Pediatric surgery between 1860 and 1900.
The twentieth century begins the modern era of pediatric surgery, a time of innovation and vastly improved operative survival. Until then, many correctable congenital anomalies had been described in case reports only as medical curiosities, seemingly having no chance for surgical cure, but the challenge was available to those wishing to accept. The first texts devoted to surgical diseases of infancy and childhood were descriptive, emphasizing visible and palpable lesions, tuberculosis, musculoskeletal deformity, and major trauma, but also recognized that "surgical diseases of children by their number, their variety, and their character must, we think, be studied in a special manner and demand a special chapter in surgical books." The construction of Children's Hospitals during the nineteenth century identified the need to provide special facilities for children. Surgical antisepsis was practiced and general anesthesia used. Physicians such as Hirschsprung recognized a wide spectrum of treatable surgical conditions that would soon become the domain of pediatric surgeons. Indeed, at that moment in time at the very beginning of the twentieth century, Roentgen discovered the x-ray, Ladd received his MD degree at Harvard, the first pediatric appendectomies for appendicitis were successfully performed, and Fredet and Ramstedt recognized that pyloroplasty was not the preferred treatment for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Modern pediatric surgery had passed from embryo to fetus to newborn.