The introduction of agronomically important traits into plants can be used to improve nutritional value quality, increase yield, provide pest or disease resistance, increase drought and stress tolerance, improve horticultural qualities (e.g., pigmentation and flowering), impart herbicide resistance, enable the production of industrially useful compounds and/or materials from the plant, and/or enabling the production of pharmaceuticals. Transgenic plants are typically generated by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation technology. Other transformation technologies such as PEG-mediated DNA uptake in protoplasts, microprojectile bombardment, and silicon whisker-mediated transformation can also be used to produce transgenic plants. The introduction of cloned genes into plant cells and recovery of stable fertile transgenic plants can be used to make such modifications of a plant and has allowed the genetic engineering of plants for crop improvement. Using these methods, foreign DNA is randomly integrated into the nuclear or plastid DNA of the eukaryotic plant cell, followed by isolation of cells containing the foreign DNA integrated into the cell's DNA, to produce stably transformed plant cells.
The plant transformation methods described above result in the integration of transgenes within random locations of the plant genome and in varying copy numbers. Frequently, the transgenes are integrated as repeats, either of the whole transgene or of parts thereof. Complex integration patterns may influence the expression level of the transgenes (e.g., by destruction of the transcribed RNA through posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanisms, or by inducing methylation of the introduced DNA), thereby downregulating transcription of the transgene. Furthermore, the expression level of the transgene can be influenced by the location of the integration (e.g., position effect) within the plant genome. The combination of these factors results in a wide variation in the level of expression of the transgenes or foreign DNA of interest among different transgenic plant cell and plant lines. Moreover, the integration of the foreign DNA of interest may have a disruptive effect on the region of the genome where the integration occurs and can influence or disturb the normal function of that target region, thereby leading to often undesirable side-effects.
The foregoing necessitate that, whenever the effect of introduction of a particular foreign DNA into a plant is investigated, a large number of transgenic plant lines are generated and analyzed in order to obtain significant results. Likewise, in the generation of transgenic crop plants, where a particular DNA of interest is introduced in plants to provide the transgenic plant with a desired phenotype, a large population of independently created transgenic plant lines is created to allow the selection of those plant lines with optimal expression of the transgenes, and with minimal or no side-effects on the overall phenotype of the transgenic plant. Particularly in this field, more directed transgenic approaches are desired, for example, in view of the burdensome regulatory requirements and high costs associated with the repeated filed trials required for the elimination of the unwanted transgenic events. Furthermore, it will be clear that the possibility of targeted DNA insertion would also be beneficial in the process of transgene stacking.
Several methods have been developed in an effort to control transgene insertion in plants. See, e.g., Kumar and Fladung (2001) Trends Plant Sci. 6:155-9. These methods rely on homologous recombination-based transgene integration. This strategy has been successfully applied in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes. Paszkowski et al. (1988) EMBO J. 7:4021-6. However, for plants, until recently the predominant mechanism for transgene integration is based on illegitimate recombination which involves little homology between the recombining DNA strands. A major challenge in this area is therefore the detection of the rare homologous recombination events, which are masked by the far more efficient integration of the introduced foreign DNA via illegitimate recombination.
Custom-designed zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) are proteins designed to deliver a targeted site-specific double-strand break in DNA, with subsequent recombination of the cleaved ends. ZFNs combine the non-specific cleavage domain of a restriction endonuclease, such as for example Fok1, with zinc finger DNA-binding proteins. See, e.g., Huang et al. (1996) J. Protein Chem. 15:481-9; Kim et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:3616-20; Kim et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:1156-60; Kim et al. (1994) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:883-7; Kim et al. (1997b) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:12875-9; Kim et al. (1997c) Gene 203:43-9; Kim et al. (1998) Biol. Chem. 379:489-95; Nahon and Raveh (1998) Nucleic Acids Res. 26:1233-9; Smith et al. (1999) Nucleic Acids Res. 27:674-81. Individual zinc finger motifs can be designed to target and bind to a large range of DNA sites. Canonical Cys2His2 as well as non-canonical Cys3His zinc finger proteins bind DNA by inserting an α-helix into the major groove of the double helix. Recognition of DNA by zinc fingers is modular: each finger contacts primarily three consecutive base pairs in the target, and a few key residues in the protein mediate recognition. It has been shown that FokI restriction endonuclease must dimerize via the nuclease domain in order to cleave DNA, inducing a double-strand break. Similarly, ZFNs also require dimerization of the nuclease domain in order to cut DNA. Mani et al. (2005) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 334:1191-7; Smith et al. (2000) Nucleic Acids Res. 28:3361-9. Dimerization of the ZFN is facilitated by two adjacent, oppositely oriented binding sites. id.
The foregoing examples of the related art and limitations related therewith are intended to be illustrative and not exclusive. Other limitations of the related art will become apparent to those of skill in the art upon a reading of the specification.