Debian

Debian (/ˈdɛbiən/), also known as Debian GNU/Linux, is a Linux distribution composed of free and open-source software, developed by the community-supported Debian Project, which was established by Ian Murdock on August 16, 1993. The first version of Debian (0.01) was released on September 15, 1993, and its first stable version (1.1) was released on June 17, 1996. The Debian Stable branch is the most popular edition for personal computers and servers. Debian is also the basis for many other distributions, most notably Ubuntu.

Debian is one of the oldest operating systems based on the Linux kernel, and is currently the second oldest Linux distribution still in active development, only behind Slackware. The project is coordinated over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents: the Debian Social Contract, the Debian Constitution, and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. New distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time-based freeze.

Since its founding, Debian has been developed openly and distributed freely according to the principles of the GNU Project. Because of this, the Free Software Foundation sponsored the project from November 1994 to November 1995. When the sponsorship ended, the Debian Project formed the nonprofit organization Software in the Public Interest to continue financially supporting development.

## History

### Debian version history

Debian distribution codenames are based on the names of characters from the Toy Story films. Debian's unstable trunk is named after Sid, a character who regularly destroyed his toys.

### Founding (1993–1998)

First announced on August 16, 1993, Debian was founded by Ian Murdock, who initially called the system "the Debian Linux Release". The word "Debian" was formed as a portmanteau of the first name of his then-girlfriend (later ex-wife) Debra Lynn and his own first name. Before Debian's release, the Softlanding Linux System (SLS) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware. The perceived poor maintenance and prevalence of bugs in SLS motivated Murdock to launch a new distribution.

Debian 0.01, released on September 15, 1993, was the first of several internal releases. Version 0.90 was the first public release, providing support through mailing lists hosted at Pixar. The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto, outlining Murdock's view for the new operating system. In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained "openly in the spirit of Linux and GNU."

The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year. Ian Murdock delegated the base system, the core packages of Debian, to Bruce Perens and Murdock focused on the management of the growing project. The first ports to non-IA-32 architectures began in 1995, and Debian 1.1 was released in 1996. By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson, the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian.

In 1996, Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership. Perens was a controversial leader, regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian. He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month-long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate, Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF. He led the conversion of the project from a.out to ELF. He created the BusyBox program to make it possible to run a Debian installer on a single floppy disk, and wrote a new installer. By the time Debian 1.2 was released, the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers. Perens left the project in 1998.

Ian Jackson became the leader in 1998. Debian 2.0 introduced the second official port, m68k. During this time the first port to a non-Linux kernel, Debian GNU/Hurd, was started. On December 2, the first Debian Constitution was ratified.

### Leader election (1999–2005)

From 1999, the project leader was elected yearly. The Advanced Packaging Tool was deployed with Debian 2.1. The number of applicants was overwhelming and the project established the new member process. The first Debian derivatives, namely Libranet, Corel Linux and Stormix's Storm Linux, were started in 1999. The 2.2 release in 2000 was dedicated to Joel Klecker, a developer who died of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

In late 2000, the project reorganized the archive with new package "pools" and created the Testing distribution, made up of packages considered stable, to reduce the freeze for the next release. In the same year, developers began holding an annual conference called DebConf with talks and workshops for developers and technical users. In May 2001, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian.

In July 2002, the project released version 3.0, code-named Woody, the first release to include cryptographic software, a free licensed KDE and internationalization. During these last release cycles, the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases.

Some events disturbed the project while working on Sarge, as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers. One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus. After a meeting held in Vancouver, release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles. There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian's aim to be "the universal operating system".

The first version of the Debian-based Ubuntu, named "4.10 Warty Warthog", was released on October 20, 2004. Because it was distributed as a free download, it became one of the most popular and successful operating systems with more than "40 million users" according to Canonical Ltd. However, Murdock was critical of the differences between Ubuntu packages and Debian, stating that it leads to incompatibilities.

### Sarge and later releases (2005–present)

The 3.1 Sarge release was made in June 2005. This release updated 73% of the software and included over 9,000 new packages. A new installer with a modular design, Debian-Installer, allowed installations with RAID, XFS and LVM support, improved hardware detection, made installations easier for novice users, and was translated into almost forty languages. An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively. The efforts of Skolelinux, Debian-Med and Debian-Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational, had a medical affiliation, and ones made for people with disabilities.

In 2006, as a result of a much-publicized dispute, Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian, with Firefox forked as Iceweasel and Thunderbird as Icedove. The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark. Two reasons that Debian modifies the Firefox software are to change the non-free artwork and to provide security patches. In February 2016, it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached an agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox; similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove/Thunderbird.

A fund-raising experiment, Dunc-Tank, was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full-time; in response, unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed.
Debian 4.0 (Etch) was released in April 2007, featuring the x86-64 port and a graphical installer.
Debian 5.0 (Lenny) was released in February 2009, supporting Marvell's Orion platform and netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC. The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer, a developer who died in a car crash.

In July 2009, the policy of time-based development freezes on a two-year cycle was announced. Time-based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian's policy of feature based releases, and to reduce overall freeze time. The Squeeze cycle was going to be especially short; however, this initial schedule was abandoned. In September 2010, the backports service became official, providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release.

Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) was released in February 2011, featuring Debian GNU/kFreeBSD as a technology preview, along with adding a dependency-based boot system, and moving problematic firmware to the non-free section.
Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) was released in May 2013, featuring multiarch support.
Debian 8.0 (Jessie) was released in April 2015, using systemd as the new init system.
Debian 9.0 (Stretch) was released in June 2017, with nftables as a replacement for iptables, support for Flatpak apps, and MariaDB as the replacement for MySQL.
Debian 10.0 (Buster) was released in July 2019, adding support for Secure Boot and enabling AppArmor by default.
Debian 11.0 (Bullseye) was released in August 2021, enabling persistency in the system journal, adding support for driverless scanning, and containing kernel-level support for exFAT filesystems.
Debian 12.0 (Bookworm) was released on June 10, 2023, including various improvements and features, increasing the supported Linux Kernel to version 6.1, and leveraging new "Emerald" artwork.
Debian is still in development and new packages are uploaded to unstable every day.

Debian used to be released as a very large set of CDs for each architecture, but with the release of Debian 9 (Stretch) in 2017, many of the images have been dropped from the archive but remain buildable via jigdo.

Throughout Debian's lifetime, both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations, including Server Distribution of the Year 2011, The best Linux distro of 2011, and a Best of the Net award for October 1998.

On December 2, 2015, Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU/Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform. Microsoft has also added a user environment to their Windows 10 desktop operating system called Windows Subsystem for Linux that offers a Debian subset.

## Features

Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 51,000 packages. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded and installed from the Debian repositories. Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. Debian is a popular choice for servers, for example as the operating system component of a LAMP stack.

### Kernels

Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the i386 port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs, and for x86-64 PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware lacking source code, although such firmware is available in non-free packages and alternative installation media.

### Desktop environments

Debian offers CD and DVD images specifically built for Xfce, GNOME, KDE, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, and LXQt. MATE support was added in 2014, and Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker and others are available.

The default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8.0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, and back to GNOME in September 2014.

### Localization

Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English, including package descriptions, configuration messages, documentation and the website. The level of software localization depends on the language, ranging from the highly supported German and French to the barely translated Creek and Samoan. The Debian 10 installer is available in 76 languages.

### Multimedia support

Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements, lacking source code, or under too restrictive licenses. Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non-free area, software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian .

A notable third party repository exists, formerly named Debian-multimedia.org, providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs, libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player. Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat, a Debian developer, it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server. The repository provides packages already included in Debian, interfering with the official maintenance. Eventually, project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the "Debian" name. Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb-multimedia.org. The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project.

## Distribution

Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical discs can also be bought from retailers. The full sets are made up of several discs (the amd64 port consists of 13 DVDs or 84 CDs), but only the first disc is required for installation, as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories.

Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet. Another option is to boot the installer from the network.

The default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with distros (e.g., Fedora Linux), where grub version 2 is named grub2.

The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Plasma, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs.

Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments. These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer. A full install of Debian to the computer's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment. Personalized images can be built with the live-build tool for discs, USB drives and for network booting purposes. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive (Live USB).

## Packages

Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian, from the lowest level command `dpkg` to graphical front-ends like Synaptic. The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the `apt` toolset.

dpkg provides the low-level infrastructure for package management. The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system. The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories. The command can work with local .deb package files, and information from the dpkg database.

### APT tools

An Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) allows administering an installed Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories. APT tools share dependency information and cached packages.

- The `apt` command itself is intended as an end user interface and enables some options better suited for interactive usage by default compared to more specialized APT like apt-get and apt-cache explained below.
- `apt-get` and `apt-cache` are command tools of the standard apt package. apt-get installs and removes packages, and apt-cache is used for searching packages and displaying package information.
- Aptitude is a command line tool that also offers a text-based user interface. The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata.

### GDebi and other front-ends

GDebi is an APT tool which can be used in command-line and on the GUI. GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command, but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies. Other graphical front-ends for APT include Software Center, Synaptic and Apper.

GNOME Software is a graphical front-end for PackageKit, which itself can work on top of various software packaging systems.

### Repositories

The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) define the distinctive meaning of the word "free" as in "free and open-source software". Packages that comply with these guidelines, usually under the GNU General Public License, Modified BSD License or Artistic License, are included inside the main area; otherwise, they are included inside the non-free and contrib areas. These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually.

Non-free includes packages that do not comply with the DFSG, such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software, and legally questionable packages. Contrib includes packages which do comply with the DFSG but fail other requirements. For example, they may depend on packages which are in non-free or requires such for building them.

Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have criticized the Debian project for hosting the non-free repository and because the contrib and non-free areas are easily accessible, an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman. The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non-free section has persisted, but the last time it came to a vote in 2004, the majority decided to keep it.

### Cross-distribution package manager

The most popular optional Linux cross-distribution package manager are graphical (front-ends) package managers. They are available within the official Debian Repository but are not installed by default. They are widely popular with both Debian users and Debian software developers who are interested in installing the most recent versions of application or using the cross-distribution package manager built-in sandbox environment. While at the same time remaining in control of the security.

Four most popular cross-distribution package managers, sorted in alphabetical order:

- AppImage Linux distribution-agnostic binary software deployment
- Flatpak software code is owned and maintained by the not for profit Flatpak Team, with an open source LGPL-2.1-only license.
- Homebrew software code is owned and maintained by its original author Max Howell, with an open source BSD 2-Clause License.
- Snap software code is owned and maintained by the for profit Canonical Group Limited, with an open source GNU General Public License, version 3.0.

## Branches

Three branches of Debian (also called releases, distributions or suites) are regularly maintained:

- Stable is the current release and targets stable and well-tested software needs. Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed; then the resulting system is released as stable. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. This branch has an optional backports service that provides more recent versions of some software. Stable's CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website.
- Testing is the preview branch that will eventually become the next major release. The packages included in this branch have had some testing in unstable but they may not be fit for release yet. It contains newer packages than stable but older than unstable. This branch is updated continually until it is frozen. Testing's CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian website.
- Unstable, always codenamed sid, is the trunk. Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole. This branch is usually run by software developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available, and by those who prefer bleeding-edge software. Debian does not provide full Sid installation discs, but rather a minimal ISO that can be used to install over a network connection. Additionally, this branch can be installed through a system upgrade from stable or testing.

Other branches in Debian:

- Oldstable is the prior stable release. It is supported by the Debian Security Team until one year after a new stable is released, and since the release of Debian 6, for another 2 years through the Long Term Support project. Eventually, oldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases. Debian 11 is the current Oldstable release (since 2023-06-10).
- Oldoldstable is the prior oldstable release. It is supported by the Long Term Support community. Eventually, oldoldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases. Debian 10 is the current Oldoldstable release (since 2023-06-10).
- Experimental is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system. It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in unstable, where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded.

The snapshot archive provides older versions of the branches. They may be used to install a specific older version of some software.

### Numbering scheme

Stable and oldstable get minor updates, called point releases; as of August 2021, the stable release is version 11.7, released on , and the oldstable release is version 10.10.

The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter r (for revision) after the main version number and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs.

From Debian 5.0, the numbering scheme of point releases was changed, conforming to the GNU version numbering standard; the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update, which was version 7.1. The r scheme is no longer in use, but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs.

### Derivatives and flavors

Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions, and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase. As of 2021, DistroWatch lists 121 active Debian derivatives. The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian.

Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out-of-the-box for users with particular skills and interests. For example, Debian Jr. is made for children, while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists. The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends. "Debian Blend" (without "Pure") is a term for a Debian-based distribution that strives to become part of mainstream Debian, and have its extra features included in future releases.

Debian GNU/kFreeBSD is a discontinued Debian flavor. It used the FreeBSD kernel and GNU userland. The majority of software in Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was built from the same sources as Debian, with some kernel packages from FreeBSD. The k in kFreeBSD is an abbreviation for kernel, which refers to the FreeBSD kernel. Before discontinuing the project, Debian maintained i386 and amd64 ports. The last version of Debian kFreeBSD was Debian 8 (Jessie) RC3. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was created in 2002. It was included in Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) as a technology preview, and in Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) as an official port. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was discontinued as an officially supported platform as of Debian 8.0. Debian developers cited OSS, pf, jails, NDIS, and ZFS as reasons for being interested in the FreeBSD kernel. It has not been updated since Debian 8. As of July 2019, however, the operating system continues to be maintained unofficially.

Debian GNU/Hurd is a flavor based on the Hurd microkernel, instead of Linux. Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development since 1998, and made a formal release in May 2013, with 78% of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux ported to the GNU Hurd. Hurd is not yet an official Debian release, and is maintained and developed as an unofficial port. Debian GNU/Hurd is distributed as an installer CD (running the official Debian installer) or ready-to-run virtual disk image (Live CD, Live USB). The CD uses the IA-32 architecture, making it compatible with IA-32 and x86-64 PCs. The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is 2023, published in June 2023.

## Mobian

Mobian is project to add support to standard Debian Linux distribution with mainline Linux kernel on smartphones and tablets. The project was announced 2020. It is maintained by two teams, Mobian, and DebianOnMobile. DebianOnMobile maintains upstreamed parts. Project is publishing install images for PinePhone, PineTab, Librem 5 and for Android devices, with mainline kernel support, OnePlus 6/6T and Pocophone F1.

### Software stack

As software stack Mobian uses the Phosh (Phone shell) graphical system developed by Purism, which is based on GTK. It aims to integrate Phosh with Debian, to the extent that the need for Mobian's customizations will be minimized. While all Debian apps can be installed on a mobile running Mobian, some will not work usably on the small-form-factor screen. There is a set of apps that have been adapted to work on a small touch screen, and which provide basic functionality. Many are GNOME-based. The project maintains a list of apps that work well on its wiki.

Initially Mobian based on Debian stable, in August 2021 Mobian switched to being based on the Debian testing distribution.

### Supported hardware

Initially Mobian was developed for Librem 5 and Pinephone which were designed to support Linux. In May 2020, Pine64 announced availability of Mobian for PinePhone. On the 18th of January 2021, the Mobian "Community Edition" Pinephone was released, an edition selling with Mobian pre-installed, and donating \$10 US of the phone purchase cost to the Mobian developers. In September 2020, Mobian announced support for the PineTab, a tablet. Pinephone Pro is an unsupported work-in-progress.

Android devices OnePlus 6/6T and Pocophone F1, with working mainline kernel, are formally supported. Project Droidian uses Mobian on top of Android kernel and Libhybris adaptation layer and works with devices which are supported by UBports.

Juno computer released a x86-based tablet with Mobian preinstalled to preorder in October 2022.

### Reception

In June 2020, writing for Fossbytes, Sarvottam Kumar wrote about how Mobian aims to bring Debian 11 Bullseye to mobile ARM64 devices by creating custom images for installation. Linuxnews said it had a broad variety of apps, but the battery life on a Pinephone, at 4–6 hours, was still too low.

As of June 2020, Mobian is waitlisted for DistroWatch coverage.

In July 2020, Jean-Luc Aufranc in CNX Software article called it "a work in progress" he said it was "interesting" that it uses Purism's Phosh interface, and while it includes many apps, several functions were broken or unreliable. Marius Nestor of 9to5Linux wrote about availability of Mobian as an alternative to PostmarketOS on PinePhone. He said there were many apps available, but also many were not optimized for mobile devices.

In October 2020, Linuxnews described Mobian as better than Ubuntu Touch but not as up-to-date as Arch on the Pinetab.

In January 2021, Pine64 announced sales of PinePhones with "Mobian Community Edition" installed. Niklas Dierking wrote in heise.de about Pine64's announcement of availability of PinePhones with Mobian in two different hardware configurations, based on Pine64's announcement.

In January 2021 Matteo Gatti of Linux Freedom wrote a detailed review of Pinephone with Mobian OS.

In August 2021, Jean-Luc Aufranc of CNX Software recommended Mobian as "most stable OS" for using PinePhone as a hotspot, in a detailed review of software and hardware.

In September 2021, in a detailed review of PinePhone for Hackaday, Bryan Cockfield wrote about experimenting with, and switching to Mobian, or "mobile Debian". He called the ability to SSH into it like any other computer and install software with apt "excellent features" which "worked surprisingly well" for the Kodi media player.

As of March 2023, Droidian, a mobile operating system based on Mobian, is waitlisted for DistroWatch coverage.

## Branding

The Debian "swirl" logo was designed by Raul Silva in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used. The winner of the contest received an @Debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice. Initially, the swirl was magic smoke arising from an also included bottle of an Arabian-style genie presented in black profile, but shortly after was reduced to the red smoke swirl for situations where space or multiple colours were not an option, and before long the bottle version effectively was superseded. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke ( or the genie ) that made computers work.

One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin. Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one. Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters. The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on Toy Story 2 (1999).

## Hardware

Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets. Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components:

The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table. It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition. The installer for z/Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM, but relies on network hardware. Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed. As of May 2019, no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily.

It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems, but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment.

### Architectures

As of the upcoming Trixie release, the official ports are:

- amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software
- arm64: ARMv8-A architecture
- armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster
- armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit
- i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines
- mips64el: Little-endian 64-bit MIPS
- mipsel: Little-endian 32-bit MIPS
- ppc64el: Little-endian PowerPC architecture supporting POWER7+ and POWER8 CPUs
- riscv64: 64-bit RISC-V this RISC-V - Debian Wiki official Debian page collect many useful info, links and report for tested hardware
- s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390

Unofficial ports are available as part of the unstable distribution:

- alpha: DEC Alpha architecture
- hppa: HP PA-RISC architecture
- hurd-i386: GNU Hurd kernel on IA-32 architecture
- ia64: Intel Itanium
- loong64: LoongArch
- m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems
- powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC
- ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX
- sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture
- sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland
- x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64

Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0. Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations.

Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip (SoC) are supported too, such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products. There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches. Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems.

There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points. Debian is known to run on set-top boxes. Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions. Debian may be customized to run on cash machines.

BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash.

Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux.

## Organization

Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes. As a result, a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems. The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents:

- The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs.
- The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for "free software" and thus what software is permissible in the distribution. These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition. Although this document can be considered separate, it formally is part of the Social Contract.
- The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader, the Secretary and other roles.

Debian developers are organized in a web of trust. There are at present about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer.

The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users. Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help.

Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader. The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest, the owner of the Debian trademark, manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects.

A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions. The voting method is based on the Schulze method (Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping).

Project leadership is distributed occasionally. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader. Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself.

One important role in Debian's leadership is that of a release manager. The release team sets goals for the next release, supervises the processes and decides when to release. The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers. Release assistants were introduced in 2003.

### Developers

The Debian Project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers. These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's principles, and technical competence. This process has become much harder throughout the years.

Debian developers join the project for many reasons. Some that have been cited include:

- Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian
- To improve the support for their favorite technology
- They are involved with a Debian derivative
- A desire to contribute back to the free-software community
- To make their Debian maintenance work easier

Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or, when deemed necessary, they can be expelled. Those who follow the retiring protocol are granted the "emeritus" status and they may regain their membership through a shortened new member process.

## Development

Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non-developer maintainers. The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases, and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian. Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non-Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised.

The maintainer releases a new version by uploading the package to the "incoming" system, which verifies the integrity of the packages and their digital signatures. If the package is found to be valid, it is installed in the package archive into an area called the "pool" and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide. The upload must be signed using OpenPGP-compatible software. All Debian developers have individual cryptographic key pairs. Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor.

Initially, an accepted package is only available in the unstable branch. For a package to become a candidate for the next release, it must migrate to the Testing branch by meeting the following:

- It has been in unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes.
- It does not have "release-critical" bugs, except for the ones already present in Testing. Release-critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release.
- There are no outdated versions in unstable for any release ports.
- The migration does not break any packages in Testing.
- Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time.
- The migration is not blocked by a freeze.

Thus, a release-critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing, because the updated library must meet the requirements too. From the branch viewpoint, the migration process happens twice per day, rendering Testing in perpetual beta.

Periodically, the release team publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release. A new release occurs after a freeze, when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the Testing branch and any other significant issues are solved. At that time, all packages in the testing branch become the new stable branch. Although freeze dates are time-based, release dates are not, which are announced by the release managers a couple of weeks beforehand.

A version of a package can belong to more than one branch, usually testing and unstable. It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of oldstable, stable, testing and unstable at the same time. Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package "pool" mentioned above.

One way to resolve the challenge of a release-critical bug in a new application version is the use of optional package managers. They allow software developers to use sandbox environments, while at the same time remaining in control of security. Another benefit of a cross-distribution package manager is that they allow application developers to directly provide updates to users without going through distributions, and without having to package and test the application separately for each distribution.

### Release cycle

A new stable branch of Debian gets released approximately every 2 years. It will receive official support for about 3 years with update for major security or usability fixes. Point releases will be available every several months as determined by Stable Release Managers (SRM).

Debian also launched its Long Term Support (LTS) project since Debian 6 (Debian Squeeze). For each Debian release, it will receive two years of extra security updates provided by LTS Team after its End Of Life (EOL). However, no point releases will be made. Now each Debian release can receive 5 years of security support in total.

### Security

The Debian project handles security through public disclosure. Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs; Steve Kemp, who started the project, retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014.

The stable branch is supported by the Debian security team; oldstable is supported for one year. Although Squeeze is not officially supported, Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long-term support (LTS) until February 2016, five years after the initial release, but only for the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms. Testing is supported by the testing security team, but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as stable. Unstable's security is left for the package maintainers.

The Debian project offers documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically. AppArmor support is available and enabled by default since Buster. Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper, and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection, unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD, but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags.

In May 2008, a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack, since only 32,767 different keys were generated. The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings. The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates.

### Value

The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5.0 Lenny (323 million lines of code) has been estimated to be about US\$8 billion, using one method based on the COCOMO model. As of 2016, Black Duck Open Hub estimates that the current codebase (74 million lines of code) would cost about US\$1.4 billion to develop, using a different method based on the same model.

## Forks and derivatives

A large number of forks and derivatives have been built upon Debian over the years. Among the more notable are Ubuntu, developed by Canonical Ltd. and first released in 2004, which has surpassed Debian in popularity with desktop users; Knoppix, first released in the year 2000 and one of the first distributions optimized to boot from external storage; and Devuan, which gained attention in 2014 when it forked in disagreement over Debian's adoption of the systemd software suite, and has been mirroring Debian releases since 2017.

## See also

- Armbian
- CalyxOS
- Comparison of Linux distributions
- Comparison of mobile operating systems
- Debian version history
- List of Debian project leaders
- List of open source mobile phones
- PureOS
- Ubuntu Touch

Linux distribution based on free and open-source software

Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media


The House of Flowers (season 2)

The second season of The House of Flowers, a Mexican black comedy-drama television series about the privileged de la Mora family and their titular floristry shop, was released to Netflix in its entirety on October 18, 2019. The character Paulina de la Mora, played by Cecilia Suárez, becomes the main character. The season picks up a year after the end of the first season, and starts with Paulina learning of a challenge to her now-deceased mother Virginia's will and moving back to Mexico from Madrid. Paulina becomes overwhelmed trying to helm her family with different adversities along the way, while being mainly driven by revenge and unhappiness. The season had four directors, with the majority of episodes directed by show creator Manolo Caro, and written by Caro, Mara Vargas, Gabriel Nuncio, Hipatia Argüero Mendoza, and Alexandro Aldrete.

Filming began in Spain in February 2019, with the second and third seasons being produced together. Critical response to the season was not as good as the first season, but it still had various nominations at the Spanish Actors Union Awards and Platino Awards.

## Synopsis

Eight months before the outset of season 2, shortly after the events of season 1, Virginia dies. After her funeral, the children part ways – Paulina moves to Madrid to be with her ex-spouse, now-girlfriend María José; Elena becomes a successful architect; and Micaéla and Julián live at home. Ernesto, overcome by grief, joins a Scientology-esque scam cult. A challenge to Virginia's long-awaited will brings the siblings back together, Paulina returning from Spain to take care of business.

Paulina decides that she must honor her mother, support her siblings, and get revenge on Diego; to do all three, she has to re-purchase the florists from the Chiquis. She re-opens the cabaret, which Diego – reappearing in the family's life because he has been trying to reconnect with Julián – fronts the money for, so he can win back the de la Mora's family trust. Julián has had a child with his ex, Lucía, but Diego pays these bills, too. Paulina makes a sketchy deal with Julián's escort agency for the cabaret, but pins the deal to Diego in case it goes awry. She also meets a mysterious Catalan man called Alejo, who says he was a friend to her mother while both were receiving cancer treatment; though she tries to be suspicious, she ends up getting closer to him.

Meanwhile, Julián tries to find a proper job and reignites his relationship with Diego, but also works a rentboy hustle in secret. Ernesto rises the ranks in his cult, who impede on the family's life after their leader relocates her followers to their home. Micaéla, feeling alone with minimal parental guidance, has taken up magic tricks and enters the TV competition Talento México, taking Bruno as her guardian. When she gets through the rounds, Bruno asks his friend Moisés to join them and transform her into a singer; Bruno has also become enamored with a pretty teenage contestant.

Elena is trying to manage her position as a senior architect while being increasingly distracted by men, and realizes she has a relationship addiction. She begins attending a sex addicts' group therapy at a hair salon but starts a sexual relationship with someone there until discovering he is a priest. María José, after traveling to Mexico, finds happiness supporting the trans women and drag queens at the cabaret, who Paulina has been ignoring to work on her schemes. Their relationship fractures, and María José breaks up with Paulina and returns to Spain, being hounded by her overbearing sister. Paulina tries to call María José as she accepts Diego's innocence and loyalty to her family, handing herself in to the police for the soliciting at the cabaret.

## Cast

### Main

- Cecilia Suárez as Paulina de la Mora, the neurotic eldest child who is constantly handling her family's problems and knows everyone's secrets
- Aislinn Derbez as Elena de la Mora, the ambitious middle child who has taken a high-level architect job while bouncing between poorly-chosen boyfriends
- Darío Yazbek Bernal as Julián de la Mora, the youngest child who has apparently fathered a child by ex Lucía, whom he tries to raise with fiancé Diego
- Paco León as María José Riquelme, Paulina's ex and the family's lawyer, a Spanish trans woman who cares a lot about her family
- Juan Pablo Medina as Diego Olvera, Julián's boyfriend, a consummate professional who buys the cabaret for Paulina, though she despises him
- Luis de la Rosa as Bruno Riquelme de la Mora, Paulina and María José's troublemaker teenage son who still tries to be a role model for Micaéla
- Arturo Ríos as Ernesto de la Mora, father of the de la Moras, a soft man who has been conned into giving his money and autonomy to a cult leader
- Verónica Langer as Carmela "Carmelita" Villalobos, a nosy but kind neighbor of the family
- Lucas Velázquez [es] as Claudio Navarro, the son of Ernesto's mistress, a calm man who starts dating La Chiquis but prioritizes his half-sister, Micaéla
- Norma Angélica [es] as Delia, the family's maid who keeps a nose in their business but adores Elena and is her confidante
- David Ostrosky as Dr. Salomón Cohen, the family psychiatrist and close friend who works with a sock puppet called Chuy
- Alexa de Landa as Micaéla Sánchez, the young daughter of Ernesto who enters a TV talent show performing magic and singing
- Sheryl Rubio as Lucía Dávila, a social climber and Julián's ex-girlfriend
- Natasha Dupeyrón as Ana Paula "La Chiquis" Corcuera, a blind young florist to whom Virginia sold 'La Casa de las Flores', she dates Claudio and employs Elena, but makes it hard for the family to buy back their shop
- Paco Rueda as Agustín "El Chiquis" Corcuera Jr., the smarmy brother of La Chiquis, who assists her
- Eduardo Rosa as Alejo Salvat, a charming Catalan man who seduces Paulina, but was in fact Virginia's lover in Houston who challenged the will
- Loreto Peralta [es] as Rosita, a sweet teenage TV talent show contestant with whom Bruno is infatuated
- Mariana Treviño as Jenny Quetzal, the ruthless cult leader
- Flavio Medina as Simón, a sex-addicted priest who dates Elena
- Anabel Ferreira as Celeste, a hair stylist and the convener of Elena's sex therapy group

### Recurring

- Claudette Maillé as Roberta Navarro, Ernesto's lover who committed suicide in season 1 and narrates the show
- María León as Purificación Riquelme, the obsessive sister of María José who is antagonistic towards Paulina
- Ismael Rodríguez as Jorge, the Amanda Miguel drag queen
- Pepe Marquez as Pepe/La Pau, the Paulina Rubio drag queen
- Katia Balmori as Mario, the Yuri drag queen
- Mariana Santos as Gloria, the Gloria Trevi drag queen
- Irving Peña as Alfonso "Poncho" Cruz, Carmelita's partner, who uses a wheelchair
- Michel Frías as Moisés Cohen, Bruno's friend who helps Micaéla with the talent show
- Hugo Catalán [es] as Oliver, Julián's sugar daddy
- Ruth Ovseyevitz as Dora Cohen, Moi's mother and Salomón's sister, a friend to the de la Mora family
- David Chaviras as El Cacas, Ernesto's former cellmate whom he drags into the cult
- Roberto Flores [es] as Pablo Pérez, a young architect and Elena's assistant
- Regina Orozco as Rosita's mother
- Teresa Ruiz as Marilu, an escort and businesswoman

### Guest

- Eugenio Montessoro as Sr. Olvera, Diego's homophobic father
- Paloma Woolrich [es] as Sra. Olvera, Diego's homophobic mother
- Manolo Caro as a news anchor
- Eduardo Casanova as Edu, the Riquelmes' neighbor in Madrid
- Gloria Trevi as herself, a talent show judge
- Salvador Pineda as Mauricio Pollo, a gambler who buys the cabaret cheap and turns it into a chicken shop
- Isela Vega as Victoria Aguirre, Virginia's bitter mother

## Production

### Development

In August 2018, Castro announced that she would not reprise the role of Virginia for potential future seasons because she felt that her "character's journey is over." Caro confirmed a week later that Castro would no longer appear in the show, which would focus on the de la Mora children if another season was produced. Castro revealed in 2019 that, though the decision for her to leave was friendly and mutual between all parties, Caro and Netflix had originally asked to renew her contract for the second season to appear in only the first few episodes and then provide voice-overs; Castro would not agree to this, saying that she has always been all or nothing. As the writers had not developed a full storyline for her character, they all agreed there was not much left for her to do, a story confirmed by Caro. However, in 2020, Castro said that she had been finalizing her appearances in the second season with Netflix but Caro changed his mind on what he wanted, resulting in her being removed from the show. In August 2019, as the second season began releasing promotional materials, Castro confirmed that her likeness was used in the upcoming season, but that she hadn't been paid for the appearances because she had not done any additional work for it. In the second season, without Castro as the lead, reviewers saw that fan favorite Paulina became the central character; Rodrigo Munizaga speculated that Castro, without a continuing contract, was even less enthused to return after she had been "overshadowed" by Suárez in season one. Going into the show's sophomore season, Vogue described Suárez as "the new queen of the telenovela".

Caro explained that the writing and production of the second season did not change very much, despite Castro's absence, because they "knew from the beginning that there was a possibility she would not return", saying that they had already outlined the stories for the children independent of this. During production, Caro said that the second season would be more "intense", and that exploring how the family works without the matriarch's presence is an important topic, with Suárez adding that it would be crazier than the first season. The use of music also became a more physical presence in the second season, with Caro explaining: "It was an evolution, in the first season and without realizing it, these playlists were created and really grabbed my attention regardless of what songs they had, they asked me what songs I listened to when I was writing, and it helped us to be creative in the writers' room."

In 2019, some of the production moved to Netflix's new Madrid headquarters, with development split between Spain and Mexico.

### Casting

Paco León's sister María León was added to the cast for season 2, to play Purificación Riquelme, the sister of María José. The casting was praised by Spanish media for using the real sister of María José's actor, suggesting that beyond looking alike, the siblings have very noticeable light-colored eyes and it would not have made sense to cast somebody else when María León is also an accomplished actor.

Casting for season 2 was announced as it began filming, first on February 5 with Spanish cast members María León, Eduardo Rosa as Alejo, and Eduardo Casanova as Edu, and then with Mexican actors on February 18: Loreto Peralta as Rosita, Flavio Medina as Simón, Anabel Ferreira as Celeste, and Mariana Treviño as Jenny Quetzal. Eduardo Rosa said of his casting that he submitted a video audition and was invited to Madrid to meet with Caro before he had read the script, but told Caro that he loved it anyway. David Chaviras also returned as El Cacas in season 2. His character only had a small part and was not intended to return, but became popular among fans because of his charismatic interaction with Paulina; Cacas gained a larger role in the second season, as well as a meeting room named after him in Netflix's Mexico headquarters.

Having worked with Caro and Suárez before, Teresa Ruiz says that the character of Marilú was developed for her to have a role in the show. In a 2019 interview, Ruiz says she asked Caro for something easier when he proposed the escort because she had not done comedy before, but was swayed by Caro's determination. Ruiz also says that a lot of thought was put into the message of the character, and that even though the show is comedic, when she gives speeches about the rights of the young escorts it is intended to be truthful dialogue about all working women.

### Filming

Filming began in early February 2019, with production in Spain from February 5, and ended on July 9, 2019. Some of the season was filmed on location in Madrid in February 2019; Carmen Maura visited the set to discuss the upcoming Netflix show, Someone Has To Die, that she was working on with Caro and Suárez. Caro said that during the development of the season, he had wanted to film in Spain, but wasn't sure he could make it happen, saying that he wanted to give back to the public there that supported the series; Caro had promised fans that Paulina would walk down Madrid's Gran Vía in season 2, and revealed to the Spanish press shortly before the season was released that this would definitely be included. Filming in Mexico largely took place in a nineteenth-century house in Condesa, and the second and third seasons were filmed at the same time.

## Release and marketing

The second season premiered in its entirety on October 18, 2019. In its first week of broadcast, the second season was watched by over 6.2 million accounts, from across the world; it became the top viewed show on Netflix that week in Argentina, Colombia, Spain, and Mexico, among other countries. It also broke the Netflix record in Mexico as the most-viewed second season of any show in its first week ever.

The first marketing videos were released in August 2019 and used the "characteristic cadence" of Paulina's voice. On August 8, a video of Paulina leaving a threatening voicemail for Diego, mimicking the one in Taken, was released. On August 12, it was announced that the character of Virginia had died rather than simply been written out, in a marketing video showing a voice note left in the siblings' WhatsApp chat by Paulina along with the hashtag "#QDEPVirginiaDeLaMora" ("RIP Virginia de la Mora"), and on August 15, 2019, the release date of the season was included in a tweet that also showed the new family portrait. On October 2, another marketing video, also focused on Paulina speaking, was released. In it, Netflix asks the character to make an ASMR video recap, which she attempts. The first official trailer was released on September 23, showing scenes from the first episode in both Madrid and Mexico City, focusing on Paulina trying to regain the florists and find Diego.

A press tour was held for season 2 a few weeks before it was released; Aislinn Derbez did not participate, despite being a main character, because the release date of the season was the same as her family's new reality show on competing streaming platform Amazon Prime Video.

## Episodes

## Critical reception

The new character Jenny Quetzal was described as "unnecessary" by Ángel Balán, and Kike Esparza agreed that she "contributed nothing"; however, Balán thought that the final episode was one of the best season finales that he had seen in a long time. Espinof's review said that it was "full of humor, a slight touch of social criticism and, of course, lots of little twists" but, like the first season, it fell flat in some areas. Cinemagavia's Diego Da Costa wrote that the plots lost originality and the scripts lost their humor, adding that the "new characters do not combine well with the universe" of the series. Reviewer Alberto Carlos said that some of the plots are gratuitous, with the cult story-line being like "overstretched chewing gum". Carlos concluded that Caro may have sacrificed good writing for the sake of eccentricity, with Esparza similarly suggesting that humorous plots were used without having any substance. Gisela Orozco of the Chicago Tribune thought that it seemed like Caro was improvising and coming up with new plots on the spur of the moment, that he was "adding 'water' to his flowers [but they] did not 'bloom' at all".

Javier Zurro described the season's main vice as being that it seems to have "taken itself seriously", which does not work with the format, and has turned back into the telenovelas that the first season was parodying. He noted that the concepts of the season do not feel fresh, because it has copied all the formulas of the first; he did, however, believe that the first season was surprisingly good and so the second had the challenge "to be bigger, more spectacular". Munizaga instead suggested that the main issue is that it does not include much of what made the first season so fresh, calling it "meek and decaffeinated" in comparison.

Zurro was also critical of the choice to kill off Virginia in the face of Verónica Castro's absence, seeing it as an easy way out. Esparza thought that the season would have been better if it had retained Verónica Castro as Virginia, because the show's dynamic is not the same without Virginia and Paulina playing off each other; Munizaga wrote that the season feels uncentered, and this is likely because without Castro's Virginia there is no reason to focus on the titular shop, making its inclusion forced. However, Marieta Taibo for Cosmopolitan wrote that her departure is handled well and that Suárez and Paulina become the center, and CNET's Patricia Puentes said that "it is hard to miss" the character and the actress, both because of Suárez's performance and because Virginia is still referenced throughout the season.

Despite the more negative response, reviewers looked positively on the character of Paulina. Carlos wrote that "the show is saved by the character of Paulina", with Esparza opining that except for Paulina, María José and Delia the character performances are more like caricatures of who they were in season one. Zurro concluded, in contrast to his dismal outlook on the season, that "of course, Paulina de la Mora is still there, and she and Cecilia Suárez are still the rulers of the series", expecting the third season to be better. However, Munizaga commented that Paulina's motivations in the season are "absurd" – Zurro had claimed this of the other characters – but does say that the subplots of everyone else are worse, being both unbelievable and uninteresting. Da Costa reflected that "Suárez is the backbone of the cast, and although she gave the best performance of the series, she is missing some of Paulina's spirit"; he added that Medina and Paco León had been under-utilized, writing that Medina "is a triumph in the scenes in which he does appear" and that León was "very wasted".

Commenting on the art and aesthetics of the season, Da Costa wrote that the "sparkle, mamarrachería" ("craziness") and "visual histrionics" were missing compared to the first season. He also added that the symbolism of the florists was forgotten, only appearing at a narrative level rather than truly expressed, and that the attempts at "Spanishizing" were unsuccessful, rendering the season "more like a tribute to Mecano than a musical-visual composition". However, he did compliment the comic timing of the editing.

## Accolades

The second season received several nominations at 2020 ceremonies. For the XXIX Spanish Actors Union Awards [es], both León siblings were nominated, but neither won. For the 2020 Platino Awards, the show received the third-most television acting nominations (three), including two in the new Supporting categories, for Suárez as best actress, Treviño as best supporting actress, and Medina as supporting actor. The only win was for Suárez, repeating her win from the 2019 awards.

2019 Mexican television season


Sam Simon

Samuel Michael Simon (June 6, 1955 – March 8, 2015) was an American director, producer, writer, animal rights activist and philanthropist, who co-developed the television series The Simpsons.

While at Stanford University, Simon worked as a newspaper cartoonist and after graduating became a storyboard artist at Filmation Studios. Simon submitted a spec script for the sitcom Taxi, which was produced, and he later became the series' showrunner. Over the next few years, Simon wrote and produced for Cheers, It's Garry Shandling's Show and other programs, as well as writing the 1991 film The Super.

Simon turned to fields outside television in his later years. He regularly appeared on Howard Stern's radio shows, managed boxer Lamon Brewster and helped guide him to the World Boxing Organization Heavyweight Championship in 2004, and was a regular poker player and six-time in the money finisher at the World Series of Poker. Simon founded the Sam Simon Foundation, which consists of a mobile veterinary clinic that goes into low-income neighborhoods offering free surgeries for cats and dogs several days per week, as well as a program that rescues and trains shelter dogs. He also funded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society vessel MY Sam Simon. Simon was engaged at the time of his death, having been previously twice married, including to the actress Jennifer Tilly. Following a profile of Simon on 60 Minutes in 2007, CBS writer Daniel Schorn wrote in an online article that Simon was "perhaps the Renaissance man of the baffling, uncertain age we live in."

Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer in 2012 and given only three to six months to live. Simon died on March 8, 2015. He bequeathed his \$100 million estate to various charities that he actively supported during his lifetime.

## Early life

Samuel Michael Simon was born on June 6, 1955, in Los Angeles, California, United States. He grew up in Beverly Hills and Malibu. Simon's family lived opposite Groucho Marx. Simon's father was a clothing manufacturer and was of Estonian-Jewish heritage. Simon had a childhood which has been described as "comfortable" and "privileged". Although his parents wanted Simon to become a lawyer, he was interested in art from a young age, appearing on televised local art programs as young as the age of five. He once was told by Walt Disney that he would one day work at his studio.

Simon attended Beverly Hills High School, where he was on the football team and served as a cartoonist for the school newspaper. He was named "Most Humorous" and "Most Talented" in his senior yearbook. He later attended Stanford University, graduating in 1977. Simon had not wished to attend college, but Stanford persuaded him to apply due to his sufficient grades and proficiency at football; Simon quit the football team after one day. Simon drew comics for The Stanford Daily, a college newspaper, but was denied admission to a drawing class for not being talented enough. As he recalled to the Stanford alumni magazine, he was told, "You'd be taking the space of a student who has talent." Simon majored in psychology, but did not focus on his academics.

## Career

### Early career

While still at Stanford, Simon's first job was a newspaper sports cartoonist for The San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner. After graduating, he worked as a television storyboard artist, and later a writer, at Filmation Studios. There he worked on several animated shows, including The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle and Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids (1979). Simon recalls Filmation approving of his work because he was "self-taught and unschooled," but Simon felt the majority of what the studio produced was "awful". On the suggestion of Filmation producer Lou Scheimer who was impressed by Simon's writing ability, Simon submitted a spec script for the series Taxi which was produced as "Out of Commission" and aired in 1981 during its third season. Simon was hired as a writer, quickly becoming showrunner for its fifth and final season in 1983. Simon next worked as a writer and producer on Cheers from seasons one to three (1982–1985), writing five episodes: "Endless Slumper", "Battle of the Ex's", "Fairytales Can Come True", "Cheerio Cheers" and "The Bartender's Tale". Simon created, wrote and produced the short-lived sitcom Shaping Up in 1984, alongside Ken Estin; the show starred Leslie Nielsen as a gym owner and ran for five episodes on ABC. Simon also wrote and produced for Best of the West (1981), Barney Miller (1982) and It's Garry Shandling's Show (1987–1988), and wrote the 1991 film The Super.

### The Simpsons

Simon co-developed the animated series The Simpsons, which premiered on the Fox network in 1989 and has remained on air ever since. The show is regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time, with Time magazine naming it the 20th century's best series. The premise for the series originated as a series of short cartoons airing in 1987 as part of The Tracey Ullman Show, on which Simon was a writer and executive producer alongside James L. Brooks, with whom Simon had worked on Taxi. The cartoons were developed into a full series two years later. For The Simpsons, Simon served alongside Matt Groening (who conceived the show and the five main characters) and Brooks as executive producer and showrunner for the show's first (1989–1990) and second (1990–1991) seasons, and was creative supervisor for the first four seasons. He assembled and led the initial team of writers, consisting of John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti, George Meyer, Jeff Martin, Al Jean, Mike Reiss, Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky. The cartoonist and writer Mimi Pond, who wrote the first broadcast episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire" (1989), explained that she was not permitted to permanently join the show because Simon deliberately kept women out of the writing team.

Simon has been credited with "developing [the show's] sensibility." Former Simpsons director Brad Bird has described him as "the unsung hero" of the show, while Vitti has stated to "leave out Sam Simon" is to tell "the managed version" of The Simpsons' history, because "he was the guy we wrote for." Writer Ken Levine called Simon "the real creative force behind The Simpsons ... The tone, the storytelling, the level of humor—that was all developed on Sam's watch." Levine says that Simon "brought a level of honesty to the characters" and made them "three-dimensional," adding that his "comedy is all about character, not just a string of gags. In The Simpsons, the characters are motivated by their emotions and their foibles. 'What are they thinking?'—that is Sam's contribution. The stories come from the characters." Simon crafted much of the world of Springfield, and designed the models for many of the show's recurring characters, including Mr. Burns, Dr. Hibbert, Chief Wiggum and Eddie and Lou, as well as many of the one-time and guest-star roles, such as Bleeding Gums Murphy. One of his contributions to the show's character development was his proposal that Waylon Smithers should be gay, but that this should never have too much attention drawn to it; Smithers' sexuality became one of the show's longest-running gags. Simon saw The Simpsons as a chance to solve "what [he] didn't like about the Saturday-morning cartoon shows [he had] worked on ... [he] wanted all the actors in a room together, not reading their lines separated from each other. The Simpsons would have been a great radio show. If you just listen to the sound track, it works."

The Simpsons utilized a process of collaborative script re-writing by the show's whole writing staff; this meant the credited writer may not have been responsible for the majority of an episode's content. Nevertheless, Simon was credited with co-writing the season one episodes "The Telltale Head," "The Crepes of Wrath," and the season finale "Some Enchanted Evening." "Some Enchanted Evening" was intended to be the show's premiere but was delayed due to substandard animation. Simon adapted Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven for the third segment of the season two episode "Treehouse of Horror." Groening was nervous about "The Raven" because it did not have many gags, and felt it would be "the worst, most pretentious thing [they had] ever done" on the show. Nevertheless, the segment has often been praised as one of the best Treehouse of Horror stories in the show's history. Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad described the segment as "one of the most refined Simpsons pop references ever," and knows "people that consider this the point that they realized The Simpsons could be both highly hilarious and highly intelligent." Simon co-wrote the episode "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish" with Swartzwelder, an episode which Tom Shales of The Washington Post has described as "a bull's-eye political satire". The final episode he co-wrote for season two was "The Way We Was," alongside Jean and Reiss. While Reiss and Jean took over as showrunners, Simon remained on the writing staff for seasons three (1991–1992) and four (1992–1993). For the third season he co-wrote "Treehouse of Horror II," and conceived the story for the Sideshow Bob episode "Black Widower," together with mystery author Thomas Chastain, hoping to construct a full mystery story; Vitti wrote the episode's teleplay. Simon also substantially contributed to the episode "Stark Raving Dad," pitched the episode "Homer at the Bat," and proposed the "Land of Chocolate" sequence from "Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk." Simon's final writing credit was for the "Dial 'Z' For Zombies" segment of "Treehouse of Horror III."

Although they initially worked well together, Simon and Groening's relationship became "very contentious" according to Groening. Simon never expected the show to be a success, often proclaiming to fellow staff members "We're thirteen and out"—meaning that the show would be cancelled after the thirteenth episode of the first season. Therefore, he also told the staff that they had creative freedom to do whatever they wanted to make The Simpsons as good a show as possible, regardless of network or public opinion, because he thought it inevitably would not be renewed; he elaborated in 2009 that "Really I was saying that to take the pressure off of everyone. I was just saying let's just go out and make 13 episodes that are really good and really funny." However, Groening interpreted it as meaning Simon was uncommitted and did not care whether the show was a success or not, as Simon's career would survive, whereas his own would not. In 2001, Groening described Simon as "brilliantly funny and one of the smartest writers I've ever worked with, although unpleasant and mentally unbalanced." According to John Ortved's book The Simpsons: An Uncensored, Unauthorized History, when the show became successful Simon resented the media attention Groening received, particularly the praise for the show's writing; Simon felt that Groening's involvement was limited, and that he should have been the one receiving credit for the show. Simon later spoke well of Groening's influence, particularly on the show's positive tone.

As well as Groening, Simon was often at odds with Brooks and production company Gracie Films. While working on The Simpsons, he and Brooks had co-created the series Sibs (1991) and Phenom (1993) as part of a multi-series deal for ABC. Simon did not want to work on either series, both of which were poorly received and swiftly canceled, which put a strain on the pair's relationship.

Simon left Gracie Films and The Simpsons in 1993; he commented that he "wasn't enjoying it anymore," wished to pursue other projects, and that of "any show I've ever worked on, it turns me into a monster. I go crazy. I hate myself." Before leaving, he negotiated a deal that saw him receive a share of the show's profits every year, particularly from home media, and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993. The deal means he made over \$10 million a year from The Simpsons; he later told Stanford Magazine that "tens of millions" was a closer figure. Simon commented: "When I was there I thought I was underpaid. I thought I wasn't getting enough credit for it. Now, I think it's completely the opposite. I get too much credit for it. And the money is ridiculous."

### Subsequent media work

In January 1994, Simon co-created with comedian George Carlin the sitcom The George Carlin Show for Fox. It aired for 27 episodes before being canceled in December 1995. Simon served as showrunner throughout its run and directed several episodes. Simon persuaded Carlin to do the show after writing it as something which would not be "typically sitcomy." He conceived the show as what Carlin's life would have been like had he never become a comedian; Carlin played a heavy drinking New York taxi driver. Simon commented: "When I was doing The Simpsons, people couldn't see how smart it was because of the low moments. There's something about this show. People who like it say it's classy. They don't see how vulgar it is." Carlin wrote negatively of his relationship with Simon. On his own website, Carlin wrote of the show: "always check mental health of creative partner beforehand. Loved the actors, loved the crew. Had a great time. Couldn't wait to get the fuck out of there." In his final book, the posthumously published Last Words (2009), Carlin elaborated: "I had a great time. I never laughed so much, so often, so hard as I did with cast members Alex Rocco, Chris Rich, Tony Starke. There was a very strange, very good sense of humor on that stage ... The biggest problem, though, was that Sam Simon was a fucking horrible person to be around. Very, very funny, extremely bright and brilliant, but an unhappy person who treated other people poorly." Simon described himself as "combative" and said that most people see him as having a "bad attitude".

In the late 1990s, Simon primarily worked as a director. He directed on the American adaptation of the sitcom Men Behaving Badly in 1996, the Friends season three episode "The One Without the Ski Trip" in 1997, and several episodes of The Norm Show (1999) and The Michael Richards Show (2000). From 1998 to 2003, he served as a consulting producer and director for The Drew Carey Show, and directed the show's series finale. He was also a creative consultant on Bless This House in 1996.

From 1999 to some time in the early 2000s, Simon was President of e-Nexus Studios the once entertainment content arm of ZeniMax Media, Parent Company of video game publisher Bethesda Softworks. After E-Nexus was shut down, Simon became President of the creative group at ZeniMax Productions, another subsidiary of ZeniMax.

After leaving The Simpsons and The George Carlin Show, Simon sought to find a "life outside television," as working in the industry "made [him] crazy." On working in television, Simon concluded: "In some ways, it's the greatest job in the world. You make a product that's given away, and all it does is make people smile. Nobody gets hurt, there's no damage, and you can get crazy rich." Simon retired from full-time television work, although still worked in the media, frequently contributing, as a writer and a participant, to Howard Stern's radio shows. He wrote and directed the one-off radio sitcom "The Bitter Half" for Stern's Howard 101 in 2006. Simon had his own show on Radioio. Simon returned to television production work in 2012, serving as a consultant and director on the series Anger Management for half a day a week.

### Other ventures

#### Animal rights

Simon was a staunch advocate for animal rights and veganism, and described himself as an "animal lover". Around the year 2000, he joined People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Starting in 2002, he self-funded, at an annual cost of several million dollars, The Sam Simon Foundation, which has a mobile clinic that provides free surgeries for cats and dogs, as well as rescuing and retraining shelter dogs who might otherwise be euthanized. An episode of 60 Minutes broadcast in March 2007 described it as "the grandest dog shelter in the country, a five star, [6 acres (0.024 km2; 0.0094 sq mi)] spread in Malibu, perhaps the most desirable real estate on the planet. Here, among the waterfalls and the manicured grounds, The Sam Simon Foundation gives stray and abandoned dogs a new lease on life, literally."

As Simon explained, the foundation aims to "rescue dogs" and "train them to be service dogs, [to help] people with disabilities," primarily the deaf. It also provides free veterinary surgeries to pets belonging to low-income families, and trains dogs to help soldiers returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan deal with post-traumatic stress disorder. Simon said the money he used was "well spent just for the pleasure it gives me." The training program has a 20% success rate, because many of the rescued dogs "have physical and psychological problems" but the dogs who cannot be trained are put up for adoption. The foundation is non-profit, and does not accept public donations. In 2011, Simon established and self-funded a second non-profit called The Sam Simon Foundation: Feeding Families. This is a food truck which delivers vegan food to about 200 low-income families each week. He also donated an undisclosed sum to the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in 2012 for the purpose of purchasing another vessel for their fleet, the , which was unveiled in December 2012. Simon was also a board member for Save the Children, and hosted the largest annual fundraiser for PETA, who named him an Honorary Director and their Norfolk, Virginia headquarters building after him. Simon has stated that animal rights charities have been his main target for donations, over other causes like human disease and environmental damage, because "your money can bring success" with visible results. Simon stated in 2011 that there is "nothing [which gives him] more pleasure than" helping others via his charities, and gave away most of his fortune.

#### Boxing

Simon was a long time fan of boxing, attending fights with his grandfather, but his interest increased particularly after seeing the 1990 heavyweight championship fight between Evander Holyfield and James "Buster" Douglas which he described as "the most electrifying feeling I'd had in my life." He began training and won six out of nine amateur fights; he was also a reserve contestant on the Fox series Celebrity Boxing. Simon was for eight years the manager of heavyweight boxer Lamon Brewster, the now-retired former World Boxing Organization heavyweight champion. He met Brewster in 1997 and began managing him, helping him rise to the top of the WBO rankings. He considers guiding Brewster to his April 2004 victory over Wladimir Klitschko to win the vacant WBO Heavyweight Championship, with Klitschko the heavy favorite, to be amongst the greatest moments of his life; it "eclipsed everything he had achieved in a glittering 26-year showbiz career." Before the Klitschko fight, Simon calculated he had spent several hundred thousand dollars funding Brewster, paying him a large salary on top of match fees as well as letting him stay rent-free at one of his houses, and taking only a 10% cut of the match fees; however, he never intended boxing to be a substantial "source of revenue". Simon also briefly managed heavyweight Steve Vukosa, but retired from boxing management soon after Brewster became WBO Heavyweight Champion.

#### Poker

Simon was a regular player of poker, and Texas hold 'em in particular. He was introduced to the game as a child through weekly family poker games and casino trips with his grandfather. Simon did not consider himself a serious player until a game at writer David Steinberg's house with several "scholarly" players, which encouraged him to study the game and enter numerous tournaments, although he decided not to become professional. He competed at the World Series of Poker (WSOP) each year between 2007 and 2011, finishing in the money in six events. In 2007, at the 6,358-player \$10,000 No-Limit Texas Hold'em Main Event, he finished 329th with \$39,445. He also finished 16th winning \$35,493 at the \$1,000 1,048-player No-Limit Hold'em w/Re-Buys in 2007, 41st winning \$10,708 at the \$1,000 706-player No-Limit Hold'em w/ReBuys in 2008, 53rd winning \$10,692 at the \$1,000 879-player No-Limit Hold'em w/ReBuys in 2008, 20th winning \$24,066 at the \$10,000 275-player World Championship Pot-Limit Hold'em in 2009, and 500th winning \$23,876 at the \$10,000 6,865-player No-Limit Hold'em Championship in 2011. He also won the \$300 438-player No-Limit Hold'em Bounty \$100,000 Guarantee at the 2009 L.A. Poker Open, winning \$22,228. His biggest win in terms of both field size and prize money was the \$200 1,082-player No-Limit Hold'em \$150,000 Guarantee at the 2010 Winnin O' The Green, where he won \$57,308. Simon's private poker games between him and his celebrity friends have been described as "raucous and very entertaining". Their reputation led Playboy TV to produce the show Sam's Game, a televised version featuring Simon as host and master of ceremonies of a Las Vegas celebrity Texas Hold 'em match; he produced the show. He had previously appeared on a 2009 episode of High Stakes Poker.

## Awards

| Year                                               | Award                                                             | Category                                               | Nominated work                      | Result | Ref. |
|----------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|--------|------|
| 1983                                               | Primetime Emmy Awards                                             | Outstanding Comedy Series                              | Taxi                                |        |      |
| 1985                                               | Cheers                                                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1986                                               | Writers Guild of America Awards                                   | Episodic Comedy                                        | Cheers: "Fairy Tales Can Come True" |        |      |
| 1987                                               | Primetime Emmy Awards                                             | Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program     | The Tracey Ullman Show              |        |      |
| 1988                                               | Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series                           | It's Garry Shandling's Show: "Angelica, Part 2"        |                                     |        |      |
| Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program | The Tracey Ullman Show                                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1989                                               | Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Program                      |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program |                                                                   |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1990                                               | Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming One Hour or Less)   | The Simpsons: "Life on the Fast Lane"                  |                                     |        |      |
| The Simpsons: "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire"  |                                                                   |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series        | The Tracey Ullman Show                                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Special       | The Best of The Tracey Ullman Show                                |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program | The Tracey Ullman Show                                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1991                                               | Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming One Hour or Less)   | The Simpsons: "Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment" |                                     |        |      |
| 1992                                               | The Simpsons: "Radio Bart"                                        |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1995                                               | The Simpsons: "Lisa's Wedding"                                    |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1996                                               | The Simpsons: "Treehouse of Horror VI"                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1997                                               | The Simpsons: "Homer's Phobia"                                    |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1998                                               | The Simpsons: "Trash of the Titans"                               |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 1999                                               | The Simpsons: "Viva Ned Flanders"                                 |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 2000                                               | The Simpsons: "Behind the Laughter"                               |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 2001                                               | Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less than One Hour) | The Simpsons: "HOMR"                                   |                                     |        |      |
| 2002                                               | The Simpsons: "She of Little Faith"                               |                                                        |                                     |        |      |
| 2013                                               | Writers Guild of America Awards                                   | Animation Writers Caucus Animation Writing Award       |                                     |        |      |
| 2014                                               | Valentine Davies Award                                            |                                                        |                                     |        |      |

Awards and nominations

Additionally, Simon won a Peabody Award for The Simpsons in 1996.

## Personal life

Simon was married to actress Jennifer Tilly from 1984 to 1991; they remained friends after their divorce. He married Playboy Playmate Jami Ferrell in 2000, and the marriage lasted three weeks. Simon was engaged to chef and caterer Jenna Stewart around 2011. In 2012, he began dating Kate Porter, a make-up artist; they were together until his death.

Simon became a vegetarian at the age of 19 and when joining People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals around 2000, he turned to veganism. He had three dogs.

He lived in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, in the restored Bailey House, designed by Richard Neutra. After his home was destroyed by a fire in 2007, Simon redesigned it to be environmentally friendly; much of the interior is constructed from recycled materials while solar panels provide virtually its entire power needs. The building has a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certificate. He had an extensive art collection; he owned paintings by Thomas Hart Benton, John Singer Sargent and one of the original casts of Auguste Rodin's The Thinker. He also had a sculpture by Robert Graham and works by Alberto Vargas, Gil Elvgren, Ed Ruscha and Richard Estes.

## Illness and death

In late 2012, Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer that later metastasized to his other organs, including his liver and kidneys. He had been feeling ill for some time and had earlier been misdiagnosed. He was given between three and six months to live; chemotherapy treatment reduced the size of his tumors over the following six months. He arranged for his fortune to be left to various charitable causes, stating "The truth is, I have more money than I'm interested in spending. Everyone in my family is taken care of. And I enjoy this." Simon died in his Los Angeles home from complications of the disease on March 8, 2015, aged 59. His remains were interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.

Controversy surrounds the management of his trust, and the lack of donations to groups that he supported in his lifetime.

The Simpsons'' episode "Waiting for Duffman" was dedicated to him.

## Filmography

American director, producer, writer, boxing manager and philanthropist (1955–2015)

American people of Estonian-Jewish descent