Buster Posey

Gerald Dempsey "Buster" Posey III (born March 27, 1987) is an American former professional baseball catcher. He spent his entire twelve-year Major League Baseball (MLB) career with the San Francisco Giants, from 2009 until his retirement at the conclusion of the 2021 season. In September 2022, Posey joined the Giants' ownership group.

Posey was born in Leesburg, Georgia. He played four sports in high school; in baseball, he excelled at hitting and pitching. He attended Florida State University, where he began playing the catcher and first base positions. He won the Golden Spikes Award and the Brooks Wallace Award in 2008. He was selected by the Giants with the fifth overall pick in the first round of the 2008 MLB draft. Posey made his MLB debut on September 11, 2009. He and Madison Bumgarner both made their Major League debuts in 2009 and established a reputation as one of the best batteries in recent MLB history. With the presence of then full-time catcher Bengie Molina, Posey played first base when originally called up to the majors, but became the Giants' regular catcher in June 2010 when Molina was traded to the Texas Rangers.

As a rookie, he finished with a .305 batting average, 18 home runs, and 67 runs batted in. He caught every inning of the playoffs as the Giants won the 2010 World Series. He was named the NL Rookie of the Year. In 2011, after he was severely injured in a collision with the Florida Marlins' Scott Cousins at home plate, Posey missed most of the year. The collision is widely seen as pushing Major League Baseball to adopt rule 7.13 in regards to blocking the plate prior to the 2014 season, informally known as the "Buster Posey Rule".

Posey returned from his injury in 2012 and posted perhaps one of the greatest individual comeback seasons in sports history. He caught Matt Cain's perfect game, batted .336 to win the 2012 NL batting title and was voted the 2012 NL MVP. He won his second World Series that year, as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers in four games. In 2013, Posey signed a franchise-record eight-year, \$167 million contract extension with the Giants. He won his third World Series the following year as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals. Posey is the second player in MLB history, after Pete Rose, to win the Rookie of the Year, a League MVP, and three World Series championships. Posey played in four no-hitters in his career, catching three of them. In 2016, he won a Gold Glove Award. In 2019, the Johnny Bench Award was renamed the Buster Posey Award, which honors college baseball's top NCAA Division I catcher.

## Early life

Posey was born in Leesburg, Georgia on March 27, 1987, to Demp and Tracy Posey. He is the oldest of four children. He and his family grew up Methodist Christian. Posey has an uncle who is a Methodist minister and an aunt who is a camp minister for Duke University. His nickname, "Buster", came from his father's childhood nickname. Posey grew up a fan of the Atlanta Braves. He also played football, soccer, and basketball growing up, but baseball was his main sport.

As a junior at Lee County High School, Posey pitched and played shortstop. That year he hit nine doubles, three triples, and seven home runs while setting school records for batting average (.544) and runs batted in (RBI) (46). His pitching achievements included a 10–1 record and a 1.53 earned run average (ERA). In his senior year, he batted .462 with 40 RBIs while setting a school record with 14 home runs. In 13 starts as a pitcher that year, he had a 12–0 record with a 1.06 ERA and 108 strikeouts. In the Georgia AAAA State Championship, Lee County was defeated by Henry County High, for whom fellow future major leaguer Jason Heyward played.

After his senior season, Posey was named the Georgia Gatorade Player of the Year, the Louisville Slugger State Player of the Year, an EA Sports All-American, and a Baseball America All-American. He graduated with a 3.94 grade point average in high school, fourth in his class of 302 students.

## College career

Posey played college baseball for the Florida State Seminoles under coach Mike Martin. He played shortstop as a freshman at Florida State, starting all 65 games for the Seminoles. He was named a Louisville Slugger Freshman All-American. He finished his freshman season with a .346 batting average, four home runs and 48 RBI. As a sophomore, Posey moved to the catcher position on the suggestion of assistant coach Mike Martin Jr. He batted .382 with three home runs and 65 RBI. After one season of playing the position, Posey finished second to Ed Easley in Johnny Bench Award voting.

In 2008, as a junior, he hit .463 with 26 home runs and 93 RBI, won the ACC Baseball Player of the Year, Johnny Bench Award, and garnered the Collegiate Baseball Player of the Year award. On May 12, he hit a grand slam and played all nine fielding positions in a 10–0 victory over Savannah State University; as a pitcher that day, he struck out both batters he faced. Posey was awarded the Dick Howser Trophy and the Golden Spikes Award at the end of the year.

During the college offseason, Posey started at shortstop for the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox in 2006 when they won the Cape Cod Baseball League championship, and started at catcher in 2007 when they won another championship. He was named a league all-star in both seasons.

## Professional career

### Drafts and minor leagues

Although he was drafted in the 50th round of the 2005 Major League Baseball (MLB) Draft by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, he chose to enroll in college instead of signing a professional baseball contract. Posey was considered by Baseball America to be the best catcher available in the 2008 MLB draft. He was drafted by the San Francisco Giants with the fifth overall pick. On August 16, the Giants signed Posey shortly before the signing deadline for draftees and gave him a \$6.2 million signing bonus, the largest up-front bonus in Giants history. Entering the 2009 season, Baseball America ranked him the number two prospect in the Giants' organization (behind Madison Bumgarner). He was invited to the Giants' spring training in 2009. Following spring training, Posey was assigned to the Giants' Class A Advanced affiliate, the San Jose Giants of the California League. In 80 games with San Jose, he batted .326 with 63 runs, 95 hits, 23 doubles, 13 home runs, and 58 RBI.

On July 13, Posey was promoted to the Giants' Class AAA team, the Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League. In 35 games with Fresno, he batted .321 with 21 runs scored, 42 hits, eight doubles, five home runs, and 22 RBI.

### San Francisco Giants (2009–2019, 2021)

#### 2009

Because of an injury to Giants starting catcher Bengie Molina, Posey was called up to MLB for the first time on September 2, 2009. On September 11, 2009, Posey made his MLB debut, striking out in his first at bat against Hiroki Kuroda of the Los Angeles Dodgers. Posey got his first major league hit on September 19 against Jeff Weaver of the Dodgers. In 17 at-bats with the Giants in 2009, Posey had two hits.

Coming into 2010, Baseball America ranked Posey as the top prospect in the Giants' organization. After again appearing in the Giants' spring training camp, Posey began the 2010 season at Fresno, batting .349 with 31 runs scored, 60 hits, 13 doubles, six home runs, and 32 RBI in 47 games.

#### 2010

Posey was called up to the major leagues on May 29, 2010, and started at first base against the Arizona Diamondbacks. Posey drove in the first runs of his major league career, going three for four with three RBI. He appeared primarily at first base through the end of June. Posey hit his first career home run against Aaron Harang of the Cincinnati Reds on June 9. Following Molina's trade to the Texas Rangers on June 30, Posey became the starting catcher for the Giants.

Posey hit his first career grand slam against Chris Narveson of the Milwaukee Brewers on July 7, en route to a two-home run, four-hit, six-RBI night. This was part of a ten-game streak from July 1 to 10 during which he batted .514 with 19 hits, six home runs, and 13 RBI to set a National League (NL) record for rookies during any ten-day stretch according to the Elias Sports Bureau. This performance also earned him the NL Player of the Week honors for the week of July 5–11, 2010.

In a July 10 game against the Washington Nationals, Posey was inserted into the Giants' batting order as the clean-up hitter, which became his regular position in the lineup. He had a 21-game hitting streak that started July 4 and ended July 29 when Aníbal Sánchez of the Florida Marlins threw a one-hitter against the Giants. During the streak, which fell one game short of tying the San Francisco Giants' rookie mark set by Willie McCovey and five short of the team record, Posey batted .440 with 37 hits, six home runs, and 23 RBI. Posey was awarded both the NL Player of the Month and NL Rookie of the Month awards for his excellent July.

On September 21, Posey hit an eighth-inning home run against Andrew Cashner of the Chicago Cubs to win the game, 1–0. He hit another eighth-inning home run against Luke Gregerson of the San Diego Padres in the final game of the year on October 3 as Giants secured the NL West Division championship by defeating the Padres 3–0. In 108 games, Posey batted .305 with 58 runs scored, 124 hits, 23 doubles, 18 home runs, and 67 RBI.

Posey was named the NL Rookie of the Year; Posey had 20 first place votes while Heyward, of the Atlanta Braves, finished second with nine. Posey was the sixth Giant to win the award, joining Willie Mays, Orlando Cepeda, Willie McCovey, Gary Matthews and John Montefusco. He was also the sixth catcher in NL history to win the award. Posey was named by his peers as the NL Players Choice Awards Outstanding Rookie. He was named the catcher on Baseball America's All-Rookie Team and the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All-Star Team. He finished 11th in NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) voting.

In the NL Division Series (NLDS) against the Braves, Posey batted .375 as the Giants won the series in four games. In Game 4 of the NL Championship Series (NLCS) against the Philadelphia Phillies, he became the first rookie to get four hits in an NLCS game as the Giants won 6–5. He batted .217 with five hits and three RBI in the series as the Giants defeated the Phillies in six games. In Game 4 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers, Posey and Madison Bumgarner formed the first rookie starting pitcher-catcher tandem in a World Series since Yogi Berra caught Spec Shea in Game 1 of the 1947 World Series. Posey hit his first postseason home run against Darren O'Day in the 4–0 victory, making him the fifth rookie catcher to hit a home run in the World Series. The Giants won the series four games to one, giving Posey (who batted .300 with a home run and two RBI in the Series) his first World Series ring. Posey caught every inning of the playoffs for the Giants.

#### 2011

Posey set season highs with three hits and four RBI on April 6, 2011, including a two-run home run against Tim Stauffer in an 8–4 victory over the Padres.

On May 25, during a game against the Florida Marlins, Posey was injured during a collision with Scott Cousins at home plate as Cousins scored the eventual winning run on a sac fly in the 12th inning of a 7–6 Giants' loss. Posey suffered a fractured fibula and torn ligaments in his ankle, requiring season-ending surgery. Cousins, who was not disciplined, said he collided with Posey intentionally in order to score. "If you hit them, you punish them and you punish yourself, but you have a chance of that ball coming out." He expressed regret over injuring Posey, saying "I certainly didn't want him to get hurt." Cousins received threats from fans, but Posey denounced them: "I appreciate the continued support of Giants fans and others as I begin the process of working my way back ... But in no way do I condone threats of any kind against Scott Cousins or his family. As I said last week, I'm not out to vilify Scott." The collision led Major League Baseball to adopt rule 7.13, informally known as the "Buster Posey Rule", which states that "a runner attempting to score may not deviate from his direct pathway to the plate in order to initiate contact with the catcher (or other player covering home plate)." A runner violating the rule will be declared out, even if the fielder drops the ball. In 45 games, Posey batted .284 with 17 runs scored, 46 hits, five doubles, four home runs, and 21 RBI.

#### 2012

Posey started at catcher during Matt Cain's perfect game on June 13, 2012, the 22nd in major league history. He stated afterwards that the game had him feeling "as nervous as I've ever been on a baseball field." He played in the 2012 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, his first, on July 10, going 0–2 with a walk and a run scored. After batting .289 with 10 home runs and 43 RBI in 77 games before the All-Star break, Posey batted .385 with 14 home runs and 60 RBI in the final 71 games of the season. On July 17, he had three hits and five RBI in a 9–0 victory over the Braves. Four days later, he had four hits and three RBI, including a two-run home run against Cole Hamels in a 10-inning, 6–5 victory over the Phillies. Two days later, he had three hits and four RBI, including a three-run home run against Clayton Richard in a 7–1 victory over the Padres. He hit a game-winning three-run home run against Lance Lynn on August 7 in a 4–2 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals. On September 17, he had three hits, including a game-winning two-run home run against Wade Miley in a 3–2 victory over the Diamondbacks. In 148 games, Posey had 78 runs scored, 178 hits (tied for eighth in the NL with David Wright), 39 doubles (tied for eighth with Yonder Alonso), 24 home runs, and 103 RBI (sixth).

Posey's teammate Melky Cabrera batted .346 in 2012, but MLB declared him ineligible for the batting title after receiving a 50-game suspension for raised testosterone levels. As a result, Posey led both leagues in batting in 2012 with an average of .336, becoming the first catcher to lead the NL in hitting since Ernie Lombardi of the Boston Braves in 1942. He also became only the second San Francisco Giant to win the batting title, following Barry Bonds in 2002 and 2004. Posey's .433 batting average against left-handed pitching (71 for 164) led all batters in the major leagues in 2012.

In Game 5 of the NLDS against the Reds on October 11, Posey hit a grand slam off of Reds starter Mat Latos to give the Giants a 6–0 lead and subsequently won the game. The Giants become the second NL team to win a Division Series after being down two games to none and first since the LDS became a permanent standard in the playoffs in 1995. Posey became just the third catcher in MLB history to hit a grand slam in the playoffs, along with Berra and Eddie Pérez. He also completed a strikeout-throw out double play at third base in the sixth inning to help preserve the victory. He batted .154 with four hits and one RBI in the NLCS as the Giants defeated the Cardinals in seven games. He hit a two-run home run against Max Scherzer in Game 4 of the World Series as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers, giving Posey his second World Series championship.

After the season, the Baseball Writers' Association of America named Posey the NL MVP. He won the Silver Slugger Award for the catcher position. He won the NL Hank Aaron Award, and Miguel Cabrera of the Tigers won the American League (AL) award, marking the first time in history that World Series opponents won the award in the same year. He was named the NL Comeback Player of the Year, and he received the Willie Mac Award from the Giants' organization.

#### 2013

Eligible for salary arbitration for the first time, Posey signed a one-year, \$8 million contract with the Giants prior to the 2013 spring training season. On March 29, Posey agreed to an eight-year contract extension worth \$167 million, said by the Giants to be the most lucrative in franchise history. The contract wiped out three arbitration years and five years of free agency for Posey, locking in his services through the 2021 season with a club option for 2022. The agreement was the second largest in major league history for a catcher, exceeded only by that of Joe Mauer in 2010 with the Minnesota Twins.

On July 1, 2013, Posey was named National League Player of the Week for the week of June 23 – 29. It was the second time Posey earned the award during his career, and the first since 2010. In six games Posey hit .500, to raise his average from .307 to .322, had an on-base percentage of .560, a slugging percentage of 1.182, stroked four home runs, and drove in six.

On July 13, 2013, Posey caught Tim Lincecum's first no-hitter against the San Diego Padres. The no-hitter also marks the 15th ever in Giants history as well as the second performed in an away ballpark.

On July 16, 2013, Posey played in his second straight All-Star Game, striking out in his only at-bat.

Posey's offense regressed in 2013 following his 2012 MVP season, especially in the second half of the season where he hit just 3 home runs. However, he still finished with a solid .294 batting average, 15 home runs and 72 runs batted in.

#### 2014

On June 25, 2014, in a 4–0 win over the San Diego Padres and playing first base, Posey caught the final out of Tim Lincecum's second career no-hitter.

On July 13, 2014, Posey and pitcher Madison Bumgarner hit grand slams against the Arizona Diamondbacks. It marked the first time in Major League Baseball history that a catcher and a pitcher hit grand slams in the same game.

On August 29, 2014, in a 13–2 win over the Milwaukee Brewers at Oracle Park (then known as AT&T Park), Posey went 5-for-5 in 6 innings, and became the only catcher in Giants franchise history to have two career five-hit games.

Posey finished the 2014 season with a .311 batting average, 22 home runs, and 89 RBIs. In the 2014 World Series, the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games, giving Posey his third championship in five years. This win made Posey the second player in Major League history after Pete Rose to win the Rookie of the Year, a League MVP, and three World Series championships.

#### 2015

Posey caught Santiago Casilla's immaculate inning save in May 2015 against the Cincinnati Reds, the first time that the Giants had struck out all three opposing batters in an inning on nine pitches since Trevor Wilson accomplished the feat in 1992.

On June 9, 2015, Posey caught rookie Chris Heston's no-hitter against the New York Mets at Citi Field, including the final out, a strikeout. It marks the seventeenth no-hitter in Giants franchise history. This was the third no-hitter during which Posey played catcher and the fourth overall, as he started at first base in Tim Lincecum's second career no-hitter. This puts him one behind the record for no-hitters caught, held by the Philadelphia Phillies' Carlos Ruiz and the Boston Red Sox' Jason Varitek.

On June 19, 2015, in a 9–5 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium, Posey hit a grand slam and stole a base, becoming the first Giants catcher in 112 years since Roger Bresnahan to accomplish the feat. Four days later, in a 6–0 win over the San Diego Padres at Oracle Park, Posey hit another grand slam. On July 5, 2015, Posey was selected to his third career All-Star Game and was number one in voting for NL catchers. On September 6, 2015, at Coors Field, in a 7–4 win over the Colorado Rockies, Posey hit his 100th career home run.

On November 11, 2015, Posey was named winner of the 2015 Wilson Defensive Player of the Year award, given to the best defensive catcher in MLB. The following day, Posey was named winner of the 2015 National League Silver Slugger award at catcher. Posey finished 2015 with a .318 batting average, 19 home runs, and 95 RBIs.

#### 2016

On May 28, in a 10–5 win over the Colorado Rockies at Coors Field, Posey hit two three-run home runs en route to a career-high six runs batted in. It is the second most RBIs in a single game by a Giants catcher since the team moved to San Francisco.

Posey was selected by fan voting to start at catcher in the 2016 MLB All Star Game, Posey's fourth career MLB All-Star Game, the most all-time by a Giants catcher in franchise history. He was the catcher for battery mate Johnny Cueto, the second battery mate he started and caught for in the Midsummer Classic after teammate Matt Cain in 2012.

On September 27, in a 12–3 win over the Colorado Rockies, Posey recorded the 1,000th hit of his career, a solo home run off of Germán Márquez.

Posey finished the 2016 season with a .288 batting average, 14 home runs, and 80 RBIs. He also won his first Gold Glove Award. Though he has been amongst the league leaders in advanced defensive metrics for the past several seasons, it was the first time he received recognition for it. He is also highly regarded for handling his pitching staff as well as pitch framing.

#### 2017

While batting in the first inning in San Francisco's 2017 home opener, Posey was hit in the helmet by a 94 mph (151 km/h) pitch from Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Taijuan Walker. Although Posey felt OK after receiving medical attention, Giants manager Bruce Bochy removed him from the game to undergo further tests. He was placed on the seven-day concussion disabled list the next day.

From May 8–10, Posey hit home runs in three consecutive games against the New York Mets at Citi Field. On May 12, Posey hit a walk-off home run in the bottom of the 17th inning against the Cincinnati Reds after catching all 17 innings. The home run set a new Giants franchise record for latest walk-off home run, surpassing the 16th-inning home run hit by Willie Mays on July 2, 1963.

Owning a league-leading .339 batting average with ten home runs, Posey was named starting catcher for the 2017 MLB All-Star Game, his third consecutive All-Star start. He ended the season batting .320/.400/.462.

End of season awards for Posey included selection as catcher on Baseball America's All-MLB Team.

#### 2018

Batting .285 with five home runs and 27 RBIs in 74 games, Posey was named to the 2018 MLB All-Star Game, but did not participate due to a hip injury. On August 25, the Giants announced that Posey would have season-ending hip surgery and be out 6–8 months. He ended the season batting .284/.359/.382.

#### 2019

In 2019, he batted .257/.320/.368 with 43 runs, 7 home runs, and 38 RBIs in 405 at bats. His .302 career batting average was 8th-best among active major league players.

#### 2020

Posey opted out of playing in the shortened 2020 season, largely due to his ongoing adoption of premature twin girls and the COVID-19 pandemic.

#### 2021

Posey became the longest-tenured member of the Giants when he returned. In 2021, on his first swing since the 2019 season, Posey hit a solo home run off Marco Gonzales. Posey became the first player in franchise history to catch 1,000 games for the Giants. He was an NL All Star; it was his 7th time as an All Star.

In the 2021 regular season he batted .304/.390/.499, with his .889 OPS the second-highest of his career, with 68 runs, 18 home runs, and 56 RBIs in 395 at bats. According to ESPN Stats & Info, he joins Lou Brock, Will Clark, Roberto Clemente, David Ortiz, and Kirby Puckett as the sixth and only players to hit .300 in their final seasons in MLB's divisional play era (1969–present). His .304 batting average is the highest ever by a catcher in their final season, making him the only catcher to bat over .300 in their final season. On defense, he caught 31.1% of attempted base-stealers, 4th-best in the NL. At season-end, his .302 career batting average was 6th-highest among active players, and he was 4th of all active players in games played as a catcher, with 1,093.

In Game 1 of the 2021 NLDS, Posey nearly became the first right-handed batter to homer into McCovey Cove as a 3–0 shot off of opposing starter Walker Buehler bounced off a water tower and then into the bay (a home run must enter the water on the fly to be considered a "splash hit"). The Giants ultimately lost the series 3–2 to the Dodgers. He received the NL Silver Slugger award at catcher, his fifth overall Silver Slugger and his first since 2016, along with his second NL Comeback Player of the Year award.

Posey announced his retirement from baseball on November 4, 2021, making him just the fifth player in the San Francisco era to spend his entire career with the Giants (minimum of 10 seasons), joining Jim Davenport (1958–1970), Scott Garrelts (1982–1991), Robby Thompson (1986–1996) and former battery mate Matt Cain (2005–2017).

#### Career statistics

In 1371 games over 12 seasons, Posey posted a .302 batting average (1500-for-4970) with 663 runs, 293 doubles, 158 home runs, 729 RBI, 540 walks, .372 on-base percentage, and .460 slugging percentage. Defensively, he recorded a .995 fielding percentage in 1093 games played as a catcher and a .995 fielding percentage in 229 games played at first base. In 58 postseason games, he hit .252 (57-for-226) with 18 runs, 6 doubles, 5 home runs, 25 RBI and 23 walks.

## Accomplishments and Honors

## Post-playing career

On September 21, 2022, the Giants announced that Posey had joined the 30-member ownership group of the Giants and will serve on its board of directors.

## Personal life

Posey married his high school sweetheart, Kristen, on January 10, 2009. They had twins (a son and a daughter) in 2011. They adopted twin girls in 2020. Posey and his family lived in the East Bay during his career. After announcing his retirement, Posey and his wife sold their East Bay home and moved back to their home state of Georgia to be closer to their relatives. Posey is a Methodist Christian and served as the baseball chapel representative for the Giants. Posey's younger sister, Samantha, played softball for Valdosta State University.

## See also

- List of Florida State University people
- List of Major League Baseball career games played as a catcher leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a catcher leaders
- List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise

American baseball player (born 1987)

Baseball players from Georgia (U.S. state)

Florida State Seminoles baseball players

Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners

National League Most Valuable Player Award winners

World Baseball Classic players of the United States


Music in the movement against apartheid

The apartheid regime in South Africa began in 1948 and lasted until 1994. It involved a system of institutionalized racial segregation and white supremacy, and placed all political power in the hands of a white minority. Opposition to apartheid manifested in a variety of ways, including boycotts, non-violent protests, and armed resistance. Music played a large role in the movement against apartheid within South Africa, as well as in international opposition to apartheid. The impacts of songs opposing apartheid included raising awareness, generating support for the movement against apartheid, building unity within this movement, and "presenting an alternative vision of culture in a future democratic South Africa."

The lyrical content and tone of this music reflected the atmosphere that it was composed in. The protest music of the 1950s, soon after apartheid had begun, explicitly addressed peoples' grievances over pass laws and forced relocation. Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960 and the arrest or exile of a number of leaders, songs became more downbeat, while increasing censorship forced them to use subtle and hidden meanings. Songs and performance also allowed people to circumvent the more stringent restrictions on other forms of expression. At the same time, songs played a role in the more militant resistance that began in the 1960s. The Soweto uprising in 1976 led to a renaissance, with songs such as "Soweto Blues" encouraging a more direct challenge to the apartheid government. This trend intensified in the 1980s, with racially mixed fusion bands testing the laws of apartheid, before these were dismantled with the release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 and the eventual restoration of majority rule in 1994. Through its history, anti-apartheid music within South Africa faced significant censorship from the government, both directly and via the South African Broadcasting Corporation; additionally, musicians opposing the government faced threats, harassment, and arrests.

Musicians from other countries also participated in the resistance to apartheid, both by releasing music critical of the South African government, and by participating in a cultural boycott of South Africa from 1980 onward. Examples included "Biko" by Peter Gabriel, "Sun City" by Artists United Against Apartheid and a concert in honour of Nelson Mandela's 70th birthday. Prominent South African musicians such as Miriam Makeba and Hugh Masekela, forced into exile, also released music critical of apartheid, and this music had a significant impact on Western popular culture, contributing to the "moral outrage" over apartheid. Scholars have stated that anti-apartheid music within South Africa, although it received less attention worldwide, played an equally important role in putting pressure on the South African government.

## Background and origins

Racial segregation in South Africa had begun with the arrival of Dutch colonists in South Africa in 1652, and continued through centuries of British rule thereafter. Racial separation increased greatly after the British took complete control over South Africa in the late 19th century, and passed a number of laws early in the 1900s to separate racial groups. The 1923 Natives (Urban Areas) Act forced black South Africans to leave cities unless they were there to work for white people, and excluded them from any role in the government. The system of apartheid was implemented by the Afrikaner National Party (NP) after they were voted into power in 1948, and remained in place for 46 years. The white minority held all political power during this time. "Apartheid" meant "separateness" in the Afrikaans language, and involved a brutal system of racial segregation. Black South Africans were compelled to live in poor townships, and were denied basic human rights, based on the idea that South Africa belonged to white people. A prominent figure in the implementation of the apartheid laws was Hendrik Verwoerd, who was first Minister for Native Affairs and later Prime Minister in the NP government.

There was significant resistance to this system, both within and outside South Africa. Opposition outside the country often took the form of boycotts of South Africa. Within the country, resistance ranged from loosely organised groups to tightly knit ones, and from non-violent protests to armed opposition from the African National Congress. Through this entire process, music played a large role in the resistance. Music had been used in South Africa to protest racial segregation before apartheid began in 1948. The ANC had been founded in 1912, and would begin and end its meetings with its anthem "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", an early example of music in the resistance to racial segregation. Another such example was "iLand Act" by R. T. Caluza, which protested the Native Land Act, and was also adopted as an anthem by the ANC. Commentator Michela Vershbow has written that the music of the movement against apartheid and racial segregation "reflected [the] widening gap" between different racial groups and was also an attempt "to communicate across it". Music in South Africa had begun to have explicitly political overtones in the 1930s, as musicians tried to include African elements in their recordings and performances to make political statements. In the 1940s, artists had begun to use music to criticise the state, not directly in response to racial segregation, but as a response to persecution of artists. Artists did not see their music as being directly political: Miriam Makeba would state "people say I sing politics, but what I sing is not politics, it is the truth".

## South African music

### 1950s: Pass laws and resettlement

As the apartheid government became more entrenched in the 1950s, musicians came to see their music as more political in nature, led partly by a campaign of the African National Congress to increase its support. ANC activist and trade unionist Vuyisile Mini was among the pioneers of using music to protest apartheid. He penned "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd" ("Watch Out, Verwoerd"), in Xhosa. Poet Jeremy Cronin stated that Mini was the embodiment of the power that songs had built within the protect movement. Mini was arrested in 1963 for "political crimes," and sentenced to death; fellow inmates described him as singing "Ndodemnyama" as he went to the gallows. The song achieved enduring popularity, being sung until well after the apartheid government had collapsed by artists such as Makeba and Afrika Bambaataa. Protests songs became generally more popular during the 1950s, as a number of musicians began to voice explicit opposition to apartheid. "uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima" (Dr. Malan's Government is Harsh) by Dorothy Masuka became well-known, as did a number of songs by other women composers written as part of a campaign against carrying passes, which required black citizens to carry a document at all times showing their racial and tribal identity.

In 1954 the NP government passed the Bantu Resettlement Act, which, along with the 1950 Group Areas Act, forcibly moved millions of South Africans into townships in racially segregated zones. This was part of a plan to divide the country into a number of smaller regions, including tiny, impoverished bantustans where the black people were to live. In 1955, the settlement of Sophiatown was destroyed, and its 60,000 inhabitants moved, many to a settlement known as Meadowlands. Sophiatown had been a center of African jazz music prior to the relocation. The move was the inspiration for the writing of the song "Meadowlands", by Strike Vilakezi. As with many other songs of the time, it was popularised both within and outside the country by Miriam Makeba. Makeba's song "Sophiatown is Gone" also referred to the relocation from Sophiatown, as did "Bye Bye Sophiatown" by the Sun Valley Sisters. Music not directly related to the movement was also often harnessed during this period: the South African Communist Party would use such music for its fundraising dances, and the song "Udumo Lwamaphoyisa" (A Strong Police Force) was sung by lookouts to provide warnings of police presence and liquor raids.

### 1960s: Sharpeville massacre and militancy

The Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960, and in its aftermath apartheid was intensified and political dissent increasingly suppressed. The ANC and the Pan Africanist Conference were banned, and 169 black leaders were tried for treason. A number of musicians, including Makeba, Hugh Masekela, Abdullah Ibrahim, Jonas Gwangwa, Chris McGregor, and Kippie Moeketsie went into exile. Some, such as Makeba and Masekela, began using their music to raise awareness of apartheid. Those musicians that remained found their activities constrained. The new townships that black people had been moved to lacked facilities for recreation, and large gatherings of people were banned. The South African Broadcasting Corporation tightened its broadcasting guidelines, preventing "subversive" music from being aired. A recording by Masuka referring to the killing of Patrice Lumumba led to a raid on her studio and her being declared a wanted individual, preventing her from living in South Africa for the next 30 years.

The new townships that black people were moved to, despite their "dreary" nature, also inspired politically charged music, a trend which continued into the 1970s. "In Soweto" by The Minerals has been described as an "infectious celebration of a place" and of the ability of its residents to build a community there. Yakhal' Inkhomo ("The Bellowing of the Bull", 1968), by Winston "Mankunku" Ngozi, was a jazz anthem that also expressed the political energy of the period. Theatrical performances incorporating music were also a feature of the townships, often narrowly avoiding censorship. The cultural isolation forced by apartheid led to artists within South Africa creating local adaptations of popular genres, including rock music, soul, and jazz.

As the government became increasingly harsh in its response to growing protests, the resistance shifted from being completely non-violent towards armed action. Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders founded the uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), a militant wing of the ANC, which began a campaign of sabotage. During this period, music was often referred to as a "weapon of struggle." Among MK members in training camps, a song called "Sobashiy'abazali" ("We Will Leave Our Parents") became very popular, invoking as it did the pain of leaving their homes. The Toyi-toyi chant also became popular during this period, and was frequently used to generate a sense of power among large groups to intimidate government troops.

### 1970s: ANC cultural groups and Soweto uprising

In the early 1970s, the ANC held to the belief that its primary activity was political organising, and that any cultural activity was secondary to this. This belief began to shift with the establishment of the Mayibuye Cultural Ensemble in 1975, and the Amandla Cultural Ensemble later in the 1970s. Mayibuye was established as a growing number of ANC activists argued that cultural events needed to form a part of their work, and could be used to raise awareness of apartheid, gather support, and drive political change. The group was established by ANC activists Barry Feinberg and Ronnie Kasrils, who named it after the slogan Mayibuye iAfrika (Let Africa Return). The group consisted of several South African performers, and used a mixture of songs, poetry, and narrative in their performance, which described life under the apartheid government and their struggle against it. The songs were often performed in three- or four-part harmony. The group performed more than 200 times across Europe, and were seen as the cultural arm of the ANC. The group experienced personal and organisational difficulties, and disbanded in 1980.

In 1976 the government of South Africa decided to implement the use of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in all schools instead of English. In response, high school students began a series of protests that came to be known as the Soweto Uprising. 15,000–20,000 students took part; the police, caught unprepared, opened fire on the protesting children. 700 people were estimated to have been killed, and over a thousand injured. The killings sparked off several months of rioting in the Soweto townships, and the protests became an important moment for the anti-Apartheid movement. Hugh Masekela wrote Soweto Blues in response to the massacre, and the song was performed by Miriam Makeba, becoming a standard part of Makeba's live performances for many years. "Soweto Blues" was one of many melancholic songs composed by Masekela during this period that expressed his support of the anti-apartheid struggle, along with "Been Gone Far Too Long," "Mama," and "The Coal Train." Songs written after the Soweto uprising were generally political in nature, but used hidden meaning to avoid suppression, especially as the movement against apartheid gained momentum. A song by the band Juluka used a metaphor of fighting bulls to suggest the fall of apartheid. Many songs of this period became so widely known that their lyrics were frequently altered and adapted depending on the circumstances, making their authorship collective. Pianist Abdullah Ibrahim used purely musical techniques to convey subversive messages, by incorporating melodies from freedom songs into his improvisations. Ibrahim also composed "Mannenberg", described as the "most powerful anthem of the struggle in the 1980s", which had no lyrics but drew on a number of aspects of black South African culture, including church music, jazz, marabi, and blues, to create a piece that conveyed a sense of freedom and cultural identity.

The importance that the anti-apartheid movement among South African exiles increased in the late 1970s, driven partly by the activities of Mayibuye. The Amandla Cultural Ensemble drew together among militant ANC activities living in Angola and elsewhere in this period, influenced by Mayibuye, as well as the World Black Festival of Arts and Culture that was held in Nigeria in 1977. As with Mayibuye, the group tried to use their performances to raise awareness and generate support for the ANC; however, they relied chiefly on new material composed by their own members, such as Jonas Gwangwa. Popular songs performed by the group were selected for or adapted to a militaristic and faster tone and tempo; at the same time, the tenor of the groups performance tended to be more affirmative, and less antagonistic and sarcastic, than that of Mayibuye. Members often struggled to balance their commitments to the ensemble with their military activities, which were often seen as their primary job; some, such as Nomkhosi Mini, daughter of Vuyisile Mini, were killed in military action while they were performing with Amandla. Such artists also faced pressure to use their performance solely in the service of the political movement, without monetary reward. Amandla had carefully crafted performances of music and theater, with a much larger ensemble than Mayibuye, which included a jazz band. The influence of these groups would last beyond the 1970s: a "Culture and Resistance" conference was held in Botswana in 1982, and the ANC established a "Department of Arts and Culture" in 1985.

### 1980s: Direct confrontation

The 1980s saw increasing protests against apartheid by black organisations such as the United Democratic Front. Protest music once again became directly critical of the state; examples included "Longile Tabalaza" by Roger Lucey, which attacked the secret police through lyrics about a young man who is arrested by the police and dies in custody. Protesters in the 1980s took to the streets with the intention of making the country "ungovernable", and the music reflected this new militancy. Major protests took place after the inauguration of a "Tri-cameral" parliament (which had separate representation for Indians, Colored people, and white South Africans, but not for black South Africans) in 1984, and in 1985 the government declared a state of emergency. The music became more radical and more urgent as the protests grew in size and number, now frequently invoking and praising the guerrilla movements that had gained steam after the Soweto uprising. The song "Shona Malanga" (Sheila's Day), originally about domestic workers, was adapted to refer to the guerrilla movement. The Toyi-toyi was once again used in confrontations with government forces.

The Afrikaner-dominated government sought to counter these with increasingly frequent states of emergency. During this period, only a few Afrikaners expressed sentiments against apartheid. The Voëlvry movement among Afrikaners began in the 1980s in response with the opening of Shifty Mobile Recording Studio. Voëlvry sought to express opposition to apartheid in Afrikaans. The goal of Voëlvry musicians was to persuade Afrikaner youth of the changes their culture had to undergo to achieve racial equality. Prominent members in this phenomenon were Ralph Rabie, under the stage name Johannes Kerkorrel, Andre du Toit, and Bernoldus Niemand. Racially integrated bands playing various kinds of fusion became more common as the 1980s progressed; their audiences came from across racial lines, itself a subversive act, as racial segregation was still embedded in the law. The racially mixed Juluka, led by Johnny Clegg, remained popular through the 1970s and early 1980s. The government tried to harness this popularity by sponsoring a multi-lingual song titled "Together We Will Build a Brighter Future," but the release, during a period of great political unrest, caused further anger at the government, and protests forced the song to be withdrawn before commercial sales were made.

Among the most popular anti-apartheid songs in South Africa was "Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)" by Hugh Masekela. Nelson Mandela was a great fan of Masekela's music, and on Masekela's birthday in 1985, smuggled out a letter to him expressing his good wishes. Masekela was inspired to write "Bring Him Back Home" in response. Sam Raditlhalo writes that the reception of Mandela's letter, and the writing of Bring Him Back Home, marked Masekela being labelled an anti-apartheid activist. Mandela was also invoked in "Black President" by Brenda Fassie; composed in 1988, this song explicitly invoked Mandela's eventual presidency. Mandela was released in 1990 and went on a post-freedom tour of North America with Winnie. In Boston, he danced as "Bring Him Back Home" was played after his speech. Mandela's release triggered a number of celebratory songs. These included a "peace song", composed by Chicco Twala, and featuring a number of artists, including Masekela, Fassie, and Yvonne Chaka Chaka. The proceeds from this piece went to the "Victims of Violence" fund. Majority rule was restored to South Africa in 1994, ending the period of apartheid.

## Outside South Africa

Musicians from other countries also participated in resistance to apartheid. Several musicians from Europe and North America refused to perform in South Africa during the apartheid regime: these included The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and the Walker Brothers. After the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the Musicians' Union in the UK announced a boycott of the government. The first South African activist to receive widespread attention outside South Africa was Steve Biko when he died in police custody in 1977. His death inspired a number of songs from artists outside the country, including from Tom Paxton and Peter Hammill. The most famous of these was the song "Biko" by Peter Gabriel. U2 lead singer Bono was among the people who said that the song was the first time he had heard about apartheid. Musicians from other parts of Africa also wrote songs to support the movement; Nigeria's Sonny Okosun drew attention to apartheid with songs such as "Fire in Soweto", described by the Los Angeles Times as an "incendiary reggae jam".

### Cultural boycott

A cultural boycott of the apartheid government had been suggested in 1954 by English Anglican bishop Trevor Huddleston. In 1968 the United Nations passed a resolution asking members to cut any "cultural, educational, and sporting ties with the racist regime", thereby bringing pressure to bear on musicians and other performers to avoid playing in South Africa. In 1980, the UN passed a resolution allowing a cultural boycott of South Africa. The resolution named Nelson Mandela, and his profile was raised further by the ANC deciding to focus its campaign on him in 1982, 20 years after he had been imprisoned. In 1983, Special AKA released their song "Free Nelson Mandela", an optimistic finale to their debut album, which was generally sombre. The song was produced by Elvis Costello, and had a backing chorus composed of members of the Specials and the Beat, which created a mood of "joyous solidarity". The lyrics to the song were written by Jerry Dammers. Dammers also founded the British branch of the organisation Artists United Against Apartheid. The song was quickly embraced by the movement against apartheid. It was used by the UN and the ANC, and demonstrators would frequently sing it during marches and rallies. The chorus was catchy and straightforward, making it easy to remember. Dammers utilised the association with the anti-apartheid movement to popularise the song, by putting an image of Mandela on the front of the cover for the album, and placing information about the apartheid regime on the back.

In the late 1980s, Paul Simon caused controversy when he chose to record his album Graceland in South Africa, along with a number of Black African musicians. He received sharp criticism for breaking the cultural boycott. In 1987 he claimed to have received clearance from the ANC: however, he was contradicted by Dali Tambo, the son of ANC president Oliver Tambo, and the founder of Artists United Against Apartheid. As a way out of the fracas, Hugh Masekela, who had known Simon for many years, proposed a joint musical tour, which would include songs from Graceland as well as from black South African artists. Miriam Makeba was among the musicians featured on the Graceland Tour. Masekela justified the tour saying that the cultural boycott had led to a "lack of growth" in South African music. However, when the group played in the UK at the Royal Albert Hall, there were protests outside, in which Dammers participated, along with Billy Bragg and Paul Weller. Songs performed on the tour included "Soweto Blues", sung by Makeba, along with many other anti-apartheid songs.

### Sun City and aftermath

During the same period as the controversy over "Graceland", Steven van Zandt, upset by the fact that artists from Europe and North America were willing to perform in Sun City, a whites-only luxury resort in the "homeland" of Bophutatswana, persuaded artists including Bono, Bruce Springsteen, and Miles Davis, to come together to record the single "Sun City", which was released in 1985. The single achieved its aim of stigmatising the resort. The album was described as the "most political of all of the charity rock albums of the 1980s". "Sun City" was explicitly critical of the foreign policy of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, stating that he had failed to take firm action against apartheid. As a result, only about half of American radio stations played "Sun City." Meanwhile, "Sun City" was a major success in countries where there was little or no radio station resistance to the record or its messages, reaching No. 4 in Australia, No. 10 in Canada and No. 21 in the UK.

A number of prominent anti-apartheid songs were released in the years that followed. Stevie Wonder released "It's Wrong", and was also arrested for protesting against apartheid outside the South African embassy in Washington, D.C. A song popular with younger audiences was "I've Never Met a Nice South African" by Spitting Image, which released the song as a b-side to their successful "The Chicken Song". Eddy Grant, a Guyanese-British reggae musician, released "Gimme Hope Jo'anna" (Jo'Anna being Johannesburg). Other performers released music which referenced Steve Biko. Labi Siffre's "(Something Inside) So Strong", a UK top 5 hit single in 1987, was adopted as an anti-apartheid anthem.

In 1988, Dammers and Jim Kerr, the vocalist of Simple Minds, organised a concert in honour of Mandela's 70th birthday. The concert was held at Wembley Stadium, and ended with the songs "Biko," "Sun City", and "Bring Him Back Home". Dammers and Simple Minds also performed their own anti-apartheid songs: "Free Nelson Mandela" and "Mandela Day", respectively. Other acts performing at the concert included Stevie Wonder, Whitney Houston, Sting, Salt-N-Pepa, Dire Straits and Eurythmics. The event was broadcast to a TV audience of approximately 600 million people. Political aspects of the concert were heavily censored in the United States by the Fox television network, which rebranded it as "Freedomfest". The use of music to raise awareness about apartheid paid off: a survey after the concert found that among people aged between 16 and 24, three-fourths knew of Nelson Mandela, and supported his release from prison. Although the cultural boycott had succeeded in isolating the apartheid government culturally, it also affected musicians who had worked against apartheid within South Africa; thus Johnny Clegg and Savuka were forbidden from playing at the concert.

## Lyrical and musical themes

The lyrics of anti-apartheid protest music often used subversive meanings hidden under innocuous lyrics, partially as a consequence of the censorship that they experienced. Purely musical techniques were also used to convey meaning. The tendency to use hidden meaning increased as the government grew less tolerant from the 1950s to the 1980s. Popular protest songs of the 1950s often directly addressed politicians. "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd" by Mini told Hendrik Verwoerd "Naants'indod'emnyama, Verwoerd bhasobha" (beware of the advancing blacks), while a song referring to pass laws in 1956 included the phrase "Hey Strydom, Wathint'a bafazi, way ithint'imbodoko uzaKufa" (Strydom, now that you have touched the women, you have struck a rock, you have dislodged a boulder, and you will be crushed). Following the Sharpeville massacre songs became less directly critical of the government, and more mournful. "Thina Sizwe" included references to stolen land, was described as depicting emotional desolation, while "Senzeni Na" (what have we done) achieved the same effect by repeating that phrase a number of times. Some musicians adapted innocuous popular tunes and modified their lyrics, thereby avoiding the censors. The Soweto uprising marked a turning point in the movement, as songs written in the 1980s again became more direct, with the appearance of musicians such as Lucey, who "believed in an in‐your‐face, tell‐it‐like‐it‐is approach". Lyrics from this period included calls such as "They are lying to themselves. Arresting us, killing us, won't work. We'll still fight for our land," and "The whites don't negotiate with us, so let's fight".

A number of South African "Freedom Songs" had musical origins in makwaya, or choir music, which combined elements of Christian hymns with traditional South African musical forms. The songs were often short and repetitive, using a "call-and-response" structure. The music was primarily in indigenous languages such as Xhosa or Zulu, as well as in English. Melodies used in these songs were often very straightforward. Songs in the movement portrayed basic symbols that were important in South Africa—re-purposing them to represent their message of resistance to apartheid. This trend had begun decades previously when South African jazz musicians had added African elements to jazz music adapted from the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. Voëlvry musicians used rock and roll music to represent traditional Afrikaans songs and symbols. Groups affiliated with the Black Consciousness movement also began incorporating traditional material into their music: the jazz-fusion group Malombo, for example, used traditional rhythms of the Venda people to communicate pride in African culture, often with music that was not explicitly political. While musicians such as Makeba, performing outside South Africa, felt an obligation to write political lyrics, musicians within the country often held that there was no divide between revolutionary music and, for instance, love songs, because the struggle of living a normal life was also a political one. Vusi Mahlasela would write in 1991: "So who are they who say no more love poems now? I want to sing a song of love for that woman who jumped fences pregnant and still gave birth to a healthy child."

The lyrical and musical tone of protest songs varied with the circumstances they were written and composed in. The lyrics of "Bring Him Back Home", for example, mention Mandela "walking hand in hand with Winnie Mandela," his wife at the time. The melody used in the song is upbeat and anthem-like. It employs a series of trumpet riffs by Masekela, supported by grand series of chords. Music review website AllMusic describes the melody as "filled with the sense of camaraderie and celebration that are referred to in the lyrics. The vocal choir during the joyous chorus is extremely moving and life affirming". In contrast, the lyrics of "Soweto Blues" refer to the children's protests and the resulting massacre in the Soweto uprising. A review stated that the song had "searingly righteous lyrics" that "cut to the bone." Musically, the song has a background of mbaqanga guitar, bass, and multi-grooved percussion. Makeba uses this as a platform for vocals that are half-sung and half-spoken, similar to blues music.

## Censorship and resistance

The apartheid government greatly limited freedom of expression, through censorship, reduced economic freedom, and reduced mobility for black people. However, it did not have the resources to effectively enforce censorship of written and recorded material. The government established the Directorate of Publications in 1974 through the Publications Act, but this body only responded to complaints, and took decisions about banning material that was submitted to it. Less than one hundred pieces of music were formally banned by this body in the 1980s. Thus music and performance played an important role in propagating subversive messages.

However, the government used its control of the South African Broadcasting Corporation to prevent "undesirable" songs from being played (which included political or rebellious music, and music with "blasphemous" or overtly sexual lyrics), and to enforce its ideal of a cultural separation between racial groups, in addition to physical separation it had created. Radio and television broadcasts were area-specific such that members of different racial groups received different programs, and music was selected keeping the ideology of the government in mind. Music that used slang or more than one language faced censorship. Artists were required to submit both their lyrics and their music to be scrutinised by the SABC committee, which banned thousands of songs. For instance, Shifty Records, from the time of its establishment in 1982 until the end of the 1980s, had 25 music albums and seven singles banned by the Directorate of Publications because of political content and a further 16 for other reasons such as blasphemy and obscenity.

As a result of the practices of the SABC, record companies began putting pressure on their artists to avoid controversial songs, and often also made changes to songs they were releasing. Individuals were expected to racially segregate their musical choices as well: mixed-race bands were sometimes forced to play with some members behind a curtain, and people who listened to music composed by members of a different race faced government suspicion. Many black musicians faced harassment from the police; Jonas Gwangwa stated that performers were often stopped and required to explain their presence in "white" localities. Black musicians were forbidden from playing at venues when alcohol was sold, and performers were required to have an extra "night pass" to be able to work in the evenings. Further restrictions were placed by the government each time it declared a state of emergency, and internal security legislation was also used to ban material. Music from artists outside the country was also targeted by the censors; all songs by The Beatles were banned in the 1960s, and Stevie Wonder's music was banned in 1985, after he dedicated his Oscar award to Mandela. Two independent radio stations, Capital Radio and Radio 702 came into being in 1979 and 1980, respectively. Since these were based in the "independent" homelands of Transkei and Bophutatswana, respectively, they were nominally not bound by the government's regulations. Although they tended to follow the decisions of the Directorate, they also played music by bands such as Juluka, which were not featured by the SABC. Neither station, however, played "Sun City" when it was released in 1985, as the owners of the Sun City resort had partial ownership of both stations.

A large number of musicians, including Masekela and Makeba, as well as Abdullah Ibrahim were driven into exile by the apartheid government. Songs written by these people were prohibited from being broadcast, as were all songs that opposed the apartheid government. Most of the anti-apartheid songs of the period were censored by the apartheid government. "Bring Him Back Home" was banned in South Africa by the government upon its release. Nonetheless, it became a part of the number of musical voices protesting the apartheid regime, and became an important song for the anti-apartheid movement in the late 1980s. It was declared to be "clean" by the South African government following Mandela's release from prison in 1990.

Artists within South Africa sometimes used subtle lyrics to avoid the censors. The song "Weeping for His Band Bright Blue" by Dan Heymann, a "reluctant army conscript", used "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", an anthem of the ANC that had been banned, as the backdrop for symbolic lyrics about a man living in fear of an oppressive society. The censor failed to notice this, and the song became immensely popular, reaching No 1 on the government's own radio station. Similarly, jazz musicians would often incorporate melodies of freedom songs into their improvisations. Yvonne Chaka Chaka used the phrase "Winning my dear love" in place of "Winnie Mandela", while a compilation album released by Shifty Records was titled "A Naartjie in Our Sosatie", which literally meant "a tangerine in our kebab", but represented the phrase "Anarchy in our Society", a play on words that was not picked up by the censors. Keith Berelowitz would later state that he had submitted fake lyrics, replacing controversial terms with innocuous, similar sounding ones. Some artists, however, avoided explicitly political music altogether: scholar Michael Drewett has written that even when musicians avoided political messages, achieving financial success "despite lack of education, poverty, urban squalor, and other difficulties was certainly a triumph" and that such success was part of the struggle to live normally under apartheid.

Other bands used more direct lyrics, and faced censorship and harassment as a result. Savuka, a multi-racial band, were often arrested or had their concerts raided for playing their song "Asimbonanga", which was dedicated to Biko, Mandela, and others associated with the anti-apartheid movement. A musical tour by Voëlvry musicians faced significant opposition from the government. Major surveillance and threats from police sparked trouble at the beginning of the tour, which created issues over suitable venues, and the musicians were forced to play in abandoned buildings. After Roger Lucey wrote a song critical of the secret police, he received threatening visits by them late at night, and had tear gas poured into an air-conditioning unit during one of his concerts. Lucey's producers were intimidated by the security forces, and his musical recordings confiscated: Lucey himself abandoned his musical career. The song was banned, and an individual could be jailed for five years for owning a copy of it. Musician and public speaker Mzwakhe Mbuli faced more violent reactions: he was shot at, and a grenade was thrown at his house. After the release of his first album "Change is Pain" in 1986, he was arrested and tortured: the album was banned. The concerts of Juluka were sometimes broken up by the police, and musicians were often arrested under the "pass laws" of the apartheid government. When they were stopped, black musicians were often asked to play for the police, to prove that they were in fact musicians.

## Analysis

Commentators have stated that as with many social movements, music played a large role in the resistance to apartheid. Writing in the Inquiries Journal, scholar Michela Vershbow writes that although the music of the anti-apartheid movement could not and did not create social change in isolation, it acted as a means of unification, as a way of raising awareness of apartheid, and allowed people from different cultural background to find commonality. Protest songs were often used by the anti-apartheid movement as a means of building unity and inspiring its followers. According to Vershbow, "The communal ownership of liberation songs, and the adoptability of their message within different movements, allows for them to strengthen, mobilise, and unify a community." Music and cultural performances were put to several uses by the South African diaspora, such as the ANC cultural ensembles Mayibuye and Amandla. The groups themselves intended their performances to raise awareness of apartheid outside South Africa (sometimes described as raising consciousness), and to generate support for their activities, as well as to raise funds for the ANC. In addition, they filled the role of "presenting an alternative vision of culture in a future democratic South Africa."

Music scholar Anne Schumann writes that music protesting apartheid became a part of Western popular culture, and the "moral outrage" about apartheid in the west was influenced by this music. The cultural boycott, and the criticism that Paul Simon received for breaking it, was an example of how closely connected music had become to politics with respect to apartheid.

There has been occasional tension between those musicians who went into exile, and were therefore able to perform for, and raise awareness among, much larger audiences, and anti-apartheid musicians who remained in South Africa. The latter group has received significantly less popular attention, though Vershbow states that it played an equally important role in the movement, and Schumann argues that it was responsible for putting significant pressure on the apartheid government. The role of music in social change in South African is examined in the documentary film Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony, released in 2002. The film focuses specifically on the 'liberation music' of the struggle against white domination.

Scholars have suggested that oral traditions in general and poetry in particular was well placed to play a part in cultural resistance to apartheid. Music and poetry were more accessible to a large number of South Africans than written material (partly due to the restrictions placed by apartheid). Music, poetry, and storytelling also formed part of the everyday life of a number of South Africans, and protest songs emerged from these traditions. In addition, poetry was traditionally seen by some South Africans as a legitimate means of criticising authority, with poetic licence allowing artists to say things that would otherwise not be acceptable.

## Prominent examples

The following is a partial list of songs, ordered chronologically, that have been described by scholars and commentators as significant examples of music in the movement against apartheid.

- "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", 1897, Enoch Sontonga.
- "iLand Act, year unknown, R. T. Caluza.
- "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd", year unknown, Vuyisile Mini.
- "Senzeni Na?", year unknown, composer unknown.
- "Thina Sizwe", year unknown, composer unknown.
- "Meadowlands", 1955, Strike Vilakazi.
- "uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima", year unknown, Dorothy Masuka.
- "Sophiatown is Gone", year unknown, Miriam Makeba.
- "Bye Bye Sophiatown, year unknown, Sun Valley Sisters.
- "Mannenberg", 1974, Abdullah Ibrahim.
- "Johannesburg", 1975, Gil-Scott Heron.
- "In Soweto", 1975, The Minerals.
- "Soweto Blues", 1977, Hugh Masekela/Miriam Makeba.
- "Fire in Soweto", 1978, Sonny Okosun.
- "Afrikaans", 1979, Resurrection Band.
- "Biko", 1980, Peter Gabriel.
- "Longile Tabalaza", year unknown, Roger Lucey.
- "Free Nelson Mandela", 1984, The Special AKA.
- "It's Wrong", 1985, Stevie Wonder.
- "Sun City" (aka "I Ain't Gonna Play Sun City"), 1985, Steven Van Zandt/Artists United Against Apartheid.
- "Nelson Mandela", 1986, Youssou N'Dour.
- "(Waiting For) The Ghost Train", 1986, Madness.
- "I've Never Met a Nice South African", 1986, Spitting Image.
- "Bring Him Back Home", 1987, Hugh Masekela.
- "Asimbonanga", 1987, Johnny Clegg/Savuka.
- "(Something Inside) So Strong", 1987, Labi Siffre.
- "Weeping", 1987, Dan Heymann/Bright Blue.
- "Mandela Day", 1988, Simple Minds.
- "The End is Near", 1988, The Malopoets.
- "My Black President", 1989, Brenda Fassie.
- "Nelson Mandela", 1994, Sipho Mabuse.

One of the methods of opposition used against the apartheid regime

International opposition to apartheid in South Africa