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Quitting smoking helps smokers maintain their health and extend their lifespan by 10 or more years. Treatment strategies for smoking cessation should be tailored to individual smokers with special needs based on their specific circumstances. It is recommended that pregnant women adopt smoking cessation through counseling and behavioral interventions because the safety of medications has yet to be established. Counseling is the main strategy for smoking cessation in adolescents and nicotine replacement therapy can be used with caution in individuals with serious nicotine dependence. It is important for smokers with psychiatric diseases to quit smoking following accurate assessment of their depression status. Nicotine replacement therapy, varenicline, and bupropion can be used for smoking cessation in smokers with psychiatric disorders. The incidence of cardiovascular disease decreased according to the smoking status and the duration of smoking cessation. In smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) who used a combination of counseling and pharmacotherapy the quitting rate was more than twice as high as subjects who used behavioral interventions alone. Varenicline can be used as the most effective anti-smoking drug by most smokers including those with psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular disease, and COPD.

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Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by infection and represents a substantial global health burden. Recent epidemiological studies showed that sepsis mortality rates have decreased, but that the incidence has continued to increase. Although a mortality benefit from early-goal directed therapy (EGDT) in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock was reported in 2001, three subsequent multicenter randomized studies showed no benefits of EGDT versus usual care. Nonetheless, the early administration of antibiotics and intravenous fluids is considered crucial for the treatment of sepsis. In 2016, new sepsis definitions (Sepsis-3) were issued, in which organ failure was emphasized and use of the terms “systemic inflammatory response syndrome” and “severe sepsis” was discouraged. However, early detection of sepsis with timely, appropriate interventions increases the likelihood of survival for patients with sepsis. Also, performance improvement programs have been associated with a significant increase in compliance with the sepsis bundles and a reduction in mortality. To improve sepsis management and reduce its burden, in 2017, the World Health Assembly and World Health Organization adopted a resolution that urged governments and healthcare workers to implement appropriate measures to address sepsis. Sepsis should be considered a medical emergency, and increasing the level of awareness of sepsis is essential.

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The pathogen Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) is the most common cause of nontuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease worldwide. The decision to initiate long-term antibiotic treatment is difficult for the physician due to inconsistent disease progression and adverse effects associated with the antibiotic treatment. The prognostic factors for the progression of MAC pulmonary disease are low body mass index, poor nutritional status, presence of cavitary lesion(s), extensive disease, and a positive acid-fast bacilli smear. A regimen consisting of macrolides (clarithromycin or azithromycin) with rifampin and ethambutol has been recommended; this regimen significantly improves the treatment of MAC pulmonary disease and should be maintained for at least 12 months after negative sputum culture conversion. However, the rates of default and disease recurrence after treatment completion are still high. Moreover, treatment failure or macrolide resistance can occur, although in some refractory cases, surgical lung resection can improve treatment outcomes. However, surgical resection should be carefully performed in a well-equipped center and be based on a rigorous risk-benefit analysis in a multidisciplinary setting. New therapies, including clofazimine, inhaled amikacin, and bedaquiline, have shown promising results for the treatment of MAC pulmonary disease, especially in patients with treatment failure or macrolide-resistant MAC pulmonary disease. However, further evidence of the efficacy and safety of these new treatment regimens is needed. Also, a new consensus is needed for treatment outcome definitions as widespread use of these definitions could increase the quality of evidence for the treatment of MAC pulmonary disease.

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Background: Understanding the burden of disease is important to establish cost-effective treatment strategies and to allocate healthcare resources appropriately. However, little reliable information is available regarding the overall economic burden imposed by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in Korea.
Methods: This study is a multicenter observational research on the COPD burden in Korea. Total COPD costs were comprised of three categories: direct medical, direct non-medical, and indirect costs. For direct medical costs, institutional investigation was performed at 13 medical facilities mainly based on the claims data. For direct non-medical and indirect costs, site-based surveys were administered to the COPD patients during routine visits. Total costs were estimated using the COPD population defined in the recent report.
Results: The estimated total costs were approximately 1,245 million US dollar (1,408 billion Korean won). Direct medical costs comprised approximately 20% of the total estimated costs. Of these, formal medical costs held more than 80%. As direct non-medical costs, nursing costs made up the largest percentage (39%) of the total estimated costs. Costs for COPD-related loss of productivity formed four fifths of indirect costs, and accounted for up to 33% of the total costs.
Conclusion: This study shows for the first time the direct and indirect costs of COPD in Korea. The total costs were enormous, and the costs of nursing and lost productivity comprised approximately 70% of total costs. The results provide insight for an effective allocation of healthcare resources and to inform establishment of strategies to reduce national burden of COPD.

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Background: Pulmonary tuberculosis can result in anatomical sequelae, and cause airflow limitation. However, there are no treatment guidelines for patients with a tuberculosis-destroyed lung. Recently, indacaterol effectiveness in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients with Tuberculosis history (INFINITY) study revealed indacaterol provided bronchodilation and symptom improvement in COPD patients with a tuberculosis-destroyed lung.
Methods: We conducted a post-hoc subgroup analysis of the randomized controlled trial, the INFINITY study, to determine factors associated with indacaterol response in a tuberculosis-destroyed lung with airflow limitation. Data from 68 patients treated with inhaled indacaterol, were extracted and analyzed. Factors associated with the response of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) to indacaterol treatment, were determined using linear regression analysis.
Results: Of 62 patients included, 68% were male, and 52% had history of cigarette smoking. Patients revealed mean FEV1 of 50.5% of predicted value with mean improvement of 81.3 mL in FEV1 after indacaterol treatment for 8 weeks. Linear regression analysis revealed factors associated with response of FEV1 to indacaterol included a short duration of smoking history, and high short-acting bronchodilator response. When patients with history of smoking were excluded, factors associated with response of FEV1 to indacaterol included high short-acting bronchodilator response, and poor healthrelated quality of life score as measured by St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire for COPD.
Conclusion: In a tuberculosis-destroyed lung with airflow limitation, short-acting bronchodilator response and smoking history can play a critical role in predicting outcomes of indacaterol treatment.

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Background: Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), retinoic acid (RA), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and MEK signaling play critical roles in cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. We investigated the effect of RA and the role of these signaling molecules on the phosphorylation of Smad2/3 (p-Smad2/3) induced by TGF-β1.
Methods: A549 epithelial cells and CCD-11Lu fibroblasts were incubated and stimulated with or without all-trans RA (ATRA) and TGF-β1 and with MAPK or MEK inhibitors. The levels of p-Smad2/3 were analyzed by western blotting. For animal models, we studied three experimental mouse groups: control, bleomycin, and bleomycin+ATRA group. Changes in histopathology, lung injury score, and levels of TGF-β1 and Smad3 were evaluated at 1 and 3 weeks.
Results: When A549 cells were pre-stimulated with TGF-β1 prior to RA treatment, RA completely inhibited the p-Smad2/3. However, when A549 cells were pre-treated with RA prior to TGF-β1 stimulation, RA did not completely suppress the p-Smad2/3. When A549 cells were pre-treated with MAPK inhibitor, TGF-β1 failed to phosphorylate Smad2/3. In fibroblasts, p38 MAPK inhibitor suppressed TGF-β1-induced p-Smad2. In a bleomycin-induced lung injury mouse model, RA decreased the expression of TGF-β1 and Smad3 at 1 and 3 weeks.
Conclusion: RA had inhibitory effects on the phosphorylation of Smad induced by TGF-β1 in vitro , and RA also decreased the expression of TGF-β1 at 1 and 3 weeks in vivo . Furthermore, pre-treatment with a MAPK inhibitor showed a preventative effect on TGF-β1/Smad phosphorylation in epithelial cells. As a result, a combination of RA and MAPK inhibitors may suppress the TGF-β1-induced lung injury and fibrosis.

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Background: Efficacy and safety of tiotropium bromide, a muscarinic receptor antagonist, in treatment of asthma have been reported. However, its effect on airway remodeling in chronic asthma of the elderly has not been clearly verified. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of tiotropium and expression of muscarinic receptors as its related mechanism in an aged mouse model of chronic asthma with airway remodeling.
Methods: BALB/c female mice age 6 weeks, 9 and 15 months were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) for three months. Tiotropium bromide was administered during the challenge period. Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and pulmonary inflammation were measured. Parameters of airway remodeling, and expression levels of M2 and M3 receptors were examined.
Results: Total cell with eosinophils, increased in the OVA groups by age, was decreased significantly after treatment with tiotropium bromide, particularly in the age group of 15 months. AHR and levels of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13 were decreased, after tiotropium administration. In old aged group of 9- and 15-months-treated groups, hydroxyproline contents and levels of α-smooth muscle actin were attenuated. Tiotropium enhanced the expression of M2 but decreased expression of M3 in all aged groups of OVA.
Conclusion: Tiotropium bromide had anti-inflammatory and anti-remodeling effects in an aged mouse model of chronic asthma. Its effects seemed to be partly mediated by modulating expression M3 and M2 muscarinic receptors. Tiotropium may be a beneficial treatment option for the elderly with airway remodeling of chronic asthma.

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Background: Bronchoscopy is a useful diagnostic and therapeutic tool. However, the clinical use of high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) in adults with acute respiratory failure for diagnostic and invasive procedures has not been well evaluated. We present our experiences of well-tolerated diagnostic bronchoscopy as well as cases of improved saturation in hypoxaemic patients after a therapeutic bronchoscopic procedure.
Methods: We retrospectively reviewed data of hypoxaemic patients who had undergone bronchoscopy for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes from October 2015 to February 2017.
Results: Ten patients (44-75 years of age) were enrolled. The clinical purposes of bronchoscopy were for diagnosis in seven patients and for intervention in three patients. For the diagnoses, we performed bronchoalveolar lavage in six patients. One patient underwent endobronchial ultrasonography with transbronchial needle aspiration of a lymph node to investigate tumour involvement. Patients who underwent bronchoscopy for therapeutic interventions had endobronchial mass or blood clot removal with cryotherapy for bleeding control. The mean saturation (SpO2) of prebronchoscopy in room air was 84.1%. The lowest and highest mean saturation with HFNC during the procedure was 95% and 99.4, respectively. The mean saturation in room air post-bronchoscopy was 87.4%, which was 3.3% higher than the mean room air SpO2 pre-bronchoscopy. Seven patients with diagnostic bronchoscopy had no hypoxic event. Three patients with interventional bronchoscopy showed improvement in saturation after the procedure. Bronchoscopy was well tolerated in all 10 cases.
Conclusion: This study suggests that the use of HFNC in hypoxaemic patients during diagnostic and therapeutic bronchoscopy procedures has clinical effectiveness.