Slides in this set

Slide 1

ETHICAL ISSUES THE ROLE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCHSocially sensitive research ­ the issue of whether some research should be avoidedbecause of the potential social consequences. For example, research about intelligence Psychological research sometimes uses non-humanmay produce results that are undesirable from the point of view of one racial group (e.g. animals. This raises the issue of whether it is morally rightmight demonstrate that some races are innately less intelligent). However avoiding such or scientifically appropriate to use non-human animals inresearch may further marginalise groups that may benefit from help. this way. It is important to distinguish between When it comes to using ethical issues as a form of commentary in an essay, naturalistic observation (where little harm is likely to beyour task is to consider the conflict facing any particular researcher and the caused to animals) and experimental research (whereimplications of this. For example, when writing about animals may be permanently affected).theories of aggression, you might consider the ethicalissues facing a researcher investigating the biologicalbasis of aggression. Such research might suggest thatcertain individuals will inevitably commit crimes ofaggression. We might then ask whether people who have GENDER BIAScommitted aggressive crimes should be removed from oursociety because they will inevitably continue to behave in the `Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work ofsame way. men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they ISSUES confuse with absolute truth.' (Simone de Beauvior, 1949) Psychologists have often investigated human behaviour using studies of men only but assumed that what they discovered applied to all people. This assumption that males and females are the same is an example of gender bias. More recent CULTURE BIAS research has found, for example, that men and women respond differently to stress ­ men tend to produce a `fight or flight' Cultural bias occurs when people of one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of response whereas women `tend and befriend' (Taylor et al., people from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practices. Traditional 2000). Gender bias also psychology is characterised by theoretical and research biases that reflect the culture of arises if a theory identifies gender differences but suggests that Europe and the United States. Both researchers and participants have tended to come from one gender is `better' than the other. For example Freud within this cultural background, yet much of the psychology derived from this background is claimed that women were less morally developed than men. represented as a universal description of human behaviour. This is an example of a beta bias. Theories that identify one gender as better than the A different kind of bias is displayed by ethnocentrism which refers to the use of our other are called alpha-biased, whereas a theory which ignores own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups. There is a differences is called beta-biased. Both kinds of bias result in an tendency to view the beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as `normal' and even unbalanced view of the world. superior, while viewing those of other groups as `strange' or deviant. This is an example of a alpha bias. Eurocentrism is a particular form of cultural bias whereby psychologists place more emphasis on European (or Western) theories and ideas, at the expense of other cultures. Implicit in this definition is the assumption that Western concepts are fundamentally different (and most probably superior) from those in other cultures. Western research is then applied to other cultures to create a universal view of human behaviour.…read more

Slide 2

THE NATURE/NURTURE DEBATE FREE WILL AND DETERMINISMThe nature/nurture debate suggests that people are either (mainly)the product of their genes and biology (nature) or of theirenvironment (nurture). Nature does not simply refer to abilities Determinism is the view that an individual's behaviour ispresent at birth but to any ability determined by genes, including shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather thanthose that appear through maturation. `Nurture' is everything an individual's will to do something. This means thatlearned through interactions with the environment, both the behaviour is predictable and lawful. `Free will' is used to referphysical and social environment, and may be more widely referred to the alternative end position where an individual is seen asto as `experience'. At one time nature and nurture were seen as being capable of self-determination. According to this view,largely independent and additive factors, however a more individuals have an active role in controlling their behaviour, i.contemporary view is that the two processes do e. they are free to choose and are not acting in response tonot just interact but are inextricably entwined. It is any external or internal (biological) pressures.no longer really a debate at all but a new Any approach, such as behaviourism or the biological understanding of genetics works. approach, which takes the view that our behaviour is Nature and nurture explanations are determined by factors other than our free will, implies thatoften viewed as highly determinist. However, this people are not personally responsible for their behaviour. Fordeterminist interpretation is mistaken; example, according to the biological approach, low levels ofevolutionary psychologists, for example, suggest serotonin may lead some individuals to behave aggressively.that genes only predispose us to behave incertain ways, but this does not dictate whatindividuals choose to do. Other factors also determinebehaviour, such as the culture in which we live, and DEBATES The poses a moral question about whether a person can be held personally responsible for their behaviour. We might argue that this is not acceptable, that people must be held responsible for their behaviour, and this kind of argument isultimately our personal experiences and decisions. This therefore a limitation of such determinist explanations.Is another example of nature interacting with nurture. OTHER DEBATES REDUCTIONISM There are other debates that concern psychologists. For example, Reductionism involves breaking down a complex phenomenon into more the question of whether psychology is a science and the simple components. It also implies that this process is desirable because desirability of quantitative versus qualitative approaches. A complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of related debate is between idiographic and nomothetic explanation. Psychologists (and all scientists) are drawn to reductionist approaches. The idiographic approach involves the study of explanations and methods of research because reductionism is a powerful individuals and the unique insights each individual gives us into tool that underlies experimental research (reducing complex behaviour to human behaviour. It is the approach favoured by humanistic a set of variables). psychology and also the approach taken by Freud in his case Many explanations that are determinist are also reductionist, histories. The idiographic approach typically uses qualitative such as behaviourist or psychodynamic explanations. Reductionist methods. The nomothetic approach involves the study of a large explanations may prevent psychologists investigating other explanations number of people and then seeks to make generalisations or for behaviour. For example, a therapist may accept a simple behaviourist develop laws/theories about their behaviour. The biological, explanation for mental illness and this would then prevent them from behaviourist and cognitive approaches are concerned with general seeking more complex explanations, such as the effect of emotional laws of behaviour, and this is the goal of the scientific approach. relationships in a family.…read more

Slide 3

THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHBehaviourism was first formulated around the beginning of the The essence of a psychodynamic approach is to explain behaviour in terms of itstwentieth century. Behaviourists believe that all behaviour is dynamics ­ i.e. the forces that drive it. The best-know example of this approach isacquired through learning ­ that we are born as a `blank slate'. They Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, although there are many otheralso believe that behaviour is all that should concern psychologists ­ psychodynamic theories based on refinements of Freud's ideas.which is why the approach is called The main features of Freud's theory are that:behaviourism. Behaviourists do not think it · Early experiences have a lasting effect on our personality andnecessary to invoke mental concepts or behaviour.analyse thoughts and feelings. They explain · Our behaviour is also affected by interactions between the idall behaviour in terms of classical conditioning (driven by the pleasure principle), ego (driven by the realityand operant conditioning. principle) and superego (the ideal self and conscience). A later development of · Conflicts between the id, ego and superego may lead tobehaviourism ­ social learning theory (SLT) ­ was repressed emotions ­ repressed into the unconscious mindintroduced by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. This where they exert an influence on our behaviour.emphasises the importance of indirect reinforcement in STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONSthe learning process. In order for social learning to takeplace, an individual must form mental representations of A strength of psychoanalytic theory is that itevents. Therefore SLT, unlike behaviourism, recognises the importance of unconsciousincludes the consideration of internalcognitive states such as memory.STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS APPROACHES factors and the complexity of human behaviour and motivations, something ignored by the Behaviourist approach. The main objection to Freud's theory is that it is not truly scientificA strength of behaviourist explanations is that they provide clear because it is difficult to falsify. For example, a person may admit topredictions, for example, about the effects of rewards or the negative feelings about their father or may deny such feelings ­ butconsequences of associating two variables (classical conditioning). such denial could be taken to indicate that they are simplyThis means that the explanations can be tested easily and `proven'. repressing such feelings. In other words whatever the person saysAccording to Popper, a good theory or explanation must be could be taken to indicate negative feelings. Popper (1963)falsifiable and this is true of behaviourist explanations. suggested that Freud's theory was unfalsifiable and therefore A limitation of behaviourist explanations is that, while they pseudoscientific.undoubtedly do explain some aspects of behaviour, this is at best apartial account. Important factors are not included, such asemotion, expectations, higher-level motivation and so on. Acceptingbehaviourist explanations (for example, for mental disorders) canprevent further research that could uncover other importantfactors.…read more

Slide 4

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH THE EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHThe biological approach aims to explain all behaviour and The evolutionary approach explains behaviour in terms of the selective pressures thatexperience in terms of physical bodily processes. For example, have shaped it. Any behaviour that can be observed is likely to have been perpetuatedwhen you feel stressed this usually involves the sensation of your because it is adaptive and thus has either been naturally selected (i.e. individuals whoheart pounding, your palms being sweaty and so on. These are are best adapted survive and reproduce) or sexually selected (i.e. individuals who arephysical symptoms created by activation of the sympathetic branch most successful at gaining access to mates leave behind moreof the autonomic nervous system and offspring). The measure of evolutionary success is reproductive fitness ­ i.e. anthe activity of the hormone adrenaline. individual's reproductive outcomes (usually number ofBiological explanations may also offspring) relative to other individuals in the group. Evolutionaryinvolve neurotransmitters, for example, psychologists suggest that such selection took place largely in the EEAexplaining depression in terms of low levels (environment of evolutionary adaptation).of serotonin or explaining schizophrenia in STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONSterms of high levels of dopamine. The biological approach One strength of evolutionary theory is that it is able to explainalso includes genetic explanations i.e. behaviours that appear dysfunctional (such as anorexia) or make littleExplanations that certain behaviours sense in a modern context (for exampleare inherited from your parents (nature). experiencing a biological stress response when you realise you are overdrawn at theSome characteristics are determined byone gene (e.g. eye colour) whereas formost characteristics (e.g. intelligence ormental illness) many genes are involved. APPROACHES bank). One of the limitations of this approach is that evolutionary explanations often fail to sufficiently acknowledge the importance of cultural influences on our behaviour. For example, evolutionary influences lead men to selectSTRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS physically attractive women but the exact details of what constitutesA strength of the biological approach is that, like the behaviourist physical attractiveness is partly determined by culture.approach, it provides clear predictions, for example, about theeffects of neurotransmitters or the behaviour of people who aregenetically related. This means that the explanations can be testedeasily and `proven' ­ according to Popper, a good theory or THE COGNITIVE APPROACHexplanation must be falsifiable and this is true of biologicalexplanations. The emphasis of the cognitive approach is on how thinking shapes our One of the main limitations is that biological explanationsare rarely the whole story. For example, genes generally predispose behaviour ­ quite the opposite of the behaviourist approach where the concept of thean individual to certain behaviours i.e. they create a diathesis (as in mind is banished from any explanations. The cognitive approach is more recent than thethe diathesis-stress model of mental illness). This explains why, for others outlined here, emerging in the 1950s along with the information processingexample, we do not find that identical twins show identical revolution. A cognitive psychologist explains all behaviour in terms of thoughts, beliefsbehaviour. and attitudes, and studies how these direct our behaviour. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS The approach lends itself to scientific research because the explanations produces hypotheses which can be easily tested, such as in the case of theories of memory and perception. However, the cognitive approach has been criticised for being overly mechanistic, as well as for lacking social, motivational and emotional factors.…read more

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Slides in this set

Slide 1

ETHICAL ISSUES THE ROLE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCHSocially sensitive research ­ the issue of whether some research should be avoidedbecause of the potential social consequences. For example, research about intelligence Psychological research sometimes uses non-humanmay produce results that are undesirable from the point of view of one racial group (e.g. animals. This raises the issue of whether it is morally rightmight demonstrate that some races are innately less intelligent). However avoiding such or scientifically appropriate to use non-human animals inresearch may further marginalise groups that may benefit from help. this way. It is important to distinguish between When it comes to using ethical issues as a form of commentary in an essay, naturalistic observation (where little harm is likely to beyour task is to consider the conflict facing any particular researcher and the caused to animals) and experimental research (whereimplications of this. For example, when writing about animals may be permanently affected).theories of aggression, you might consider the ethicalissues facing a researcher investigating the biologicalbasis of aggression. Such research might suggest thatcertain individuals will inevitably commit crimes ofaggression. We might then ask whether people who have GENDER BIAScommitted aggressive crimes should be removed from oursociety because they will inevitably continue to behave in the `Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work ofsame way. men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they ISSUES confuse with absolute truth.' (Simone de Beauvior, 1949) Psychologists have often investigated human behaviour using studies of men only but assumed that what they discovered applied to all people. This assumption that males and females are the same is an example of gender bias. More recent CULTURE BIAS research has found, for example, that men and women respond differently to stress ­ men tend to produce a `fight or flight' Cultural bias occurs when people of one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of response whereas women `tend and befriend' (Taylor et al., people from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practices. Traditional 2000). Gender bias also psychology is characterised by theoretical and research biases that reflect the culture of arises if a theory identifies gender differences but suggests that Europe and the United States. Both researchers and participants have tended to come from one gender is `better' than the other. For example Freud within this cultural background, yet much of the psychology derived from this background is claimed that women were less morally developed than men. represented as a universal description of human behaviour. This is an example of a beta bias. Theories that identify one gender as better than the A different kind of bias is displayed by ethnocentrism which refers to the use of our other are called alpha-biased, whereas a theory which ignores own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups. There is a differences is called beta-biased. Both kinds of bias result in an tendency to view the beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as `normal' and even unbalanced view of the world. superior, while viewing those of other groups as `strange' or deviant. This is an example of a alpha bias. Eurocentrism is a particular form of cultural bias whereby psychologists place more emphasis on European (or Western) theories and ideas, at the expense of other cultures. Implicit in this definition is the assumption that Western concepts are fundamentally different (and most probably superior) from those in other cultures. Western research is then applied to other cultures to create a universal view of human behaviour.…read more

Slide 2

THE NATURE/NURTURE DEBATE FREE WILL AND DETERMINISMThe nature/nurture debate suggests that people are either (mainly)the product of their genes and biology (nature) or of theirenvironment (nurture). Nature does not simply refer to abilities Determinism is the view that an individual's behaviour ispresent at birth but to any ability determined by genes, including shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather thanthose that appear through maturation. `Nurture' is everything an individual's will to do something. This means thatlearned through interactions with the environment, both the behaviour is predictable and lawful. `Free will' is used to referphysical and social environment, and may be more widely referred to the alternative end position where an individual is seen asto as `experience'. At one time nature and nurture were seen as being capable of self-determination. According to this view,largely independent and additive factors, however a more individuals have an active role in controlling their behaviour, i.contemporary view is that the two processes do e. they are free to choose and are not acting in response tonot just interact but are inextricably entwined. It is any external or internal (biological) pressures.no longer really a debate at all but a new Any approach, such as behaviourism or the biological understanding of genetics works. approach, which takes the view that our behaviour is Nature and nurture explanations are determined by factors other than our free will, implies thatoften viewed as highly determinist. However, this people are not personally responsible for their behaviour. Fordeterminist interpretation is mistaken; example, according to the biological approach, low levels ofevolutionary psychologists, for example, suggest serotonin may lead some individuals to behave aggressively.that genes only predispose us to behave incertain ways, but this does not dictate whatindividuals choose to do. Other factors also determinebehaviour, such as the culture in which we live, and DEBATES The poses a moral question about whether a person can be held personally responsible for their behaviour. We might argue that this is not acceptable, that people must be held responsible for their behaviour, and this kind of argument isultimately our personal experiences and decisions. This therefore a limitation of such determinist explanations.Is another example of nature interacting with nurture. OTHER DEBATES REDUCTIONISM There are other debates that concern psychologists. For example, Reductionism involves breaking down a complex phenomenon into more the question of whether psychology is a science and the simple components. It also implies that this process is desirable because desirability of quantitative versus qualitative approaches. A complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of related debate is between idiographic and nomothetic explanation. Psychologists (and all scientists) are drawn to reductionist approaches. The idiographic approach involves the study of explanations and methods of research because reductionism is a powerful individuals and the unique insights each individual gives us into tool that underlies experimental research (reducing complex behaviour to human behaviour. It is the approach favoured by humanistic a set of variables). psychology and also the approach taken by Freud in his case Many explanations that are determinist are also reductionist, histories. The idiographic approach typically uses qualitative such as behaviourist or psychodynamic explanations. Reductionist methods. The nomothetic approach involves the study of a large explanations may prevent psychologists investigating other explanations number of people and then seeks to make generalisations or for behaviour. For example, a therapist may accept a simple behaviourist develop laws/theories about their behaviour. The biological, explanation for mental illness and this would then prevent them from behaviourist and cognitive approaches are concerned with general seeking more complex explanations, such as the effect of emotional laws of behaviour, and this is the goal of the scientific approach. relationships in a family.…read more

Slide 3

THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHBehaviourism was first formulated around the beginning of the The essence of a psychodynamic approach is to explain behaviour in terms of itstwentieth century. Behaviourists believe that all behaviour is dynamics ­ i.e. the forces that drive it. The best-know example of this approach isacquired through learning ­ that we are born as a `blank slate'. They Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, although there are many otheralso believe that behaviour is all that should concern psychologists ­ psychodynamic theories based on refinements of Freud's ideas.which is why the approach is called The main features of Freud's theory are that:behaviourism. Behaviourists do not think it · Early experiences have a lasting effect on our personality andnecessary to invoke mental concepts or behaviour.analyse thoughts and feelings. They explain · Our behaviour is also affected by interactions between the idall behaviour in terms of classical conditioning (driven by the pleasure principle), ego (driven by the realityand operant conditioning. principle) and superego (the ideal self and conscience). A later development of · Conflicts between the id, ego and superego may lead tobehaviourism ­ social learning theory (SLT) ­ was repressed emotions ­ repressed into the unconscious mindintroduced by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. This where they exert an influence on our behaviour.emphasises the importance of indirect reinforcement in STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONSthe learning process. In order for social learning to takeplace, an individual must form mental representations of A strength of psychoanalytic theory is that itevents. Therefore SLT, unlike behaviourism, recognises the importance of unconsciousincludes the consideration of internalcognitive states such as memory.STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS APPROACHES factors and the complexity of human behaviour and motivations, something ignored by the Behaviourist approach. The main objection to Freud's theory is that it is not truly scientificA strength of behaviourist explanations is that they provide clear because it is difficult to falsify. For example, a person may admit topredictions, for example, about the effects of rewards or the negative feelings about their father or may deny such feelings ­ butconsequences of associating two variables (classical conditioning). such denial could be taken to indicate that they are simplyThis means that the explanations can be tested easily and `proven'. repressing such feelings. In other words whatever the person saysAccording to Popper, a good theory or explanation must be could be taken to indicate negative feelings. Popper (1963)falsifiable and this is true of behaviourist explanations. suggested that Freud's theory was unfalsifiable and therefore A limitation of behaviourist explanations is that, while they pseudoscientific.undoubtedly do explain some aspects of behaviour, this is at best apartial account. Important factors are not included, such asemotion, expectations, higher-level motivation and so on. Acceptingbehaviourist explanations (for example, for mental disorders) canprevent further research that could uncover other importantfactors.…read more

Slide 4

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH THE EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHThe biological approach aims to explain all behaviour and The evolutionary approach explains behaviour in terms of the selective pressures thatexperience in terms of physical bodily processes. For example, have shaped it. Any behaviour that can be observed is likely to have been perpetuatedwhen you feel stressed this usually involves the sensation of your because it is adaptive and thus has either been naturally selected (i.e. individuals whoheart pounding, your palms being sweaty and so on. These are are best adapted survive and reproduce) or sexually selected (i.e. individuals who arephysical symptoms created by activation of the sympathetic branch most successful at gaining access to mates leave behind moreof the autonomic nervous system and offspring). The measure of evolutionary success is reproductive fitness ­ i.e. anthe activity of the hormone adrenaline. individual's reproductive outcomes (usually number ofBiological explanations may also offspring) relative to other individuals in the group. Evolutionaryinvolve neurotransmitters, for example, psychologists suggest that such selection took place largely in the EEAexplaining depression in terms of low levels (environment of evolutionary adaptation).of serotonin or explaining schizophrenia in STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONSterms of high levels of dopamine. The biological approach One strength of evolutionary theory is that it is able to explainalso includes genetic explanations i.e. behaviours that appear dysfunctional (such as anorexia) or make littleExplanations that certain behaviours sense in a modern context (for exampleare inherited from your parents (nature). experiencing a biological stress response when you realise you are overdrawn at theSome characteristics are determined byone gene (e.g. eye colour) whereas formost characteristics (e.g. intelligence ormental illness) many genes are involved. APPROACHES bank). One of the limitations of this approach is that evolutionary explanations often fail to sufficiently acknowledge the importance of cultural influences on our behaviour. For example, evolutionary influences lead men to selectSTRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS physically attractive women but the exact details of what constitutesA strength of the biological approach is that, like the behaviourist physical attractiveness is partly determined by culture.approach, it provides clear predictions, for example, about theeffects of neurotransmitters or the behaviour of people who aregenetically related. This means that the explanations can be testedeasily and `proven' ­ according to Popper, a good theory or THE COGNITIVE APPROACHexplanation must be falsifiable and this is true of biologicalexplanations. The emphasis of the cognitive approach is on how thinking shapes our One of the main limitations is that biological explanationsare rarely the whole story. For example, genes generally predispose behaviour ­ quite the opposite of the behaviourist approach where the concept of thean individual to certain behaviours i.e. they create a diathesis (as in mind is banished from any explanations. The cognitive approach is more recent than thethe diathesis-stress model of mental illness). This explains why, for others outlined here, emerging in the 1950s along with the information processingexample, we do not find that identical twins show identical revolution. A cognitive psychologist explains all behaviour in terms of thoughts, beliefsbehaviour. and attitudes, and studies how these direct our behaviour. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS The approach lends itself to scientific research because the explanations produces hypotheses which can be easily tested, such as in the case of theories of memory and perception. However, the cognitive approach has been criticised for being overly mechanistic, as well as for lacking social, motivational and emotional factors.…read more