contains the calculating, competitive and primitive soul. motivation can stem from any of these parts. hierarchical model

calculating

part of plato's model of the soul this is the decision making part

competitive

part of plato's model of the soul. this part is the socially referenced standard

primitive

this is part of plato's model of the soul this is where the desires like hunger and sex are found

aristotle's model of the soul

this model of the soul contains the rational, sensitive and nutritive parts

rational

part of aristotle's model of the soul it is the idea related, this is where the will is

sensitive

this is part of Aristotle's model of the soul. this part regulates pleasure and pain

nutritive

this is part of aristotle's model of the soul. it is impulsive, irrational and animal like

rene descartes

this man was a dualist who believed that body and mind(including the will) were separate and interacted at the pineal gland. Body was just mechanical but the mind was immaterial and motivationally active

acts of the will

part of rene descartes theory. there are 3 parts to this, resisting, striving and choosing

resisting

this is part of rene descartes acts of the will. it includes self-denial and resisting temptation

striving

part of rene descartes acts of the will. it is selecting goals and strategies to achieve them

choosing

part of rene descartes acts of the will. it is all of our decisions

darwin

major instinct theorist who proposed that motivation was rooted in organisms genetic endowment. the presence of a stimuli would enable reflexes

william james

he said that humans have physical and mental instincts which translate into goal-directed behaviour in the presence of appropriate stimulus

william McDougall

he siad that instincts are "prime movers", irrational and impulsive motivational forces that direct people to a certain goal

freud's drive theory

this theory states that there is a source (bodily deficit) which leads to an impetus (intensity of the bodily deficit) which then leads to the object (seeking out to reduce discomfort by consuming object)

Hull's drive theory

this theory states that bodily disturbances leads to drive which energized behaviour, while habit is what directs behaviour. furthermore strength of drive can be calculated by have x drive (x incentive)

classical conditioning

motivated behaviour can be explained through this form of learning by pairing a behaviour with a stimulus

reinforcement theory

motivated behaviour is rooted in environmental contingencies (reward and punishment)

social learning

motivated behaviour stems from info that humans process about their environment (other people)

incentives

external events that energize and direct approach or avoidance behaviours

mini-theories

these adopted a more active view of humans, motivation become more cognitive and humanistic. and it become more applied

humanistic theories

from lowest to highest this is a pyramid of needs 1.physiological needs2.safety needs3.belongingness/love needs4.esteem needs5.cognitive needs6. aesthetic needs7.self-actualization needs

expectancy-value theories

motivational behaviour stems from expectations of achieving certain outcomes that range in value

goal-setting theories

motivated behaviour stems from setting goals that one is able to commit to

social-cognitive theories of goal setting

motivated behaviour stems from feelings of self-efficacy (belief that you are able to attain your goals)

-this brain structure bring desire for food and sex it controls the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system, it regulates the body;s internal environment and allows us to adopt to environment stressors

pituitary gland

when stimulated it stimulates the adrenals which releases stress hormones and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight), when stressor has passed it triggers the parasympathetic nervous system which makes us feel relaxed

medial forebrain bundle

this brain structure is a bunch of fibres in the middle of the brain it is called the pleasure center.studies show stimulating this area of a rats brain will cause them to repeat the activity done while it was stimulated

orbitofrontal cortex

this brain structure is active when we make choice

anterior cingulate cortex

this brain structure plays a role in making choices and controlling day to day mood. when activity in this area is low we feel sad

amygdala

this brain structure is 2 almonds in the middle part of the brain and is part of the limbic system. they play a role in processing emotional information especially fear, anxiety and anger. it plays a role in responding to the environment as well as ensuring self-preservation. stimulating one area results in anger and stimulating the other area results in anxiety. there is a unidirectional relationship with more connections going out than coming in. this explains why emotions can take over our thoughts but it is difficult to control our emotions through our thoughts

septo-hippocampal circuit

part of the limbic system. it plays a role in relaying emotional information to cognitive structures. it also plays a role in affective forecasting (predicting future emotions). nucleus is stimulated with naturally rewarding stimulus (ex good food), hippocampus compares expectation w/current experiences if the expectations match or are better then you will feel good if they do not meet up then it will trigger anxiety

medial prefrontal cortex

brain structure related to learning response-outcome contingencies related to perceptions of control and mastery

right prefrontal cortex

associates with negative emotions and related to avoidance based behaviours. Behavioural inhibition system

left prefrontal cortex

this associates with positive emotions and related to approach based behaviours. behavioural activation system

dendrite

part of neuron that receives message

axon

part of neuron that passes messages from the cell body to surrounding neurons

terminal branches

part of neuron that connect with other cells

myelin sheath

part of neuron that insulates the axon and increases transmission speed

chemicals bond to the the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism

reuptake

pre-synaptic neuron re-absorbs the excess neurotransmitter

dopamine

neurotransmitter that is released when we have incentives (anticipation causes rush). when released it is rewarding and reinforces the behaviour it activates goal directed approach responses, for full reward wanting and liking must occur together. addictive drugs produce hypersensitivity to this neurotansmitter

agonists

drugs that are similar enough to the structure on a neurotransmitter that it mimics its effect

antagonists

drugs which has a structure similar to a neurotransmitter so it can block its action but not similar enough to produce its effect

depression

sadness, eating habits change, sleep habits change, withdraw from others. theory says it is caused by under activity of monomines (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine etc) due to an enzyme MAOS which metabolizes them

consumption involves approach and avoidance based motivations it can be used to enhance good states or escape bad states. they are addictive because they activate the dopamine pathways and interfere with normal re-uptake process thus concentrations remain in the synapse much longer

heroin and morphines

these drugs stimulate the release of abnormally high amounts of dopamine and hijack the opioid system by binding to the same receptors as natural endorphins

cocaine and amphetamines

these drugs bind to receptors in the pre-synaptic neuron that enable the re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin thus resulting in an excess of them in the synaptic gap

THC

these drugs bind to the anandamide receptors and this slow down activity and excitability of the brains neural network. aslo reduces GABA a natural inhibitor of dopamine increasing dopamine and therefore, pleasure.

ecstasy

this drug acts as a stimulant and hallucinogen by blocking the re=uptake pumps of serotonin thus increasing the levels in the synaptic gap. it also reduces activity of tryptophan hydroxylase an enzyme which synthesizing serotonin therefore reducing levels

sympathetic adrenomedullary system

short-term fight or flight response, it releases adrenaline directly

hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical

long term flight or flight response it is affected by our perception of the even as a challenge or stressful

intraorganismic mechanisms monitor and regulate internal states, if internal conditions are too high negative feedback is signaled, if conditions are too low physical need activates a drive. Both negative feedback and drive can be activated by extraorganismic mechanisms as well

thirst

consciously experienced motivated state that produces a deficiency motivation, it arises as a physiological need from multiple inputs and readies the organism to engage in behaviours that replenish water deficit

osmometric thirst

depletion of intracellular fluids

volumetric thirst

depletion of extracellular fluid

thirst activation

caused by lack of water in the cells or osmometric thirst

osmosis

mechanism that rehydrations occurs through

mouth

one location of week inhibition for negative feedback, signalled by number of gulps

stomach

a weak source of inhibition for negative feedback of thirst

hypothalamus and kidneys

in relation to thirst a brain structure monitors cell shrinkage and releases a hormone into the blood that sens a message to an organ to conserve its water, and potential release water. the brain structure also creates the conscious state of being thirsty

environmental influences on thirst

main influence is taste, studies show that adding a little bit of any taste (salty, bitter, sour or sweet) will increase liking than just plain water however any flavour in too high concentration (except sweet) is perceived as less desirable than plain water

lateral hypothalamus

brain structure related to hunger when blood sugar is low it releases ghrelin a hunger hormone and produces orexins which increase appetite

ventromedial hypothalamus

when there is high blood sugar this brain structure sends signals of satiety by the release of cholecytostokin and leptin

in this condition the stomach changes food into glucose which enters the bloodstream. insulin is then created but the glucose cannot get into the cels of the body so it builds up in the blood

lipostatic hypothesis

when stored energy drops below its set point it drops below its homeostatic balance then ghrelin promotes hunger if it is above its set point then leptin decreases hunger and food intake

set-point theory

theory that weight is set up by genetics (number of fat cells and metabolic rate), hunger and satiety depends on size not number of fat cells. when fat cells are reduced through dieting hunger arises and persists until feeding. This rises through age and metabolic rate drops following prolonged caloric deprivation

lipogensis

chronic excess food intake lead to an increase in fat cell size

adipogenisis

chronic excess food intake leads to increase in fat cell numbers

environmental influences on eating

more variety of food and the sight or smell of food can make us hungry. also when eating in the company of others we tend to eat more

cognitive models of eating

dieters ignore biological cues of eating and try to apply cognitive controls on their food intake. doing so increase the distance between hunger and satiety

dieters break diet

in response to strong emotional cues like stress, anxiety or depression or in response to strong situational cues such as exposure to high calorie foods, tasty foods,food shows, when ego depleted or intoxicated

what the hell effect

when dieters break their diet they continue to consume more foods afterwards

anorexia

intense cognitive controls over eating it is defined as the refusal to maintain body weight at 85% or above normal weight. accompanied with an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat. as well as disturbances in the way in which ones weight or shape is experienced and weight as being abnormally important to self-worth, plus amenorrhea

bulimia

the loss of cognitive controls, it is recurrent episodes of binge eating with a sense of lack of control followed by recurrent of unhealthy compensatory behaviour to prevent weight gain. This binge eating and purging cycle must occur at least twice a week for 2 months and be accompanied by a self-evaluation which is unduly influenced by body shape and weight

antecedents of eating disorders

-genetic predisposition-specific personality traits (eg: perfections)-insecure attachments to early caregivers-history of restrictive and critical messages from caregivers about eating-parental encouragement to diet-history of being teased about weight-exposure to appearance based messages

model of disordered eating

pressures to be thin leads to internalization of the thin ideal leading to body dissatisfaction then dieting and negative affect and finally the onset of disordered eating

the beauty myth

idea that messages presented to us in the media as the ideal are unachievable even though people may know this they still continue to strive for this ideal with the thought that it will make their entire life better (better at school, work, better love life, more friends etc)

self-objectification

construction of the body as a collection of body parts which are observable to others. it is seeing oneself through the eyes of another. it can be an enduring trait or can be experienced as a state brought on by certain stimuli (mirror, media, clothes shopping etc)

objectification theory

objectification can lead to consequences increase in body shame, increase in appearance anxiety, eating disorders, depression and can lead to a disruption of peak motivational states(when focused on our body's appearance we do not concentrate on the ask at hand)

one perspective of sexuality research which focuses on biological and physiological aspects of sex, the hormones, brain structures , genitals etc

social constructionist

a perspective of sexuality research which focuses on sexuality as shaped by our culture and society

heiman study

study which made groups listen to one of four tapes (erotic, romantic, erotic-romantic or control) they found that erotic romantic was the one that turned on both men and women the most. However they found that when men self-report being aroused they are. however women will self-report not being aroused although they physiologically are

traditional sex response cycle

trigger activates desire > becomes arousal > leads to climax and then > resolution and refectory period. This cycle is more descriptive of men

-small gland on the front wall of the vagina whose ducts empty into the urethra, source of female ejaculation in 10-20% of women

evolutionary perspective

men should show signs of being a protector and provider while women should show signs of being fertile and having good genes

double standard

okay for men to have many partners and even encouraged but it is frowned upon for women to have sex outside of relationships

sexual scripts

norms for sexual behaviour. Men as initiators and women either resist or comply

adolescent sexual scripts

-complex interplay between developing bosy, early experiences with masturbation and messages from media/parents/peers. early experiences with masturbation are important source of learning about sexuality and girls who do not have experience with it may develop sexual problems later on.motive for first intercourse for women is affection for partner while men is curiosity and feeling ready

adult sexual scripts

communication about sex is difficult for couple. men prefer implicit consent while women prefer explicit. Men are likely to judge green-light in ambiguous sexual situations.

sexual problems

pain during sex, thinking sex isn't pleasurable, lubrication/erectile dysfunction, orgasmic disorder... all of these are experienced by more women than men

female genital mutilation

-procedure that involves partial or total removal of the external female genital organs or other injury to female genitals for non-medical reasons. usually carried out on young girls and done by prominent members of the community

local authorities uphold the practice, social pressure to continue it, tied to cultural ideals of femininity and honesty, seen as necessary to raise girls properly, seen as a way to promote proper sexual behaviour

failure to regulate physiological needs

1.underestimate how powerful a motivational force that biological urges can be when not experiencing them2. people can lack standards or have confliction or unrealistic standards3.people fail to monitor what they are doing as hey become distracted, overwhelmed or intoxicated