Africans, Diets of

Photo by: urosr

Africa, the second largest continent in the world, is rich in geographic
and cultural
diversity
. It is a land populated by peoples with histories dating to ancient times
and cultures shaped by innumerable tribes, languages, and traditions.
Because it is the birthplace of
Homo sapiens
and the land of origin for much of the world's population, the
culture of food and eating in the different regions of Africa is important
to people throughout the world.

Early History of Africa

The early history of man is the story of food in Africa.
Homo sapiens
evolved apart from other apes in Africa, and the adaptation of humans has
been shaped by adaptations to
diet
. For example, some anthropologists believe
that the selection pressure that led to bipedalism (walking on two legs)
was an adaptation to changing environments that involved travel in search
of tubers (rounded underground plant stems, such as potatoes).
Africa's history includes some of humankind's earliest food
production, with one of the most fertile centers located in Northern
Africa, the Nile Valley. The Nile Valley historically was and continues to
be a rich source of fish, animal, and plant food. In the drier African
savannas, especially after the Sahara region became arid after 6000
B.C.E., nomad tribes raised cattle, goats, or sheep, which served as part
of the tribes' food source. Crops that were less affected by
extreme weather like cereals (such as wheat, barley, millet, and sorghum)
and tubers (such as yams) slowly became popular throughout the continent
and have remained important
staples
in the African diet today.

The African Climate and Terrain.

The historic influences on the African diet began in ancient times and
continue to the present day. Great geographic differences across the
African continent caused much of the variety in the African diet. In
addition, many tribes and peoples migrated or traded, bringing spices and
foods from each other's culture into their own. However, though
each region of Africa has its distinct
cuisines
, African food has its basic staples.

The African Diet

Throughout Africa, the main meal of the day is lunch, which usually
consists of a mixture of vegetables,
legumes
, and sometimes meat. However, though different meats are considered
staples in many areas, many Africans are not able to eat meat often, due
to economic constraints. Beef, goat, and sheep (mutton) are quite
expensive in Africa, so these foods are reserved for special days.
However, fish is abundant in coastal regions and in many lakes.

The combination of various foods is called stew, soup, or sauce, depending
on the region. This mixture is then served over a porridge or mash made
from a root vegetable such as cassava or a grain such as rice, corn,
millet, or teff. Regional differences are reflected in variations on this
basic meal, primarily in the contents of the stew. The greatest variety of
ingredients occurs in coastal areas and in the fertile highlands.
Flavorings and spiciness have varied principally due to local histories of
trade. In the traditional African diet, meat and fish are not the focus of
a meal, but are instead used to enhance the stew that accompanies the mash
or porridge. Meat is rarely eaten, though it is well-liked among
carnivorous (meat-eating) Africans.

Traditional Cooking Methods.

Traditional ways of cooking involve steaming food in leaf wrappers (banana
or corn husks), boiling, frying in oil, grilling beside a fire, roasting
in a fire, or baking in ashes. Africans normally cook outdoors or in a
building separate from the living quarters. African kitchens commonly have
a stew pot sitting on three stones arranged around a fire. In Africa,
meals are normally eaten with the hands.

North Africa

The countries of North Africa that border the Mediterranean Sea are
largely Muslim countries. As a result, their diet reflects Islamic
traditions. The religion of Islam does not permit eating pork or any
animal product that has

North African cuisine reflects the Islamic traditions of the region.
Here, a man cooks with traditional Moroccan
tajines,
conical clay pots used for lamb stews and curries.

[Photograph by Owen Franken. Corbis. Reproduced by permission.]

not been butchered in accordance with the traditions of the faith. Like
other regions of Africa, much of the diet is based on grains. However,
cooking with olive oil, onions, and garlic is more common in the countries
of North Africa. Notable spices include cumin, caraway, clove, and
cinnamon. Flat breads are a common staple and can accompany any meal,
including breakfast, which is usually porridge prepared from millet or
chickpea flour.
Couscous
(made from hard wheat and millet) is often the main dish at lunch, which
is the primary meal. This may be accompanied by vegetable salads. Other
main dishes include
tajine,
named for the conical clay pot in which a whole meal is prepared. Lamb is
cooked in tajines as well as on kabobs (roasted on a skewer). Vegetables
include okra, meloukhia (spinach-like greens), and radishes. Common fruits
are oranges, lemons, pears, and mandrakes. Legumes such as broad beans
(fava beans), lentils, yellow peas, and black-eyed peas are also important
staples. Alcoholic drinks are forbidden by Islamic tradition. Mint tea and
coffee are very popular beverages in this region.

West Africa

Within West Africa, there is considerable variation in the staple food.
Rice is predominant from Mauritania to Liberia and across to the Sahel, a
region that stretches across the continent between the Sahara and the
southern savannas. Couscous is the prevalent dish in the Sahara. Along the
coast from Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to Nigeria and
Cameroon, root crops, primarily varieties of yam and cassava, are common.
Cassava, imported from Brazil by the Portuguese, is boiled and then
pounded into a nearly pure starch. Yam is the chief crop in West Africa
and is served in a variety of dishes, including
amala
(pounded yam) and
egwansi
(melon) sauce. Millet is also used for making porridge or beer.

Biotechnology and Africa

Many scientists believe that biotechnology is the most promising route
to fighting and possibly eradicating chronic malnutrition among the 800
million people in the developing world who live in poverty. Researchers
are working to develop improved versions of African staples, including a
strain of sweet potato that is resistant to a virus that regularly
devastates the crop, cassava that is resistant to the cassava mosaic
virus, and corn that is resistant to the maize streak virus. Also under
development is cotton that is less susceptible to insect infestation.
However, genetically modified crops are controversial in some African
countries. Zambia has banned donations of genetically modified food, and
Zimbabwe has raised concerns about donations of corn from the United
States that is not certified to be free of genetic modifications.

—Paula Kepos

Palm oil is the base of stew in the Gambia, southern, and eastern regions.
In the Sahalian area, groundnut paste (peanut butter) is the main
ingredient for stew. Other stews are based on okra (a vegetable native to
the
rainforests of Africa), beans, sweet potato leaves, or cassava. Other
vegetables are eggplant, cabbage, carrots, chilies, french beans, lettuce,
okra, onions, and cherry tomatoes. All the stews in this territory tend to
be heavily spiced, often with chilies.

West African Fruit.

Plantain, a variety of banana, is abundant in the more tropical West
Africa. Sweet plantains are normally fried, while hard plantains are
boiled or pounded into
fufu.
Dates, bananas, guava, melons, passionfruit, figs, jackfruit, mangos,
pineapples, cashews, and wild lemons and oranges are also found here.

Protein Sources.

Meat sources of protein include cattle, sheep, chicken, and goat, though
beef is normally reserved for holidays and special occasions. Fish is
eaten in the coastal areas. Because of the Islamic influence, pork is
localized to non-Muslim areas. In these regions, "bush meat"
is widely eaten, including bush rat, a large herbivorous rodent, antelope,
and monkey. Giant snails are also eaten in various parts of West Africa.

East Africa

Extensive trade and migrations with Arabic countries and South Asia has
made East African culture unique, particularly on the coast. The main
staples include potatoes, rice,
matake
(mashed plantains), and a maize meal that is cooked up into a thick
porridge. Beans or a stew with meat, potatoes, or vegetables often
accompany the porridge. Beef, goat, chicken, or sheep are the most common
meats. Outside of Kenya and the horn of Africa, the stew is not as spicy,
but the coastal area has spicy, coconut-based stews. This is quite unique
in comparison to the central and southern parts of Africa.

Two herding tribes, the Maasai and Fulbe, have a notably different eating
pattern. They do not eat very much meat, except for special occasions.
Instead, they subsist on fresh and soured milk and butter as their
staples. This is unusual because very few Africans consume milk or dairy
products, primarily due to
lactose intolerance
.

The horn of Africa, which includes modern-day Somalia and Ethiopia, is
characterized by its remarkably spicy food prepared with chilies and
garlic. The staple grain, teff, has a considerably higher
iron
and
nutrient
content than other grain staples found in Africa. A common traditional
food here is
injera
, a spongy flat bread that is eaten by tearing it, then using it to scoop
up the meat or stew.

Southern Africa

Outside of the
temperate zones
, in the southern part of the continent, a greater variety of fruits and
vegetables are available. Fruits and vegetables in southern Africa include
bananas, pineapples, pau-pau (papaya), mangoes, avocadoes, tomatoes,
carrots, onions, potatoes, and cabbage. Nonetheless, the traditional meal
in southern Africa is centered on a staple crop, usually rice or maize,
served with a stew. The most common dish made from cornmeal is called
mealie meal,
or
pap
in South Africa. Also known as
nshima
or
nsima
further north, it is usually eaten with stew poured over it. The stew may
include a few boiled vegetables, such as cabbage, spinach, or turnips, or
on more special occasions, fish, beans, or chicken.

Nutrition and Disease

White South Africans (Dutch descendants called Afrikaaners), Europeans,
and Asian Indians in Africa have diets similar to their countries of
origin. In urban areas, however, the diet of (black) Africans is
increasingly dependent on meat, much like the diet of some West African
pastoral tribes, as well as on empty
calories
from prepackaged foods similar to those found in the West. The result is
an unbalanced diet. In many parts of Africa, the traditional diets of
indigenous peoples are often inadequate in essential
vitamins
,
minerals
, and protein, which can lead to a variety of diseases.
Micronutrient
deficiencies, particularly vitamin A, iodine, and iron deficiencies,
which can result in vision impairment, goiter, and
anemia
, respectively, are prevalent throughout much of Africa, particularly in
the arid areas where the soil is deficient either naturally or due to
overuse.

Food Security

A far greater threat comes from increasingly insecure food sources (a lack
of consistent and affordable food staples) arising from adverse weather
(drought and floods) and war. During the late 1900s,
famine
became increasingly frequent in Africa. In addition, a new threat to the
food supply emerged due to the worsening HIV/AIDS epidemic. As adults fall
ill and die, agricultural production declines. Rural communities are the
hardest hit, and women are particularly at risk given their unique
physiologic needs tied to their roles as mothers, as well as their
vulnerability due to lower economic and social status.

With its immense population, resources, and growing population, Africa is
a continent that struggles to keep its people and cultures healthy.
African history, the proliferation of foods and spices across the land,
and the preservation of land that can still be farmed, will continue to be
important. Weather, geography, politics, culture, and religion are forces
that have caused strife within Africa for centuries, and will continue to
do so. A land that was once pure and fertile can only be restored through
land preservation and food availability.