Attorney games, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy HD, was released for iOS and Android in Japan on February 7, 2012, and for iOS in the West on May 30, 2013. Another collection of the first three games, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy, was released for the Nintendo 3DS in Japan on April 17, 2014, in North America on December 9, 2014, and in Europe on December 11, 2014. It was also released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on February 21, 2019, in Japan, and on April 9, 2019, internationally; a Windows version was released internationally on the same date. The PC version of the collection was among the best-selling new releases of the month on Steam.

## Gameplay

Trials and Tribulations is a visual novel adventure game in which the player takes the roles of Phoenix Wright and Mia Fey, defense attorneys who defend their clients in five different episodes. The gameplay remains unchanged from Justice for All, the previous title in the series.

From the start, only one episode is available to play; when the player completes an episode, a new one is unlocked. The episodes are divided into chapters, which consist of investigations and courtroom sessions. During investigation sections, the player aims to find evidence for use in the courtroom sessions; the game moves on to the next chapter within the episode when the player has gathered enough evidence. The player moves and performs actions through a menu with four options: "examine", which lets them move a cursor over the environment and examine items; "move", which shows a menu with locations the player can move to; talk, which shows a list of topics the player can discuss with witnesses in the area; and present, which lets the player show evidence or character profiles to a witness. Some witnesses do not want to discuss certain subjects, leading to a lock symbol appearing over the subject. By showing the witness a magatama, the player is able to see the secret they are trying to hide in the form of locks, called a "Psyche-Lock"; by presenting correct evidence or character profiles, the player can break the locks and be able to discuss the subject.

During the courtroom sections, the player defends their client and cross-examines the witnesses. They can move back and forth between the statements in each testimony; if they find a contradiction between a statement and the evidence, they can point out the contradiction by presenting a relevant piece of evidence or character profile. The player can also choose to question a statement, which sometimes leads to changes in the testimony. A life bar, representing the judge's patience, is shown in the upper right corner of the screen. If the player presents incorrect evidence or profiles, the bar will decrease; if it reaches zero, the player loses and their client is declared guilty. The bar will also decrease if the player makes mistakes while trying to break psyche-locks; however, the player cannot lose while trying to break psyche-locks. 50% of the life bar gets restored when the player manages to break a psyche-lock, and it gets fully restored when the player completes an episode.

## Plot

### Characters

Similar to previous games, Trials and Tribulations focuses on the careers of defense attorneys Phoenix Wright and Mia Fey. Other featured characters include Maya Fey, Mia's sister and a spirit medium who acts as Phoenix's secretary and assistant, and her young cousin Pearl Fey. After Mia was killed during the events of Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney; Phoenix took over her law practice. Nevertheless, he regularly consults with her on cases by having either Maya or Pearl channel her spirit, which allows them to assume her appearance. Phoenix also occasionally receives help from prosecutors Miles Edgeworth and Franziska von Karma, who both hold him in high regard. The game's featured antagonist is Godot, an eccentric, coffee-loving prosecutor who keeps his identity concealed behind a mask and who seems to harbor a personal grudge against Phoenix.

### Story

The first case, "Turnabout Memories", takes place five years prior to most of the game's story. University student Phoenix Wright is charged with the murder of his classmate Doug Swallow. Mia, acting as his lawyer, exposes prosecution witness Dahlia Hawthorne, Phoenix's girlfriend, as the real murderer, revealing she used Phoenix to hide evidence tying her to the poisoning of Mia's former partner Diego Armando, planning to kill him as well. For her efforts, Dahlia is arrested, convicted, and sentenced to death. Phoenix, who was already planning on changing majors to study law, asks Mia to allow him to study under her, as he has a friend he needs to save.

In the present, case two, "The Stolen Turnabout", has Phoenix representing thief Ron DeLite in court, faces off against prosecutor Godot. Although Phoenix is able to get Ron acquitted, Ron is subsequently arrested for the murder of his former boss Kane Bullard, based on evidence Phoenix presented in his defense. At the last second, Phoenix manages to identify corrupt private investigator Luke Atmey as the true culprit, having realized Atmey framed Ron so he could use double jeopardy to escape punishment.

The third case, "Recipe for Turnabout", is set months later. Phoenix is informed he supposedly failed to properly defend former client Maggey Byrde against accusations of poisoning programmer Glen Elg. Realizing someone impersonated him, Phoenix secures a retrial and conducts his own investigation, discovering that Elg was developing a computer virus on behalf of loan shark Furio Tigre. He deduces Tigre killed Elg to steal the virus, needing money to repay a large debt to a mob boss, before framing Maggey and posing as Wright to ensure her conviction. Despite no conclusive evidence, Phoenix manages to get Tigre arrested by tricking him into identifying the bottle of poison used in the murder, exposing himself as the killer.

The fourth case, "Turnabout Beginnings" depicts Mia's first case six years earlier, in which she and Armando defend death row inmate Terry Fawles, who was under suspicion of murdering policewoman Valerie Hawthorne during an escape attempt. Facing off against Edgeworth, also on his first case as a prosecutor, Mia's persistence pays off when she learns the truth: years earlier, Terry, Valerie, and her younger sister Dahlia staged a kidnapping to steal a priceless jewel from their father. Dahlia then betrays Terry by faking her death, leaving Terry to be convicted of murder based on Valerie's testimony. Terry had escaped in the hopes of learning the truth from Valerie, but unbeknownst to him, Dahlia had already killed Valerie and planted her body in his car. Before a judgement can be passed, Terry commits suicide by consuming poison received from Dahlia years earlier, forcing a mistrial and freeing Dahlia. She subsequently poisons Armando after learning he was investigating her further, leading to Phoenix gaining the bottle, ensuring that they would both cross paths with Mia months later.

In the fifth and final case, "Bridge to the Turnabout", Phoenix is visiting a mountain retreat with Maya and Pearl when fellow guest Elise Deauxnim is murdered. While looking for Maya, he falls into a river and becomes ill, forcing Edgeworth and Franziska to temporarily fill in as attorney and prosecutor to keep his client, a nun named Iris, from being found guilty. When Phoenix returns, he explains Elise was really Maya's long-lost mother, Misty Fey, and that her death was the result of a plan engineered by her sister Morgan to kill Maya with the help of the now-executed Dahlia, who turns out to be Iris' twin. Through cross-examination, Phoenix reveals that not only is Dahlia impersonating Iris, but she is also using Maya's body to do so. With Mia's help, Dahlia is exorcised from Maya and the real Iris is declared innocent. Godot is revealed as the one responsible for killing Misty to protect Maya from Dahlia, leading to the discovery of his true identity as Diego Armando. Having spent his time since awakening from his coma blaming Phoenix for Mia's death and seeking revenge, he concedes that Phoenix has done more to continue her legacy than he had. Iris is arrested again as Diego's accomplice in Misty's murder, but reveals to Phoenix that it was her he had dated in college, as she posed as Dahlia to protect him from her sister before eventually and genuinely falling in love with him. Reuniting with his friends, Phoenix celebrates finally being free of his past.

## Development

Trials and Tribulations was written and directed by Shu Takumi, with art by Tatsuro Iwamoto and music by Noriyuki Iwadare. After development of the original Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney was finished, Takumi's boss, Shinji Mikami, told him that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy, with a grand finale in the third game's last case. As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work, he avoided making a lot of changes: art for main characters such as Phoenix, Maya and Edgeworth was reused from the first game, to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations, as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche-lock mechanic for Justice for All. He wanted the series to end with Trials and Tribulations, as he had explored Phoenix's character fully and wanted to avoid the series becoming "a shadow of its former self", saying that he thinks it is important to know when to end a story.

Because the dialogue-integrated tutorial in the first game had been well received, it was considered a major point for future games in the series. In the first game, Takumi had Phoenix being guided through his first trial by the judge and Mia, and for the second game, he had Phoenix suffer from amnesia; when writing the third game, Takumi did not know what to do, as it would not seem credible if Phoenix had amnesia a second time. Eventually he came up with the idea of using a flashback to a case where Mia had just become an attorney; he developed this idea further, and ended up using flashbacks as a major theme for the game's story. He decided that he wanted to include a case where Mia faces off against Edgeworth back when he was a rookie prosecutor, but encountered a problem: both characters had previously been established as never having lost a single case. Trying to come up with a way for a case in the past to work with neither of them winning or losing, he came up with the story for Terry Fawles, who dies during the trial. The game's main theme was "not everything is always what it seems on the surface".

As Edgeworth had been a popular character ever since start of the series, Takumi found it difficult to come up with a way to bring him back without having him, a supposedly great prosecutor, always lose to Phoenix. While he was writing the story for the game's final case, he thought of the idea to have Edgeworth become a player character; he liked this idea so much that he immediately started to rewrite the case. In order to allow Edgeworth to be the player character, the first thing he did was to "get rid of" Phoenix by having him fall from a bridge into an icy river. He enjoyed writing from another character's perspective, who thought differently from Phoenix; he also used the case to explore the relationship between Edgeworth and Gumshoe. The third episode of the game, "Recipe for Turnabout", was originally intended as the fourth episode of Justice for All but had been cut due to memory limitations.

### Hardware limitations and art direction

The development team had troubles fitting the entire game on a single Game Boy Advance cartridge: while they had the same amount of memory available as when they made the first Ace Attorney game, Trials and Tribulations was 2.3 times as large content-wise. To accomplish this, they made use of "tricks and workarounds" they had figured out since working on the first game: for instance, they worked to create better structures for storing data efficiently, better compression of the graphical data, and good sounds that only use little data. Takumi found these constraints fun, as it was a chance to improve the team's abilities and a source of inspiration for doing as much as possible within the memory limitations. They still ended up having to cut or change several features: along with the art of the younger Mia, Phoenix and Edgeworth in the flashback episodes, they had planned to have new art assets for a younger Gumshoe, with his tie tied tightly and with only one hair spike, but had to settle for giving him a new coat. The character Oldbag from the first game was first cut, then included as a cameo at the end when they realized that they had just enough space for her; Takumi wanted to have her wear a lei as she would have just come back from a Hawaii trip, but was unable to due to memory limitations. Due to miscalculations of the game asset size, they had to make the character Bikini shorter in order to save some memory.

After all text was written, the development team decided which scenes should have illustrations made for them; Takumi drew rough sketches of these. He also drew the storyboards for the episodes' openings. While episode openings in previous Ace Attorney games consisted of series of illustrations, the development team decided to change to make use of a "more animated and dramatic presentation" in Trials and Tribulations: by using moving graphics on top of still images, they were still able to limit the amount of data used. The first opening they did was for episode 2; it used animation a lot, and was liked by the development team, inspiring Takumi to make even better openings for the rest of the episodes and leading the team to think of movie effects that could be used. For one opening, they gave it a "vintage movie feel": by setting the color palette to monochrome, they were able to limit the color data.

The character Grossberg's design was changed for Trials and Tribulations, with his brown suit changed to a red one: this was because the Game Boy Advance system's screen made his previous design blend in too much with the brown courtroom. Iwamoto based the design of Godot on Rutger Hauer's role in Blade Runner. He was originally going to be depicted as drinking bourbon whiskey and smoking, as part of his "hard-boiled" image; when the development team realized that this could have a bad influence on children, they made him drink coffee instead. As Takumi and Hideki Kamiya had joined Capcom around the same time and had desks near each other, Kamiya had asked Takumi for a voice role ever since the development of Justice for All; eventually, Takumi gave him the role of Godot. Takumi explained the role as a hard-boiled guy, so Kamiya decided to adapt the dialogue and shout "Objection, baby!". Takumi said that it was a good take, but that the in-game graphics just say "Objection!", so it could not be used.

## Release

The game was originally released for the Game Boy Advance on January 23, 2004, in Japan; a Windows version followed on March 31, 2006, also in Japan. A Nintendo DS version was released on August 23, 2007, in Japan, on October 23, 2007, in North America, and on October 3, 2008, in Europe. It was released for the Wii via WiiWare on February 23, 2010, in Japan, on May 10, 2010, in North America, and on May 21, 2010, in Europe.

### Localization

The localization of Trials and Tribulations was directed by Janet Hsu, with editing help from fellow localization director Andrew Alfonso. They changed several character names for the localization: Dahlia Hawthorne's English name came from the X Japan album Dahlia (1996), which Hsu was listening to at the time of the localization, as well as the short story "Rappaccini's Daughter". Her nickname, Dollie, was a reference to an attempted fan translation of Trials and Tribulations, in which she was named Dolly. Among the initial ideas for Diego Armando's name were Joseph Cuppa, Xavier Barstucks, and William Havamug. Luke Atmey's catchphrase, rendered as "Zuvari" (ズヴァリ) in the Japanese version, was going to be changed to "Schwing!" at one point; Hsu eventually changed it to "Zvarri!", as she found it "catchy and eccentric like Atmey himself". Because Alfonso, who is from Canada, wanted to "show his Maple Pride", it was decided to make the judge's brother a Canadian.

The localization team faced some issues when localizing the character Jean Armstrong: in the Japanese version, he is portrayed as an okama character, which at the time of the game's development was a general word for effeminate men, often implying homosexuality, but also used for biologically male persons who do drag or speak like women, regardless of their sexuality and gender, and even including trans women. Because of this, they only had a vague concept of "gay", and had to make it understandable for English-speaking players. Hsu looked through all information that is given about Jean in the game, and came to the conclusion that he is a gay cis man who likes to perform non-passing drag. Looking back at the game in 2014, Hsu said that she still thought Jean caused confusion due to the general public having a less informed and nuanced understanding of gender and sexuality at the time of the game's release.

## Reception

Trials and Tribulations has received generally favorable reviews for the Nintendo DS, holding a score of 81/100 based on 45 reviews at the review aggregator Metacritic; meanwhile, the Wii version holds a Metacritic score of 67/100 based on 9 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. The North American Nintendo DS release was a success, with pre-orders more than double of Capcom's estimates, resulting in a shortage of it at both retailers and at Capcom's own online store. In 2010, IGN ranked the game as the 23rd best video game for the Nintendo DS, praising it for its writing and for being an evolution of the point-and-click adventure genre.

Reviewers at Famitsu liked the game's story. Ryan Scott at 1UP.com called it "a perfect storm of everything that makes graphic adventures work", saying that it was apparent throughout the game that it had been created with a cohesive plot in mind, something he noted as a contrast to the previous games' more episodic approach. John Walker at Eurogamer said that the plot was the darkest and most complex in the Ace Attorney series, but also the funniest. He called the dialogue "consistently wonderful", and liked how Maya was given a bigger role than in Justice for All, with her often taking the lead during conversations with other characters. Aaron Thomas at GameSpot found the cases interesting and the writing "top-notch", with the dialogue feeling natural and well written; he did, however, think that the new characters, except for Godot and Dahlia Hawthorne, were annoying or not developed well. Colin Moriarty at IGN liked how the game's cases fit together, and enjoyed learning more about returning characters from the previous games, but wished the game had been less linear. Michael Cole at Nintendo World Report enjoyed how the story makes use of "brilliant twists of dramatic irony" by presenting the cases in a non-chronological order, and called it a "satisfying closure" for the series.

Scott noted that it was easier to reach correct puzzle solutions, with clues being given out "at a very reasonable rate". He saw this as the game's largest improvement upon previous Ace Attorney titles, which he said relied on trial and error; he had considered this the weakest point in the series, and something that needed to be changed. On the other hand, Walker said that the player often can figure out what a contradiction is going to be before the game lets them prove it, and the player might come up with legitimate ideas that the game does not accept. He also wished that the life bar could be filled up in court. Cole criticized how relevant evidence sometimes is not accepted, and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a certain order, but appreciated the game's larger focus on courtroom sessions over investigations. Thomas and the reviewers at Famitsu criticized the lack of new gameplay features, although the former thought that fans of the series would be fine with it. Scott acknowledged that the gameplay only is what is expected from the series, but did not find a problem with it due to the focus on narrative over gameplay. Moriarty said that while Trials and Tribulations is a good game in its own right, he wished that Capcom would make some changes to the gameplay or presentation, to avoid the series becoming "overdone, played-out, and tired".

Thomas liked the visuals, saying that the game was capable of conveying characters' moods instantly despite being limited to only a few frames of animation, and that the backgrounds were nice and fitting in well with the ones from returning locations; he did however dislike how a lot of the artwork was reused from previous Ace Attorney games. Cole and Moriarty were not bothered by the limited character sprites and animation or static backgrounds; Cole called the character designs "memorable and hilariously animated", while Moriarty, who liked both, said that the characters looked "awesome". Thomas called the game's music outstanding, saying that the intense music that plays at high-stakes moments during trials, as well as the character themes, all fit well. Cole said that the courtroom and character themes were memorable and fitting; he called them improvements over their counterparts in Justice for All, and "at least on par with" those in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney. Moriarty said that the music "set the mood perfectly" for each scene.

### Wii version

Corbie Dillard at Nintendo Life criticized the Wii version for using resized graphics from the Nintendo DS version without doing any "touch-ups", resulting in a pixelated look. He also disliked the Wii Remote-based gameplay changes, saying that they were annoying for people who have already played the portable versions of the game. Lucas M. Thomas at IGN also found it disappointing how the graphics, audio and content had not been changed at all compared to the Nintendo DS release, saying that the visuals did not look attractive when resized to fit a larger screen; he concluded that it did not seem like the Wii version had been given "any extra love and attention at all". Marissa Meli at GameZone called it a "3/10 interpretation of a 9/10 title", saying that the pixelated graphics made the game look ugly and shoddy.

Video games featuring female protagonists