McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II

The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B Harrier II is a single-engine ground-attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier family, capable of vertical or short takeoff and landing (V/STOL). The aircraft is primarily employed on light attack or multi-role missions, ranging from close air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance. The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), the Spanish Navy, and the Italian Navy. A variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II, was developed for the British military, while another, the TAV-8B, is a dedicated two-seat trainer.

The project that eventually led to the AV-8B's creation started in the early 1970s as a cooperative effort between the United States and United Kingdom, aimed at addressing the operational inadequacies of the first-generation Hawker Siddeley Harrier. Early efforts centered on a larger, more powerful Pegasus engine to dramatically improve the capabilities of the Harrier. Because of budgetary constraints, the UK abandoned the project in 1975. Following the UK's withdrawal, McDonnell Douglas extensively redesigned the earlier AV-8A Harrier to create the AV-8B. While retaining the general layout of its predecessor, the aircraft incorporates a new, larger composite wing with an additional hardpoint on each side, an elevated cockpit, a redesigned fuselage and other structural and aerodynamic refinements. The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of the Pegasus. The AV-8B made its maiden flight in November 1981 and entered service with the USMC in January 1985. Later upgrades added a night-attack capability and radar, resulting in the AV-8B(NA) and AV-8B Harrier II Plus versions, respectively. An enlarged version named Harrier III was also studied but not pursued. The UK, through British Aerospace, re-joined the improved Harrier project as a partner in 1981, giving it a significant work-share in the project. Following corporate mergers in the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program. Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22-year production program that ended in 2003.

Typically operated from small aircraft carriers, large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases, AV-8Bs have participated in numerous military and humanitarian operations, proving themselves versatile assets. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier II as one of several important weapons in the Gulf War. It also served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, the Iraq War and subsequent War in Iraq, along with Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011. Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conflicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions. During its service history, the AV-8B has had a high accident rate, related to the percentage of time spent in critical take-off and landing phases. USMC and Italian Navy AV-8Bs are being replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II, with the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025.

## Development

### Origins

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the first-generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and USMC but were handicapped in range and payload. In short takeoff and landing configuration, the AV-8A (American designation for the Harrier) carried less than half the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) payload of the smaller A-4 Skyhawk, over a more limited radius. To address this, Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier in 1973. Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine, designated the Pegasus 15, which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley. Although more powerful, the engine's diameter was too large by 2.75 in (70 mm) to fit into the Harrier easily.

In December 1973, a joint American and British team completed a project document defining an advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine. The advanced Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and USMC Harriers, as well as the USMC's A-4 Skyhawk. The aim of the advanced Harrier was to double the AV-8's payload and range and was therefore unofficially named AV-16. The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding, rising costs, and the RAF's insufficient 60-aircraft requirement. With development costs estimated to be around £180–200 million (1974 British pounds), the United States was unwilling to fund development by itself and ended the project later that year.

Despite the project's termination, the two companies continued to take different paths toward an enhanced Harrier. Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft, while McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious, though still expensive, project catering to the needs of the U.S. military. Using knowledge gleaned from the AV-16 effort, though dropping some items—such as the larger Pegasus engine—McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC.

### Designing and testing

As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine, the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976. The United States Navy (USN), which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC, insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing. McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, revised intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic changes; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes. Designated YAV-8B, the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978. The aircraft performed three vertical take-offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert–St. Louis International Airport. The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979 but crashed that November because of an engine flameout; the pilot ejected safely. Flight testing of these modified AV-8s continued into 1979. The results showed greater than expected drag, hampering the aircraft's maximum speed. Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement. Positive test results in other areas, including payload, range, and V/STOL performance, led to the award of a development contract in 1979. The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially, followed by a further 324.

Between 1978 and 1980, the DoD and USN repeatedly attempted to terminate the AV-8B program. There had previously been conflict between the USMC and USN over budgetary issues. At the time, the USN wanted to procure A-18s for its ground attack force and, to cut costs, pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly designed F-18 fighter instead of the AV-8B to fulfill the role of close air support (both designs were eventually amalgamated to create the multirole F/A-18 Hornet). Despite these bureaucratic obstacles, in 1981 the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five-year defense plan. The USN declined to participate in the procurement, citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft.

In August 1981, the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a memorandum of understanding, marking the UK's re-entry into the program. The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run, and the fact that the U.S. was shouldering the expense of development. Under the agreement, BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program. Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40% of the airframe work-share. Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas' facilities in suburban St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England. Meanwhile, 75% work-share for the engine went to Rolls-Royce, which had absorbed Bristol Siddeley, with the remaining 25% assigned to Pratt & Whitney. The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs, with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF to procure 60.

Four full-scale development (FSD) aircraft were constructed. The first of these, used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities, made its maiden flight on 5 November 1981. The second and third FSD aircraft, which introduced wing leading-edge root extensions and revised engine intakes, first flew in April the following year; the fourth followed in January 1984. The first production AV-8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 (VMAT-203) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point on 12 December 1983, and officially handed over one month later. The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line Marine Attack Squadron 331. These aircraft had F402-RR-404A engines, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.

### Upgrades

During the initial pilot conversion course, it became apparent that the AV-8B exhibited flight characteristics different from the AV-8A. These differences, as well as the digital cockpit fitted instead of the analog cockpit of the TAV-8A, necessitated additional pilot training. In 1984, funding for eight AV-8Bs was diverted to the development of a two-seat TAV-8B trainer. The first of the 28 TAV-8Bs eventually procured had its maiden flight on 21 October 1986. This aircraft was delivered to VMAT-203 on 24 July 1987; the TAV-8B was also ordered by Italy and Spain.

With export interest from Brazil, Japan, and Italy serving as a source of encouragement to continue development of the Harrier II, McDonnell Douglas commenced work on a night-attack variant in 1985. With the addition of an infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements, the 87th production single-seat AV-8B became the first Harrier II to be modified for night attacks, leaving the McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987. Flight tests proved successful and the night attack capability was validated. The first of 66 AV-8B(NA)s was delivered to the USMC in September 1989. An equivalent version of the AV-8B(NA) also served with the RAF under the designation GR7; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently upgraded to GR7 standards.

In June 1987, as a private venture, BAe, McDonnell Douglas, and Smiths Industries agreed on the development of what was to become the AV-8B Plus with the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility. The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and, after much consideration, the Spanish and Italian navies developed a joint requirement for a fleet of air-defense Harriers. The United States, Spain, and Italy signed an MoU in September 1990 to define the responsibilities of the three countries and establish a Joint Program Office to manage the program. On 30 November 1990, the USN, acting as an agent for the three participating countries, awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the improved Harrier. The award was followed by an order from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft, and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft. Italy ordered 16 Harrier II Plus and two twin-seat TAV-8B aircraft, while Spain signed a contract for eight aircraft. Production of the AV-8B Harrier II Plus was conducted, in addition to McDonnell Douglas' plant, at CASA's facility in Seville, Spain, and Alenia Aeronautica's facility in Turin, Italy. The UK also participated in the program by manufacturing components for the AV-8B.

Production was authorized on 3 June 1992. The maiden flight of the prototype took place on 22 September, marking the start of a successful flight-test program. The first production aircraft made its initial flight on 17 March 1993. Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to 1995. At the same time, the plan to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded. On 11 March 1994, the Defense Acquisition Board approved the program, which initially involved 70 aircraft, with four converted in fiscal year 1994. The program planned to use new and refurbished components to rebuild aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones. Conversion began in April 1994, and the first aircraft was delivered to the USMC in January 1996.

### End of production and further improvements

In March 1996, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) stated that it was less expensive to buy Harrier II Plus aircraft outright than to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs. The USN estimated the cost for remanufacture of each aircraft to be US\$23–30 million, instead of \$30 million for each new-built aircraft, while the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at \$24 million. Nevertheless, the program continued and, in 2003, the 72nd and last AV-8B to be remanufactured for the USMC was delivered. Spain also participated in the program, the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in December 2003, which marked the end of the AV-8B's production; the final new AV-8B had been delivered in 1997.

In the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe acquire Marconi Electronic Systems to form BAE Systems. Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all models were delivered. In 2001, Flight International reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a V/STOL aircraft by purchasing AV-8Bs outfitted with the F-16 Fighting Falcon's APG-66 radar. A Taiwanese purchase would have allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005. Despite the possibility of leasing AV-8Bs, interest in the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to procuring the F-35 and upgrading its fleet of F-16s.

Although there have been no new AV-8B variants, in 1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV-8B and the next generation of advanced V/STOL aircraft. The Harrier III would have presented an "evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft", as many of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV-8B would be used. The wing and the torsion box were to be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to improve the aircraft's endurance. Because of the increase in size, the wing would have had folding wingtips. To meet the heavier weight of the aircraft, Rolls-Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have produced 4,000 lbf (18 kN) more thrust than the latest production variant at the time. The Harrier III would have carried weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-132 ASRAAM missiles. Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s, when the project was abandoned.

In 2013, the USMC was studying potential enhancements to keep the AV-8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned retirement, such as a helmet-mounted cueing system. It is also predicted that additional work on the aircraft's radars and sensor systems may take place. The USMC's Harrier II fleet was planned to remain in service until 2030, owing to delays with the F-35B and the fact that the Harriers have more service life left than USMC F/A-18 Hornets. However, by 2014 the USMC had decided to retire the AV-8B sooner because changing the transition orders of Harrier II and Hornet fleets to the Lightning II would save \$1 billion. The F-35B began replacing the AV-8B in 2016, with the AV-8B expected to continue service until 2025. Meanwhile, the AV-8B is to receive revamped defensive measures, updated data-link capability and targeting sensors, and improved missiles and rockets, among other enhancements.

## Design

### Overview

The AV-8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft of metal and composite construction that retains the basic layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, with horizontal stabilizers and shoulder-mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral (downward slope). The aircraft is powered by a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine, which has two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles close to its turbine. Two of these nozzles are located near the forward, cold end of the engine and two are near the rear, hot end of the engine. This arrangement contrasts with most fixed-wing aircraft, which have engine nozzles only at the rear. The Harrier II also has smaller valve-controlled nozzles in the nose, tail, and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds.

The AV-8B is equipped with one centerline fuselage and six wing hardpoints (compared to four wing hardpoints on the original Harrier), along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU-12 cannon and ammunition pack. These hardpoints give it the ability to carry a total of 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) of weapons, including air-to-air, air-to-surface, and anti-ship missiles, as well as unguided and guided bombs. The aircraft's internal fuel capacity is 7,500 lb (3,400 kg), up 50% compared to its predecessor. Fuel capacity can be carried in hardpoint-compatible external drop tanks, which give the aircraft a maximum ferry range of 2,100 mi (3,300 km) and a combat radius of 300 mi (556 km). The AV-8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe-and-drogue system. The British Aerospace Harrier II, a variant tailored to the RAF, uses different avionics and has one additional missile pylon on each wing.

The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout of the first-generation Harriers, although each outrigger landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid-span for a tighter turning radius when taxiing. The engine intakes are larger than those of the first-generation Harrier and have a revised inlet. On the underside of the fuselage, McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement devices, which capture the reflected engine exhaust when close to the ground, giving the equivalent of up to 1,200 lb (544 kg) of extra lift.

The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier II, compared with the original Harrier, significantly reduce the workload on the pilot. The supercritical wing, hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) control principle, and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to fly. Ed Harper, general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program, summarizes: "The AV-8B looks a lot like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating fundamentals. It just uses them a lot better". A large cathode-ray tube multi-purpose display, taken from the F/A-18, makes up much of the instrument panel in the cockpit. It has a wide range of functions, including radar warning information and weapon delivery checklist. The pilots sit on UPC/Stencel 10B zero-zero ejection seats, meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary aircraft at zero altitude.

### Airframe

For the AV-8B, McDonnell Douglas redesigned the entire airframe of the Harrier, incorporating numerous structural and aerodynamic changes. To improve visibility and better accommodate the crew and avionics hardware, McDonnell Douglas elevated the cockpit by 10.5 in (27 cm) and redesigned the canopy. This improved the forward (17° down), side (60°), and rear visibility. The front fuselage is composed of a molded skin with an epoxy-based core sandwiched between two carbon-fiber sheets. To compensate for the changes in the front fuselage, the rear fuselage was extended by 18 in (46 cm), and the taller vertical stabilizer of the Sea Harrier was used. The tail assembly is made up of composites to reduce weight.

Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing, the objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV-16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the AV-8A. Engineers designed a new, one-piece supercritical wing, which improves cruise performance by delaying the rise in drag and increasing lift-to-drag ratio. Made of composites, the wing is thicker and has a longer span than that of the AV-8A. Compared to the AV-8A's wing, it has a higher aspect ratio, reduced sweep (from 40° to 37°), and an area increased from 200 sq ft (18.6 m<sup>2</sup>) to 230 sq ft (21.4 m<sup>2</sup>). The wing has a high-lift configuration, employing flaps that deploy automatically when maneuvering, and drooped ailerons. Using the leading edge root extensions, the wing allows for a 6,700 lb (3,035 kg) increase in payload compared with the first-generation Harriers after a 1,000 ft (300 m) takeoff roll. Because the wing is almost exclusively composite, it is 330 lb (150 kg) lighter than the AV-8A's smaller wing.

The Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to extensively employ carbon-fiber composite materials, exploiting their light weight and high strength; they are used in the wings, rudder, flaps, nose, forward fuselage, and tail. Twenty-six percent of the aircraft's structure is made of composites, reducing its weight by 480 lb (217 kg) compared to a conventional metal structure.

### Differences between versions

Most of the first "day attack" AV-8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards, with the remainder being withdrawn from service. The AV-8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing of direct voice input which allows the pilot to use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft, using a system developed by Smiths Industries. The main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the nose-mounted Hughes AN/ASB-19 angle-rate bombing system. The system combined a TV imager and laser tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability. Defensive equipment include several AN/ALE-39 chaff-flare dispensers, an AN/ALR-67 radar warning receiver, and an AN/ALQ-126C jammer pod.

The trainer version of the AV-8B is the TAV-8B, seating two pilots in tandem. Among other changes, the forward fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in (1.19 m) extension to accommodate the second cockpit. To compensate for the slight loss of directional stability, the vertical stabilizer's area was enlarged through increases in chord (length of the stabilizer's root) and height. USMC TAV-8Bs feature the AV-8B's digital cockpit and new systems but have only two hardpoints and are not combat capable. Initial TAV-8Bs were powered by a 21,450 lbf (95.4 kN) F402-RR-406A engine, while later examples were fitted with the 23,000 lbf (105.8 kN) F402-RR-408A. In the early 2000s, 17 TAV-8Bs were upgraded to include a night-attack capability, the F402-RR-408 engine, and software and structural changes.

Fielded in 1991, the Night Attack Harrier was the first upgrade of the AV-8B. It differed from the original aircraft in having a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera added to the top of the nose cone, a wide Smiths Industries head-up display (HUD), provisions for night vision goggles, and a Honeywell digital moving map system. The FLIR uses thermal imaging to identify objects by their heat signatures. The variant was powered by the F402-RR-408 engine, which featured an electronic control system and was more powerful and reliable. The flare and chaff dispensers were moved, and the ram-air intake was lengthened at the fin's base. Initially known as the AV-8D, the night-attack variant was designated the AV-8B(NA).

The Harrier II Plus is very similar to the Night Attack variant, with the addition of an APG-65 multi-mode pulse-Doppler radar in an extended nose, allowing it to launch advanced beyond-visual-range missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM. To make additional space for the radar, the angle-rate bombing system was removed. The radars used were taken from early F/A-18 aircraft, which had been upgraded with the related APG-73. According to aviation author Lon Nordeen, the changes "had a slight increase in drag and a bit of additional weight, but there really was not much difference in performance between the [–408-powered] Night Attack and radar Harrier II Plus aircraft".

## Operational history

### United States Marine Corps

The AV-8B underwent standard evaluation to prepare for its USMC service. In the operational evaluation (OPEVAL), lasting from 31 August 1984 to 30 March 1985, four pilots and a group of maintenance and support personnel tested the aircraft under combat conditions. The aircraft was graded for its ability to meet its mission requirements for navigating, acquiring targets, delivering weapons, and evading and surviving enemy actions, all at the specified range and payload limits. The first phase of OPEVAL, running until 1 February 1985, required the AV-8B to fly both deep and close air support missions (deep air support missions do not require coordination with friendly ground forces) in concert with other close-support aircraft, as well as flying battlefield interdiction and armed reconnaissance missions. The aircraft flew from military installations at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in California; Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake in Canada; and Marine Corps Air Station Yuma in Arizona.

The second phase of OPEVAL, which took place at MCAS Yuma from 25 February to 8 March, required the AV-8B to perform fighter escort, combat air patrol, and deck-launched intercept missions. Although the evaluation identified shortfalls in the design (subsequently rectified), OPEVAL was deemed successful. The AV-8B Harrier II reached initial operating capability (IOC) in January 1985 with USMC squadron VMA-331.

The AV-8B saw extensive action in the Gulf War of 1990–91. Aircraft based on USS Nassau and Tarawa, and at on-shore bases, initially flew training and support sorties, as well as practicing with coalition forces. The AV-8Bs were to be held in reserve during the initial phase of the preparatory air assault of Operation Desert Storm. The AV-8B was first used in the war on the morning of 17 January 1991, when a call for air support from an OV-10 Bronco forward air controller against Iraqi artillery that was shelling Khafji and an adjacent oil refinery, brought the AV-8B into combat. The following day, USMC AV-8Bs attacked Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait. Throughout the war, AV-8Bs performed armed reconnaissance and worked in concert with coalition forces to destroy targets.

During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, 86 AV-8Bs amassed 3,380 flights and about 4,100 flight hours, with a mission availability rate of over 90%. Five AV-8Bs were lost to enemy surface-to-air missiles, and two USMC pilots were killed. The AV-8B had an attrition rate of 1.5 aircraft for every 1,000 sorties flown. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf later named the AV-8B among the seven weapons—along with the F-117 Nighthawk and AH-64 Apache—that played a crucial role in the war. In the aftermath of the war, from 27 August 1992 until 2003, USMC AV-8Bs and other aircraft patrolled Iraqi skies in support of Operation Southern Watch. The AV-8Bs launched from amphibious assault ships in the Persian Gulf and from forward operating bases such as Ali Al Salem Air Base, Kuwait.

In 1999, the AV-8B participated in NATO's bombing of Yugoslavia during Operation Allied Force. Twelve Harriers were split evenly between the 24th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU). AV-8Bs of the 24th MEU were introduced into combat on 14 April and over the next 14 days flew 34 combat air support missions over Kosovo. During their six-month deployment aboard USS Nassau, 24th MEU Harriers averaged a high mission-capable rate of 91.8%. On 28 April, the 24th MEU was relieved by the 26th MEU, based on USS Kearsarge. The first combat sorties of the unit's AV-8Bs occurred two days later, one aircraft being lost. The 26th MEU remained in the theater of operations until 28 May, when it was relocated to Brindisi, Italy.

USMC AV-8Bs took part in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001. The USMC 15th MEU arrived off the coast of Pakistan in October 2001. Operating from the unit's ships, four AV-8Bs began attack missions into Afghanistan on 3 November 2001. The 26th MEU and its AV-8Bs joined 15th MEU later that month. In December 2001, two AV-8Bs first deployed to a forward base at Kandahar in Afghanistan. More AV-8Bs were deployed with other USMC units to the region in 2002. The VMA-513 squadron deployed six Night Attack AV-8Bs to Bagram in October 2002. These aircraft each carried a LITENING targeting pod to perform reconnaissance missions along with attack and other missions, primarily at night.

The aircraft participated in the Iraq War in 2003, acting primarily in support of USMC ground units. During the initial action, 60 AV-8Bs were deployed on ships such as USS Bonhomme Richard and Bataan, from which over 1,000 sorties were flown throughout the war. When possible, land-based forward arming and refuelling points were set up to enable prompt operations. USMC commander Lieutenant General Earl B. Hailston said that the Harriers were able to provide 24-hour support for ground forces, and noted that "The airplane ... became the envy of pilots even from my background ... there's an awful lot of things on the Harrier that I've found the Hornet pilots asking me [for] ... We couldn't have asked for a better record".

USMC sources documented the Harrier as holding an 85% aircraft availability record in the Iraq War; in just under a month of combat, the aircraft flew over 2,000 sorties. When used, the LITENING II targeting pod achieved greater than 75% kill effectiveness on targets. In a single sortie from USS Bonhomme Richard, a wave of Harriers inflicted heavy damage on a Republican Guard tank battalion in advance of a major ground assault on Al Kut. Harriers regularly operated in close support roles for friendly tanks, one of the aircraft generally carrying a LITENING pod. Despite the Harrier's high marks, the limited amount of time that each aircraft could remain on station, around 15–20 minutes, led to some calls from within the USMC for the procurement of AC-130 gunships, which could loiter for six hours and had a heavier close air support capability than the AV-8B. AV-8Bs were later used in combination with artillery to provide constant fire support for ground forces during heavy fighting in 2004 around the insurgent stronghold of Fallujah. The urban environment there required extreme precision for airstrikes.

On 20 March 2011, USMC AV-8Bs were launched from USS Kearsarge in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn, enforcing the UN no-fly zone over Libya. They carried out airstrikes on Sirte on 5 April 2011. Multiple AV-8Bs were involved in the defense of a downed F-15E pilot, attacking approaching Libyans prior to the pilot's extraction by a MV-22 Osprey. In addition to major conflicts, USMC AV-8Bs have been deployed in support of contingency and humanitarian operations, providing fixed-wing air cover and armed reconnaissance. The aircraft served in Somalia throughout the 1990s, Liberia (1990, 1996, and 2003), Rwanda (1994), Central African Republic (1996), Albania (1997), Zaire (1997), and Sierra Leone (1997).

The AV-8B is to be replaced by the F-35B version of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which was planned to enter service in 2012. The USMC had sought a replacement since the 1980s and has argued strongly in favor of the development of the F-35B. The Harrier's performance in Iraq, including its ability to use forward operating bases, reinforced the need for a V/STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal. In November 2011, the USN purchased the UK's fleet of 72 retired BAe Harrier IIs (63 single-seat GR.7/9/9As plus 9 twin-seat T.12/12As) and replacement engines to provide spares for the existing USMC Harrier II fleet. Although the March 2012 issue of the magazine AirForces Monthly states that the USMC intended to fly some of the ex-British Harrier IIs, instead of using them just for spare parts, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans to operate those Harriers.

On 14 September 2012, a Taliban raid destroyed six AV-8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were parked on the ramp at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan's Helmand Province. All of the aircraft belonged to VMFA-211. The two damaged AV-8Bs were flown out of Afghanistan in the hours after the attack. The attack was described as "the worst loss of U.S. airpower in a single incident since the Vietnam War." The lost aircraft were quickly replaced by those from VMA-231.

On 27 July 2014, USS Bataan began deploying USMC AV-8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of Islamic State (IS) forces. Surveillance operations continued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against IS militants. In early September 2014, a USMC Harrier from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha Dam in Iraq, marking the first time a USMC unit dropped ordnance in the operation. On 1 August 2016, USMC Harriers from USS Wasp began strikes against ISIL in Libya as part of manned and unmanned airstrikes on targets near Sirte, launching at least five times within two days.

### Italian Navy

In the late 1960s, following a demonstration of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy (Marina Militare) helicopter carrier Andrea Doria, the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the Harrier. Early efforts were hindered by a 1937 Italian law that prohibited the navy from operating fixed-wing aircraft because they were the domain of the air force. In early 1989, the law was changed to allow the navy to operate any fixed-wing aircraft with a maximum weight of over 3,300 lb (1,500 kg). Following a lengthy evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV-8B, an order was placed for two TAV-8Bs in May 1989. Soon, a contract for a further 16 AV-8B Plus aircraft was signed. After the TAV-8Bs and the first three AV-8Bs, all subsequent Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia Aeronautica from kits delivered from the U.S. The two-seaters, the first to be delivered, arrived at Grottaglie in August 1991. They were used for proving flights with the navy's helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi.

In early 1994, the initial batch of U.S.-built aircraft arrived at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training. The first Italian-assembled Harrier was rolled out the following year. In mid-January 1995, Giuseppe Garibaldi set off from Taranto to Somalia with three Harriers on board to maintain stability following the withdrawal of UN forces. The Harriers, flown by five Italian pilots, accumulated more than 100 flight hours and achieved 100% availability during the three-month deployment, performing reconnaissance and other missions. The squadron returned to port on 22 March.

In 1999, Italian AV-8Bs were used for the first time in combat missions when they were deployed aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi, which was participating in Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. Italian pilots conducted more than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft, attacking the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing the country's infrastructure with conventional and laser-guided bombs.

In 2000, the Italian Navy was looking to acquire 7 additional remanufactured aircraft to equip Giuseppe Garibaldi and a new carrier, Cavour. Existing aircraft, meanwhile, were updated to allow them to carry AIM-120 AMRAAMs and Joint Direct Attack Munition guided bombs. From November 2001 to March 2002, eight AV-8Bs were embarked aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi and were deployed to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The aircraft, equipped with LGBs, operated throughout January and February 2002, during which 131 missions were logged for a total of 647 flight hours.

In 2011, Italian Harriers, operating from Giuseppe Garibaldi, worked alongside Italian Typhoons and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unified Protector, part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya. They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya, using the Litening targeting pods while armed with AIM-120 AMRAAMs and AIM-9 Sidewinders. In total, Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and missiles during sorties: Italian Air Force Tornados and AMX fighter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles, while the eight Italian Navy AV-8Bs flying from Giuseppe Garibaldi dropped 160 guided bombs during 1,221 flight hours.

Italian Navy AV-8Bs are slated to be replaced by 15 (originally 22) F-35Bs, which will form the air wing of Cavour.

### Spanish Navy

Spain, already using the AV-8S Matador, became the first international operator of the AV-8B by signing an order for 12 aircraft in March 1983. Designated VA-2 Matador II by the Spanish Navy (Armada Española), this variant is known as EAV-8B by McDonnell Douglas. Pilot conversion took place in the U.S. On 6 October 1987, the first three Matador IIs were delivered to Naval Station Rota. The new aircraft were painted in a two-tone matte grey finish, similar to U.S. Navy aircraft, and deliveries were complete by 1988.

BAe test pilots cleared the aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias for Harrier operations in July 1989. The carrier, which replaced the World War II-era Dédalo, has a 12° ski-jump ramp. It was originally planned that the first unit to operate the aircraft would be the 8<sup>a</sup> Escuadrilla. This unit was disbanded on 24 October 1986, following the sales of AV-8S Matadors to Thailand. Instead, 9<sup>a</sup> Escuadrilla was formed on 29 September 1987, to become part of the Alpha Carrier Air Group and operate the EAV-8B.

In March 1993, under the September 1990 Tripartite MoU between the U.S., Italy, and Spain, eight EAV-8B Plus Matadors were ordered, along with a twin-seat TAV-8B. Deliveries of the Plus-standard aircraft started in 1996. On 11 May 2000, Boeing and the NAVAIR finalized a contract to remanufacture Spanish EAV-8Bs to bring them up to Plus standard. Boeing said the deal required it to remanufacture two EAV-8Bs, with an option for another seven aircraft; other sources say the total was 11 aircraft. The remanufacture allowed the aircraft to carry four AIM-120 AMRAAMs, enhanced the pilot's situational awareness through the installation of new radar and avionics, and provided a new engine. Eventually, 5 aircraft were modified, the last having been delivered on 5 December 2003.

Spanish EAV-8Bs joined Operation Deny Flight, enforcing the UN's no-fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Spain did not send its aircraft carrier to participate in the Iraq War in 2003, instead deploying F/A-18s and other aircraft to Turkey to defend that country against potential Iraqi attacks. Starting in 2007, Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs—with the likely option being the F-35B. The Spanish government, in May 2014 however, announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft.

Following the decommissioning of Príncipe de Asturias in February 2013, the sole naval platform from which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the amphibious assault ship Juan Carlos I.

## Variants

YAV-8B: Two prototypes converted in 1978 from existing AV-8A airframes (BuNo 158394 and 158395).
AV-8B Harrier II: The initial "day attack" variant.

AV-8B Harrier II Night Attack: Improved version with FLIR, an upgraded cockpit with night-vision goggle compatibility, and the more powerful Rolls-Royce Pegasus 11 engine.
AV-8B Harrier II Plus: Similar to the Night Attack variant, with the addition of an APG-65 radar and separate targeting pod. It is used by the USMC, Spanish Navy, and Italian Navy. Forty-six were built.
TAV-8B Harrier II: Two-seat trainer version.
EAV-8B Matador II: Company designation for the Spanish Navy version.
EAV-8B Matador II Plus: The AV-8B Harrier II Plus, ordered for the Spanish Navy.
Harrier GR5, GR7, GR9: See British Aerospace Harrier II.

## Operators

 Italy

- Italian Navy

\* Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati (1991–present)

 Spain

- Spanish Navy

\* 9a Escuadrilla Aeronaves (1987–present)

 United States

- United States Marine Corps
  - VMA-211 "Wake Island Avengers" (1990–2016)
  - VMA-214 "The Black Sheep" (1989–2022)
  - VMA-223 "Bulldogs" (1987–present)
  - VMA-231 "Ace of Spades" (1985–present)
  - VMA-311 "Tomcats" (1988–2020)
  - VMA-331 "Bumblebees" (1985–1992)
  - VMA-513 "Flying Nightmares" (1987–2013)
  - VMA-542 "Tigers" (1986–2023)
  - VMAT-203 "Hawks" (1983–2021)
- United States Navy
  - VX-9 "The Vampires" (unknown)
  - VX-31 "Dust Devils" (unknown–present)

## Accidents

During its service with the USMC, the Harrier has had an accident rate three times that of the Corps' F/A-18s. As of July 2013, approximately 110 aircraft have been damaged beyond repair since the type entered service in 1985, the first accident occurring in March 1985. The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major accidents among military aircraft in service at that time, with 148 accidents and 45 people killed. Author Lon Nordeen notes that several other USMC single-engine strike aircraft, like the A-4 Skyhawk and A-7 Corsair II, had higher accident rates.

Accidents have in particular been connected to the proportionate amount of time the aircraft spends taking off and landing, which are the most critical phases in flight. The AV-8 was dubbed a "widow maker" by some in the military. Further analysis shows that U.S. Marine senior officers never understood the uniqueness of the aircraft. Cutbacks in senior maintenance personnel and pilot mistakes had a disastrous effect on the safety of the American-operated AV-8B and unfairly gained it a negative reputation in the U.S. press.

## Aircraft on display

AV-8B

- BuNo 161396 – National Museum of the Marine Corps, Triangle, Virginia
- BuNo 161397 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina

## Specifications (AV-8B Harrier II Plus)

## Popular culture

As part of its 1996 Pepsi Stuff marketing campaign, Pepsi ran an advertisement promising a Harrier jet to anyone who collected 7 million Pepsi Points, a gag that backfired when a participant attempted to take advantage of the ability to buy additional points for 10 cents each to claim a jet for US\$700,000. When Pepsi turned him down, a lawsuit ensued, in which the judge ruled that any reasonable person would conclude that the advertisement was a joke.

## See also

Anglo-American second-generation VSTOL ground-attack aircraft


2001 Italian Grand Prix

The 2001 Italian Grand Prix (formally the Gran Premio Campari d'Italia 2001) was a Formula One motor race held on 16 September 2001 at the Autodromo Nazionale di Monza near to Monza, Lombardy, Italy. It was the 15th round of the 2001 Formula One World Championship and the 72nd Italian Grand Prix. Rookie Williams driver Juan Pablo Montoya won the 53-lap race from pole position. Rubens Barrichello finished second in a Ferrari with Montoya's teammate Ralf Schumacher third.

Montoya maintained his start-line advantage and led until he exited a chicane slowly due to a tyre blister and was overtaken by Barrichello on the ninth lap. Barrichello pulled away from Montoya and held the lead until his first of two pit stops on lap 19 which proved problematic because of a faulty refuelling rig that had been reprogrammed. Montoya was put a one-stop strategy by his team and made a pit stop on lap 29, which allowed his teammate Ralf Schumacher to lead the race for six laps. Barrichello regained the lead on lap 36, and held it for six more laps until Montoya took over the position on lap 42 when Barrichello made a pit stop for the second time for fuel. Barrichello started to reduce the gap between himself and Montoya but was unable to challenge the Williams driver who achieved his maiden Formula One victory and the first for a Colombian driver.

The result meant Montoya moved into fifth position in the World Drivers' Championship, 83 points behind leader Michael Schumacher who clinched the title two races beforehand at the . Barrichello's second position finish allowed him to close the gap to David Coulthard in second place in the World Drivers' Championship. Williams' strong finish meant the gap between themselves and McLaren was reduced to eight points in the World Constructors' Championship with two races remaining in the season.

## Background

The 2001 Italian Grand Prix was the 15th of the 17 round 2001 Formula One World Championship and occurred at the clockwise 5.793 km (3.600 mi) Monza Circuit close to Monza, Lombardy, Italy on 16 September. Before the race, both the World Drivers' Championship and World Constructors' Championship were already settled, with Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher having won the World Drivers' Championship two rounds earlier in the and Ferrari took the World Constructors' Championship at the same event, with McLaren too many points behind to be able to catch them.

After the on 2 September, the teams conducted mid-season testing at various European race circuits between 4–7 September to prepare for the Italian Grand Prix at the Autodromo Nazionale di Monza. Ferrari, Williams, BAR, Jordan and Minardi tested at the Mugello Circuit. Rubens Barrichello for Ferrari set the fastest times on the first and second days. The second day of testing was disrupted on six occasions after BAR test driver Takuma Sato went off the circuit, suffered an electronic control unit failure and had a malfunctioning anti-stall system. BAR's Olivier Panis and Minardi driver Alex Yoong both had problems with their clutch and gearboxes. On the final day Michael Schumacher set the fastest lap of 1 minute, 24.226 seconds, four-tenths ahead of Panis. Ferrari test driver Luca Badoer spent three days at his team's private test track the Fiorano Circuit where he did practice starts as well as testing of launch control and traction control.

After the September 11 attacks on New York and Washington D.C., Formula One's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) announced that the Italian Grand Prix would go ahead as scheduled. Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo said that his team would approach the race as a normal racing event instead of a traditional Ferrari festival. Furthermore, di Montezemolo stated Formula One should continue its normal schedule and not cancel races. Additionally, the Automobile Club d'Italia urged fans and spectators to behave "in keeping with the gravity of the situation and in collective participation in the pain of American citizens." Podium celebrations were also cancelled and all pre-race ceremonies including a flypast by the Italian Tricolour Arrows display team were called off. Three teams altered their car's liveries as a mark of respect. Ferrari stripped their cars of all advertising and painted their nose cones black. Jaguar fitted black engine covers to their R2 cars on Saturday morning, and Jordan sponsor Deutsche Post replaced its branding with the flag of the United States on the Jordan cars engine cover on Sunday morning. Michael Schumacher was reluctant to take part in the race and said in 2002 that he felt it was a "bad sign" to be driving after the 11 September attacks. His brother Ralf Schumacher also felt the event should not have gone ahead.

Williams' Juan Pablo Montoya felt Monza would suit his car's BMW engine, saying: "We should be really quick, but we will have to see what happens. The most important thing, as we have seen in qualifying in Spa, is to get the car right. If we get it right we should be very quick." Michael Schumacher was intent to help his teammate Barrichello finish second in the World Drivers' Championship and revealed that Ferrari technical director Ross Brawn had told him "it doesn't feel much difference this race to the others", adding, "That is because we are still trying to keep winning races and that means the emotions, the pressures and the nervousness is pretty much the same, whether or not we have won the world championship."

There were 11 teams (each representing a different constructor) each fielding two drivers for the Grand Prix with two driver changes. The Minardi team replaced regular driver Tarso Marques with Yoong, who received backing from the Magnum Corporation and was granted a super licence after a two-day test at the Mugello Circuit, becoming Malaysia's first Formula One driver. Marques was kept on as the team's test and reserve driver, and assisted with developing the Minardi PS02. Czech Formula 3000 driver and Prost test driver Tomáš Enge replaced Luciano Burti who had been recovering from a concussion and facial bruising he sustained in an accident at the previous race in Belgium.

Due to the configuration of the Autodromo Nazionale di Monza, with its high average speed, the teams set up their cars to produce the minimum amount of downforce possible. Ferrari installed Carbon Industrie brake discs instead of the normal Brembo brake discs the team had used. Williams introduced a revised FW23 specification for Montoya after one was used by Ralf Schumacher in Belgium. Williams equipped the earlier aerodynamic package on Ralf Schumacher's car on Sunday morning. Benetton brought a new front wing and Ferrari debuted a new engine specification with improved aerodynamics. The Jordan team introduced a new front wing characterised with a single profile instead of the normal two.

## Practice

There were four practice sessions preceding Sunday's race, two one-hour sessions on Friday and two 45-minute sessions on Saturday. Team principals agreed in a meeting the day before the first practice session that it would was moved from the usual start time from 11:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) to 10:50 to comply with a planned silence for one minute observed at midday throughout Europe and continued the rest of the race weekend as scheduled.

Michael Schumacher paced the first practice session in dry weather conditions, at 1:25.524; David Coulthard and Barrichello were second and third. Nick Heidfeld (who crashed his Sauber car into the wall at Variante Ascari with 15 minutes remaining) was fourth. McLaren's Mika Häkkinen and Benetton's Jenson Button were fifth and sixth. Kimi Räikkönen, seventh, hit a barrier at Variante Goodyear chicane with half an hour remaining, removing his front-right wheel and his front wing after losing control of his Sauber car due to a brake lock-up and avoided Yoong's stationary car entering the Curva Grande corner. Räikkönen was uninjured. Ralf Schumacher, Jordan's Jarno Trulli and Arrows' Pedro de la Rosa were in positions seven through ten. Arrows driver Jos Verstappen set no laps after colliding with the tyre barrier at the Curva di Lesmo on his first quick lap after ten minutes.

In the second practice session, where a brief rain shower fell early on, Ralf Schumacher set the day's fastest time after 13 minutes, a 1:24.667; Montoya had the second fastest time despite going off the circuit and having to go through temporary barriers at the first chicane multiple times during the session. Michael Schumacher, De La Rosa. Barrichello, Häkkinen and Coulthard filled the next four positions. Despite not going onto the circuit, Heidfeld was the eighth fastest driver. The Jordan duo of Jean Alesi and Jordan's Heinz-Harald Frentzen (who hit a kerb in his Prost car and went off the circuit at the Variante della Roggia chicane and slid wide of the track and into the gravel) followed in the top ten. Eddie Irvine spun his Jaguar into the gravel at Ascari corner five minutes into the session due to brake problems and his session concluded prematurely.

Montoya recorded the third session's fastest lap of 1:25.558 with fewer than ten minutes remaining in clear weather conditions but on a damp circuit that was created by an thunderstorm on Friday night which meant the track was slow to dry. Most drivers used intermediate tyres to begin the session before a dry line appeared and dry compound tyres were used. Barrichello was 0.336 seconds slower in second. De La Rosa, BAR drivers Villeneuve and Panis, Räikkönen, Irvine, Verstappen, Enrique Bernoldi for Arrows and Heidfeld rounded out the top ten. Benetton's Giancarlo Fisichella, Yoong, Button, Alesi, Michael Schumacher, Coulthard, Häkkinen and Minardi's Fernando Alonso set no laps during the session.

The circuit continued to dry up until it was completely dry for the final practice session where Michael Schumacher set the weekend's new fastest time at 1:23.178, faster than his 2000 pole lap; Barrichello had the quickest lap when circuit conditions improved but fell to fourth in the final ten minutes. The two Ferrari drivers were separated by Montoya and Trulli. Coulthard, Ralf Schumacher, Heidfeld, Häkkinen, De La Rosa and Räikkönen were in positions five to ten. Enge spun at Ascari turn but regained control of his car and resumed driving.

## Qualifying

Saturday afternoon's one hour qualifying session saw each driver was limited to twelve laps, with the starting order decided by the drivers' fastest laps. During this session the 107% rule was in effect, requiring each driver to remain within 107 per cent of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race. The session was held in dry weather conditions, and rises in air and track temperature gave Michelin-shod teams a speed advantage. Montoya clinched his second consecutive pole position and his third of the season with a lap of 1:22.216 set with 13 minutes remaining. Although he was happy with the feel of his car, he did not feel confident of taking pole position. Montoya was joined on the front row by Barrichello who was 0.312 seconds slower and went off into a gravel trap. Michael Schumacher qualified third and made an error on his third run that prevented him from lapping quicker. This was the first race since the 2000 Austrian Grand Prix that Barrichello qualified ahead of Michael Schumacher. Ralf Schumacher in fourth had balance issues which meant his car alternated between understeer and oversteer. He had three clear runs before his fourth was disrupted by a yellow flag. Trulli qualified fifth on the soft Bridgestone tyre compound in a balanced, fast and stable car. Coulthard, sixth, felt his car's balance was good but felt it difficult to push hard and achieve ideal grip. Häkkinen took seventh and ran wide on the kerb at the exit of Curva di Lesmo on his final timed run and heavily damaged his car against the outside barrier with four minutes to go. Häkkinen was unhurt but the crash stopped qualifying for 15 minutes. The two Sauber drivers were eighth and ninth with Heidfeld ahead of Räikkönen on the soft compound Bridgestone tyres; Heidfeld was happy with his position after losing track time on Friday while Räikkönen complained that he had been blocked by Fisichella who was on an out lap.

De La Rosa rounded out the top ten qualifiers and was happy after Jaguar engineer Humphrey Corbett corrected an understeer fault on De La Rosa's car. Button in 11th reported his Benetton was well balanced. Frentzen took 12th and said his qualifying position was more significant than him finishing fourth at the Belgian Grand Prix. Irvine struggled with brake balance which shifted towards the rear of his Jaguar, leaving him 13th. He also was unable to set a faster time after Olivier Panis blocked him by driving to the first corner apex and stopped his car. Fisichella, 14th, drove his Benetton team's spare car because his race car developed a hydraulic failure and had an engine issue in the spare car. BAR drivers Jacques Villeneuve and Panis were 15th and 17th; both drivers reported a lack of aerodynamic grip but fine mechanical grip. The two were separated by Alesi in the slower of the two Jordan cars and described his session as "the worst qualifying session I could imagine on a circuit which love" because he had brake balance and handling issues. Verstappen (who adjusted his tyre pressures) and Bernoldi (who had oversteer) were 18th and 19th for the Arrows team as they focused on setting up their cars. Enge took 20th in his first Formula One qualifying session, experiencing two engine problems that Prost traced to a quality control error from engine supplier Ferrari in both the race car and the spare car tuned for Frentzen. The two Minardi drivers qualified at the rear of the field with Alonso ahead of Yoong; both drivers stopped on their out laps at the first chicane with gearbox actuator failures and both drivers returned to the pit lane to share the spare Minardi car.

### Qualifying classification

## Warm-up

The drivers participated in a 30-minute warm-up session for teams to adjust their cars and setups and experiment with different levels of fuel before determining their strategies at 09:30 local time. It took place in sunny and windy weather conditions. Michael Schumacher led with a lap of 1:26.029, ahead of Coulthard, Montoya, Barrichello, Räikkönen, Trulli, Alesi, Ralf Schumacher, Häkkinen and Villeneuve. The first nine drivers set a lap within eight-tenths of a second of Michael Schumacher's time, indicating a competitive field. After the end of the warm-up but before the race at 11:15 local time, a second minute of silence was organised by the Italian National Olympic Committee prior to the beginning of the Drivers' Parade.

## Race

The race started at 14:00 local time, running for 53 laps over a distance of 306.749 km (190.605 mi). It took place in sunny weather conditions; the air temperature was 19 °C (66 °F) and the track temperature 26 °C (79 °F); forecasts predicted no rainfall throughout the race. During the race's buildup on a flat-bed truck at the pre-race drivers' parade and on the starting grid, Michael Schumacher attempted to organise a pact that would see no overtaking at the first two chicanes. The plan failed, with Villeneuve, Benetton team principal Flavio Briatore and Arrows owner Tom Walkinshaw refusing to accept the pact; Briatore threatened to sack both of his team's drivers if they complied with the pact. Schumacher had been keen to avoid any accidents at the start, due to a combination of the effects of the 11 September 2001 attacks earlier that week; the death of fire marshal Paolo Gislimberti in a pile-up at the beginning of the previous year's race; a major accident in the previous day's ChampCar race in Germany, in which former Formula One driver Alex Zanardi was critically injured, resulting in the amputation of both legs, and multi-car accidents at the beginning of both the Porsche Supercup and International Formula 3000 support races.

Heidfeld lost hydraulic pressure on the grid; he was required to use the spare Sauber monocoque and start from the pit lane. Fisichella did the same because he had a leaking fuel filler in his car. When the race started, Montoya maintained his pole position advantage going into the first corner, with Barrichello in second. Ralf Schumacher passed Michael Schumacher at the Variante Goodyear chicane but Michael challenged Ralf for third at the exit of Variante della Roggia. He got past on the inside into the Curve di Lesmo after Ralf pushed him onto the grass into the turn. Further back, Trulli was hit by Button, who drove too fast on the slippery outside line going into the chicane, and was sent into a spin and became the first retirement of the race. As yellow flags were waved, Button made a pit stop at the end of the lap for a replacement front wing. Irvine moved from 13th to seventh by the end of the first lap, as Häkkinen went through the chicane to avoid making contact with other drivers and fell to thirteenth. Verstappen progressed from nineteenth to eighth. At the end of the first lap, Montoya led by half a second from Barrichello, who in turn was followed by Michael Schumacher, Ralf Schumacher, Coulthard and De La Rosa.

Barrichello and Michael Schumacher started to maintain the gap between themselves and Montoya, and started to pull away from Ralf Schumacher. Bernoldi passed Villeneuve for 11th position on lap two, while Irvine dropped to ninth one lap later after he was overtaken by Verstappen and Räikkönen. He later fell behind Alesi, Bernoldi and Villeneuve on the fourth lap. Button retired from the race when his engine failed and smoke billowed from his car on lap five. Irvine lost a further three positions to Häkkinen, Panis and Frentzen one lap later. Coulthard became the third retirement of the Grand Prix after an engine failure on lap seven, which meant Verstappen inherited fifth and Räikkönen moved into sixth. Montoya had a blister on one of his rear tyres which caused him to slide under braking, and was slow exiting the Variante della Roggia chicane because he out-braked himself into the turn, which allowed Barrichello to take the lead on the entry to the second Lesmo corner on the ninth lap. Barrichello began to pull away from Montoya. Three laps later, Michael Schumacher unsuccessfully attempted to overtake Montoya into the second chicane because Montoya locked his brakes since Montoya overshot his braking point and shortcutted the corner to remain in second. Alesi passed Räikkönen for sixth that same lap while Häkkinen moved into tenth after passing Bernoldi on lap 13.

Irvine retired on lap 14 because he lost horsepower in his car when a cylinder in his engine stopped working. Verstappen fell to seventh after he was passed by Alesi and Räikkönen on lap 16. Yoong, driving with steering affected by Button's front wing hitting his left-front tyre on the first lap, at the back of the field lost control of his car at Curva di Lesmo corner but continued driving; he avoided being hit by Montoya and Michael Schumacher. Michael Schumacher battled for Montoya for third until he became the first of the leading drivers to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 18, and rejoined the track in fourth. The Williams and Ferrari teams were employing different pit stop strategies – the Williams team were planning a one-stop strategy whereas the Ferrari team were planning for two stops because Ferrari were concerned over their brakes overheating. Barrichello (on a lighter fuel load) was able to quickly extend his lead over Montoya to ten seconds by his first pit stop on lap 19. However, Barrichello's pit stop proved problematic: his refuelling rig failed to work after it had been re-programmed and Ferrari mechanics switched to his teammate's refuelling rig, keeping Barrichello stationary for around six to seven seconds longer than planned. Barrichello exited the pit lane in third, ahead of teammate Michael Schumacher.

Häkkinen lost second on lap 19 before retiring at the Rettifilio chicane two laps later after losing all gears. Although he received signals from the pit lane to preserve his brakes, Verstappen retired on the 26th lap with a loss of power. At the front of the field, Ralf Schumacher moved into the race lead when Montoya made his pit stop on lap 28, where his pit crew made an adjustment to his front wing but had excess oversteer at the race's conclusion. Montoya rejoined in third behind Barrichello with a deficit of 5.5 seconds. Frentzen drove onto the grass to retire from ninth with a gearbox failure on lap 30. Villeneuve made a pit stop from sixth on lap 34 and retained the position. Ralf Schumacher set a series of quick laps to open up a gap of 6.1 seconds over Barrichello by his one and only pit stop on lap 35 and rejoined in fourth. De La Rosa was the last one-stop driver to pit on lap 36 from fifth, which he maintained upon rejoining the track. Michael Schumacher made his second pit stop for fuel on lap 40, and dropped to fourth behind Ralf Schumacher. Montoya returned to the lead when Barrichello made a pit stop for fuel on lap 41. Barrichello rejoined in third, right behind Ralf Schumacher.

At the completion of lap 42, with the scheduled pit stops completed, the race order was Montoya, Ralf Schumacher, Barrichello, Michael Schumacher, De La Rosa and Villeneuve. Barrichello lapped faster than Ralf Schumacher and he closed up to the latter. He slipstreamed Schumacher on the start/finish straight into the Retfillo chicane at the beginning of lap 47, and braked later than Schumacher at the end of the straight. Schumacher out-braked himself and drove onto the concrete run-off on the inside of the left-hand part of the Variante Goodyear chicane after attempting to defend his position. He allowed Barrichello past on the inside into the Curva Grande for second because Schumacher was aware that the race stewards would impose a stop-and-go penalty on him for cutting the first chicane. Yoong retired from the event on the following lap after spinning his car into the gravel trap at the first Lesmo corner, and yellow flags were waved. Bernoldi became the race's final retirement when his car developed a crankshaft sensor problem on the same lap.

Barrichello closed the gap between himself and Montoya but was unable to catch up to the Williams driver who crossed the finish line first on lap 53 to clinch his maiden Formula One victory and the first for a Colombian driver. in a time of 1'16:58.393 at an average speed of 239.103 km/h (148.572 mph). Barrichello finished in second position 5.175 seconds seconds behind Montoya and Ralf Schumacher followed in third to complete the podium finishers, ahead of Michael Schumacher in fourth position. De La Rosa was anonymous in achieving his second points result of the season and the first points for the Jaguar team since the with a fifth-place finish and Villeneuve's BAR car completed the points-scorers in sixth. Räikkönen was the final driver on the lead lap in a close seventh position, and Alesi, Panis, Fisichella, Heidfeld, Enge and Alonso were the final classified finishers.

### After the race

Out of respect for those who died in the September 11 attacks, no champagne was sprayed on the podium. In the subsequent press conference, Montoya said he was "so happy" and "pleased" that he achieved his maiden Grand Prix victory. He also said that he was not frustrated on not claiming his first victory in the preceding 14 races as he was not expecting to win during the season. Barrichello said that he felt that Ferrari put on "a good show" despite his slow pit stop from a fuel rig problem on lap 19. He also believed that his two-stop strategy was the right move and described his weekend as "one of my best". When asked if his car was inconsistent during the Grand Prix, Ralf Schumacher said this was not the case and stated although he had problem with his tyres he felt the Williams finish of first and third was "a great achievement".

Alesi attacked Briatore's role in preventing the drivers from abiding by the pact that was to see no overtaking in the first two chicanes and told the Italian and French media that some team principals threatened their drivers if they did not race. Nevertheless, he was relieved that the race passed without any major incident and said the reason why the majority of the drivers supported Michael Schumacher was that he "behaved like a perfect leader". Villeneuve said to British television station ITV that he felt discussing a no overtaking pact at the race circuit was not the appropriate place: "We are race car drivers, Because we signed contracts before the season and everyone was happy to be a race car driver and to earn millions of dollars. Because we knew a year ago that there would be a race at Monza and nobody complained." FIA president Max Mosley stated that he disagreed with the pact and said that the drivers should have raised the concerns in the months leading up to the Grand Prix.

Brawn insisted the reason Ferrari opted for a two-stop strategy was to defeat Williams tactically on the high-speed circuit, adding: "We'd been trounced at Hockenheim, and I didn't really see the point in following a couple of ultra-quick BMWs down the straight." Jean Todt, Ferrari team principal, admitted that the refuelling rig issue at Barrichello's first pit stop possibly lost the driver the opportunity to win the race. De La Rosa said that his fifth-position finish gave his Jaguar team better morale, "The past few races haven't been very good and I am just delighted for everybody in the team. Everything went like clockwork today. The Jaguar R2 felt very well balanced throughout and I didn't suffer from any problems." Button said that he was sorry to have collided with Trulli on the race's opening lap.

The result allowed Michael Schumacher to extend his lead in the Drivers' Championship to 50 points over Coulthard. Barrichello's second-place finish allowed him to narrow the gap to Coulthard to be three points behind. Ralf Schumacher remained in fourth position, while Montoya's victory promoted him to fifth. Ferrari remained in the lead of the Constructors' Championship with an 80-point advantage over McLaren, whose points advantage over Williams had reduced to eight points. Sauber maintained fourth place, while BAR took over fifth position.

### Race classification

Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.

## Championship standings after the race

- Bold text indicates the World Champions.

Drivers' Championship standings

Constructors' Championship standings

- Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.

15th round of the 2001 Formula One season


1971 Atlantic hurricane season

The 1971 Atlantic hurricane season was fairly active with several notable storms. Hurricane Edith, the strongest of the season, was a Category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale, the highest category on the scale, even though it was the least intense for that category on record, at 943 mbar. It struck Nicaragua at peak intensity, killing dozens, and later hit southern Louisiana. Until 2003, Hurricane Ginger held the record for the longest known duration of a North Atlantic tropical cyclone, lasting 27.25 days from early September to early October; it is currently the second longest-lasting Atlantic hurricane. Ginger moved ashore in North Carolina, producing heavy rains and damaging winds. An unnamed storm in August attained hurricane status further north than any other Atlantic hurricane. On 11 September, seven tropical cyclones were active at the same time, the record for the Atlantic basin.

The season officially began on June 1, and lasted until November 30, 1971; these dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. With thirteen tropical storms, of which six became hurricanes, the season was active. Despite the activity, damage in the United States totaled about \$235 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD), which National Hurricane Center forecaster Paul Hebert noted was "pretty small considering we had five storms in a row strike the U.S." Most of the damage came from Tropical Storm Doria, which affected much of the East Coast of the United States. Hurricane Fern struck Texas after executing an unusual track, dropping heavy rainfall and producing flooding. The first storm, Arlene, developed on July 4 off the coast of North Carolina. Activity was steady through most of the season, and the last storm, Laura, dissipated on November 22.

## Systems

### Tropical Storm Arlene

The origins of Arlene were from a cold front that exited the East Coast of the United States on July 2 and stalled offshore. A frontal wave developed the next day, steadily developing due to thermal instability. On July 4, the system organized into a tropical depression about 120 mi (195 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. While in its formative stages, it dropped rainfall along the coast of the Carolinas, peaking at 4.11 in (104 mm) in Pinopolis, South Carolina. The depression tracked northeastward due to a ridge over New England, and the cyclone passed just southeast of the Outer Banks. After a Hurricane Hunters plane observed gale-force winds, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene late on July 5; in the post-season summary, meteorologist Neil Frank noted, "the surprising element in the development of Arlene was the rapidity of the transformation process."

Upon being named, Arlene continued northeastward, possessing a circular mass of convection with spiral rainbands. Late on July 6, the storm attained peak winds of 65 mph (100 km/h), based on a ship report. It weakened thereafter, and Arlene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on July 7 just south of Newfoundland. The cyclone last observed early the following day. The storm capsized a boat in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and the crew of 12 was rescued.

### Hurricane Two

A hybrid-type depression formed east of Bermuda on July 29. It moved rapidly southwestward before turning to a northwest drift. On August 3, it was classified as a tropical depression, and the next day the system passed near Bermuda. The depression accelerated to the northeast, strengthening into a tropical storm on August 5. It intensified further due to baroclinity, or enhanced instability through different levels of the atmosphere caused by temperature and moisture gradients. On August 6, a drilling rig about 230 mi (370 km) southeast of Newfoundland recorded sustained winds of 90 mph (140 km/h) with gusts to 126 mph (204 km/h) at an altitude of 325 ft (99 m); this suggested the storm attained hurricane status at 46° North, which is the northernmost location for a tropical storm to intensify into a hurricane.

Despite the intensity, the cyclone was not purely tropical; although the radius of maximum winds was only 35 mi (56 km), the thermal structure did not resemble a tropical cyclone, and there was no precipitation or convection near the center. It continued northeastward and dissipated on August 7 to the southwest of Greenland. It was not named operationally, but it was later added to the Atlantic hurricane database.

### Hurricane Beth

On August 9, an upper-level low developed off the coast of Florida, and the next day spawned a tropical depression. The newly developed cyclone tracked slowly northeastward, eventually encountering conditions favorable for development. On August 14, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beth off the coast of North Carolina, and it quickly strengthened into a hurricane by August 15. After reaching peak winds of 85 mph (137 km/h) off the coast of Cape Cod, Beth slightly weakened and later moved ashore near Copper Lake, Nova Scotia. Shortly thereafter, Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone.

The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake, especially to crops and infrastructure. Halifax International Airport reported 10.49 in (266 mm) of rainfall in a 30‐hour span, which caused widespread flooding. Several bridges in the region were washed out, while railways were covered by water, forcing trains to suspend their operation. Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated up to \$5.1 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD). One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rainfall.

### Tropical Depression Eight

On August 11, Tropical Depression Eight developed southwest of Fort Myers, Florida. It quickly moved ashore, reaching Lake Okeechobee before looping to the northwest. While moving across the state, it dropped heavy rainfall of around 10 in (250 mm) along the west coast. In Pinellas Park, the heavy rains led to flash flooding that forced 200 families from their house, including one that required evacuation from a helicopter. Damage in the region was estimated at \$250,000 (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD).

The depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 15 near Tampa, and later turned to the northeast ahead of an upper-level low. On August 16, it intensified as it moved ashore near Cedar Key, where hurricane-force wind gusts were briefly observed. The depression dissipated on August 17 over South Carolina, although in that state it produced its heaviest rainfall, totaling 14.11 in (358 mm) in Sullivan's Island. In nearby Savannah, Georgia, the rainfall forced about 100 families from their houses in low-lying areas. The remnants continued northeastward through the Mid-Atlantic States and New England, crossing into Canada on August 20.

### Tropical Storm Chloe

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 13, moving westward for several days before organizing into a tropical depression on August 18 about 460 mi (740 km) east of Barbados. It quickly moved through the Lesser Antilles, where it produced wind gusts up to 58 mph (93 km/h). The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall up to 6 in (150 mm) on Barbados and Martinique. After entering the eastern Caribbean Sea, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chloe on August 20. About 18 hours after attaining tropical storm status, Chloe quickly strengthened to peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) about 215 mi (345 km) south of the Mona Passage, as reported by reconnaissance aircraft.

After reaching peak intensity, Chloe began weakening as it turned to the west-southwest, and late on August 22, it was downgraded to a tropical depression as a weakening ridge to its north cut off the low-level inflow. For several days it continued generally westward, gradually losing organization. While passing south of Jamaica, the storm prompted the evacuation of the SS Hope, a hospital ship, at Kingston. On August 25, Chloe moved ashore in Belize as a weak tropical depression, and dissipated shortly thereafter without ever having caused significant damage or deaths. The remnants of Chloe later spawned Hurricane Lily in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

### Tropical Storm Doria

Tropical Storm Doria, the costliest storm of the season, developed from a tropical wave on August 20 to the east of the Lesser Antilles, and after five days without development attained tropical storm status to the east of Florida. Doria turned to the north, and reached peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) as it was making landfall near Morehead City, North Carolina. It turned to the northeast, and moved through the Mid-Atlantic and New England as a tropical storm before becoming an extratropical storm over Maine on August 29.

In North Carolina, Doria produced moderate rainfall, resulting in localized flooding and damage. The storm spawned a tornado near Norfolk, Virginia, damaging twelve houses and downing hundreds of trees. Tropical Storm Doria dropped heavy precipitation in New Jersey, peaking at 10.29 in (261 mm) in Little Falls. The rainfall led to record-breaking river levels and flooding in several houses, resulting in damage to dozens of houses across the state. Moderate damage and rainfall continued along its path into New England and southeastern Canada. In all, Tropical Storm Doria caused seven deaths and \$147.6 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD).

### Hurricane Fern

Hurricane Fern was the first of four tropical systems to develop in association with an extended surface trough across the Gulf of Mexico into the open Atlantic, along with Ginger, Heidi, and a strong tropical depression. Fern developed on September 3 in the central Gulf of Mexico. It moved over southern Louisiana the next day, but due to increased ridging to the north the depression moved southwestward back over water. On September 7, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fern; it is rare for a tropical depression to move over land in the continental United States (excluding Florida) and later attain tropical storm status. Fern later turned to the northwest, intensifying into a hurricane on September 8. It quickly reached peak winds of 90 mph (140 km/h), but later weakened as it curved to the southwest, moving ashore on September 10 between Freeport and Matagorda, Texas as a tropical storm. Fern dissipated on September 13 over northeastern Mexico.

The precursor of Fern dropped rainfall up to 5 in (130 mm) of rainfall across South Florida, while totals of up to 10 in (250 mm) were reported in southeastern Louisiana where it made its first landfall. As it struck Texas, Fern produced strong winds up to 86 mph (138 km/h), along with 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8 m) storm tides and heavy rainfall; the highest precipitation total was 26.0 in (660 mm) in Beeville. The heavy rainfall caused severe flash flooding that isolated numerous small towns in the southeastern portion of the state, damaging 7,500 buildings. In all, Fern left two indirect deaths and moderate damage totaling \$30.2 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD).

### Hurricane Edith

Hurricane Edith, the strongest storm of the season, developed from a tropical wave on September 5 to the east of the southern Lesser Antilles. It moved quickly across the southern Caribbean Sea, intensifying into a hurricane just off the north coast of South America. Edith rapidly intensified on September 9 and made landfall on Cape Gracias a Dios as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. It quickly lost intensity over Central America and after briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. After moving across the Gulf of Mexico, a trough turned the storm to the northeast and Edith, after having restrengthened while accelerating towards the coast, made landfall on Louisiana with winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) on September 16. Edith steadily weakened over land and dissipated over Georgia on September 18.

The hurricane killed two people when it passed near Aruba. Striking northeastern Central America as a Category 5 hurricane, Edith destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least 35 people. In Texas high tides caused coastal flooding but little damage. Edith caused moderate to heavy damage in portions of Louisiana due to flooding and a tornado outbreak from the storm. One tornado, rated F3 on the Fujita Scale, damaged several homes and injured multiple people in Baton Rouge. The tornado outbreak extended eastward into Florida. Damage in the United States totaled \$25 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD).

### Hurricane Ginger

Hurricane Ginger was thought to be the longest lasting Atlantic hurricane on record until 2003, when the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane was retroactively found to have lasted longer. The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the season, Ginger spent 27.25 days as a tropical cyclone, and lasted from September 6 to October 3. The storm developed in a large region of convection across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic, and for the first nine days of its duration tracked generally east- or northeastward while gradually strengthening to peak winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). On September 14 Ginger slowed and turned to a general westward track, passing near Bermuda on September 23; there, the hurricane produced gusty winds and high waves, but no damage.

While over the western Atlantic Ocean, Ginger became the last target of Project Stormfury, which sought to weaken hurricanes by depositing silver iodide into tropical cyclone rainbands. The plane dropped silver iodide into the center of Ginger, although there was no effect due to Ginger's large eye and diffuse nature; Ginger was the last seeding done by the project. Ginger ultimately struck North Carolina on September 30 as a minimal hurricane, lashing the coastline with gusty winds that caused power outages across the region. Heavy rainfall flooded towns and left heavy crop damage, with 3 million bushels of corn and 1 million bushels of soybean lost. Damage in the state was estimated at \$10 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD). Further north, moderate rainfall and winds spread through the Mid-Atlantic states, although no significant damage was reported outside of North Carolina.

### Tropical Storm Heidi

Tropical Storm Heidi was the last of the four tropical systems to develop from the extended surface trough of low pressure, forming on September 11 northeast of the Bahamas and intensifying into a tropical storm the next day. After initially moving to the northwest, Heidi curved northeastward and attained its peak intensity of 65 mph (100 km/h) on September 14 off the coast of Virginia. The storm failed to become a well-organized system, and it gradually weakened while accelerating north-northeastward. On September 15, shortly after Heidi moved ashore in Maine, it was absorbed by a broad extratropical cyclone over the northern Appalachians.

Heidi did not directly cause any fatalities or severe damage. However, the larger extratropical storm drew in moisture from Heidi, producing rainfall from North Carolina through northern New England, including a peak of 9.38 in (238 mm) in southeastern Pennsylvania. The heavy rains triggered extensive flooding that caused over a dozen fatalities and left thousands of residents homeless in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. In Chester, Pennsylvania a stone dam collapsed, forcing hundreds of families to evacuate and damaging homes, businesses, roads, and bridges. Governor Milton Shapp declared a state of emergency in several Pennsylvania counties following the floods.

### Hurricane Irene

A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on September 11 about 800 mi (1300 km) east of the Windward Islands. The cyclone tracked nearly due westward at a low latitude, passing through the southern Windward Islands and later over northern South America. In the southwest Caribbean Sea, it intensified to a tropical storm and later a hurricane. Irene made landfall on southeastern Nicaragua on September 19, and maintained its circulation as it crossed the low-lying terrain of the country. Restrengthening after reaching the Pacific, Irene was renamed Hurricane Olivia, which ultimately attained peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) before weakening and dissipating over northwestern Mexico.

In the Atlantic, Irene produced moderate rainfall and winds along its path, although impact was greatest in Nicaragua where it moved ashore as a hurricane. A total of 96 homes were destroyed, and 1,200 people were left homeless. The rainfall resulted in widespread flooding, killing three people in Rivas. In neighboring Costa Rica, Hurricane Irene caused more than \$1 million (1971 USD, \$ 2023 USD) in damage to the banana crop. The hurricane was the first actively tracked tropical cyclone that moved into the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic Ocean.

### Tropical Storm Janice

The origins of Janice were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 18. It developed into a tropical depression on September 21 about 1050 mi (1700 km) west-southwest of Cape Verde, which was the easternmost formation of the named storms this season. The next day, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Janice, and quickly reached peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). The storm never became well-organized, with its peak winds located east of the broad center. Despite being in a climatologically favored region for further development, Janice weakened due to increased wind shear from Hurricane Ginger. The circulation became elongated and separated from the convection, and on September 24 the storm weakened to a tropical depression. Later that day Janice dissipated just northeast of the Lesser Antilles as it was absorbed by Ginger. Around that time, it produced rainfall in the northeastern Caribbean, reaching 4 in (100 mm) on Saint Kitts; no damage or fatalities were reported.

### Tropical Storm Kristy

The interaction between a tropical wave and an upper-level trough led to the development of a tropical depression on October 18, about 685 mi (1100 km) northeast of Puerto Rico. It moved quickly north-northeastward, followed by a curve to the northeast. On October 20, a ship reported winds of 45 mph (72 km/h), indicating the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy. As it reached this strength, an approaching cold front produced cooler, drier air over the storm. Kristy intensified slightly further to peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) before becoming indistinguishable from the cold front. By October 21 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating near the Azores.

### Tropical Storm Laura

The final storm of the season, Laura, formed on November 12 in the western Caribbean Sea, and reached winds of 70 mph (120 km/h) as it approached western Cuba. Across the island, the storm produced heavy rainfall, peaking at 32.5 in (830 mm). The resulting flooding killed one person and caused crop damage, and also forced 26,000 people to evacuate their homes. Initially, Laura was forecast to move across the island and impact the southern United States, but it executed a small loop and turned to the southwest. The storm moved ashore on Belize, one of only four November storms to affect the country. Little impact occurred during Laura's final landfall, and it dissipated on November 22 over central Guatemala.

### Other systems

In addition to the named storms and otherwise notable cyclones, there were several weak depressions during the season. After a June devoid of activity, three tropical depressions developed within the first ten days of July. The first became Tropical Storm Arlene on July 4, and the second formed off the coast of Louisiana on July 6. Tropical Depression Two moved westward due to a ridge to its northeast, and it struck just west of the Texas/Louisiana border before dissipating on July 8. Its precursor dropped 3.90 in (99 mm) near Carrabelle, Florida, but much less along its path. Just two days later, another tropical depression formed in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, quickly moving ashore in southern Texas before dissipating on July 11; it dropped light rainfall along its path.

In August, there were two tropical depressions, in addition to the named storms and the notable Tropical Depression Eight. The first, Tropical Depression Five, developed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 6. It made landfall in Louisiana three days later, eventually dissipating over Mississippi. The other, designated Tropical Depression Eleven, formed over the Bahamas on August 28. It moved westward, crossing Florida and the Gulf of Mexico before dissipating over southeastern Louisiana on September 1. The depression dropped moderate rainfall along the Gulf Coast, peaking at 6.82 in (173 mm) at Gulf Shores, Alabama.

There were three non-developing tropical depressions in September, the first of which just off the coast of Africa on September 3. It moved west-northwestward, passing near Cape Verde before dissipating on September 8. The next, Tropical Depression Eighteen, originated on September 8 east of Florida from the same trough that also spawned Fern, Ginger, and Heidi. It initially moved northward before curving to the west, making landfall near the Georgia/South Carolina border on September 11 before dissipating the following day. The other, Tropical Depression Nineteen, developed off the coast of Africa on September 10, moving westward before dissipating on September 14.

The final non-developing tropical depression of the season formed on October 6 in the western Caribbean Sea. It crossed the Yucatán Peninsula the next day, dropping heavy rainfall up to 9.09 in (231 mm). The depression turned to the northeast due to an approaching upper-level trough, and it transitioned into a frontal wave on October 10. As the trough advanced ahead of the storm, a ridge built across the southeast United States, causing the cyclone to turn northward and parallel the west coast of Florida. It regained tropical characteristics before moving ashore near Apalachicola and dissipating on October 14.

## Storm names

The following names were used for named storms (tropical storms and hurricanes) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1971. Names that were not assigned are marked in . Storms were named Beth, Kristy and Laura for the first time in 1971.

## Season effects

This is a table of the storms in 1971 and their landfall(s), if any. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but are still storm-related. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low.

\|- \| Arlene \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 998 hPa (29.47 inHg) \|\| The Carolinas, Newfoundland \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Two \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Texas, Louisiana \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Three \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Texas \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Unnamed \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 974 hPa (28.76 inHg) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Five \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Louisiana \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Beth \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 977 hPa (28.85 inHg) \|\| Bahamas, Florida, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland \|\| \|\| 0 (1) \|\| \|- \| Eight \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 1006 hPa (29.71 inHg) \|\| Southeastern United States \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Chloe \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 1004 hPa (29.65 inHg) \|\| Leeward Islands, Belize \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Doria \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 989 hPa (29.21 inHg) \|\| East Coast of the United States, Canada \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Eleven \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Texas \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Sixteen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Fern \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 979 hPa (28.91 inHg) \|\| Louisiana, Texas, northern Mexico \|\| \|\| 0 (2) \|\| \|- \| Edith \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 943 hPa (27.85 inHg) \|\| Lesser Antilles, northern Venezuela, northern Mexico, Southern United States \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Ginger \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 959 hPa (28.32 inHg) \|\| The Bahamas, North Carolina \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Eighteen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Georgia, South Carolina \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Nineteen \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Heidi \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 996 hPa (29.41 inHg) \|\| Northeastern United States \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Irene \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 989 hPa (29.21 inHg) \|\| Windward Islands, northern Venezuela, Central America \|\| \> \|\| \|\| \|- \| Janice \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 1005 hPa (29.68 inHg) \|\| northern Leeward Islands \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Twenty-Two \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| Unknown \|\| Yucatán Peninsula, Florida \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Kristy \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 992 hPa (29.29 inHg) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Laura\|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| \|\| 994 hPa (29.35 inHg) \|\| Cayman Islands, Cuba, Central America \|\| \|\| \|\| \|-

## See also

- 1971 Pacific hurricane season
- 1971 Pacific typhoon season
- 1971 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- Australian region cyclone seasons: 1970–71 1971–72
- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1970–71 1971–72
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1970–71 1971–72

Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean

Articles which contain graphical timelines