Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a gram-positive spore forming soil bacterium characterized by its ability to produce crystalline inclusions that are specifically toxic to certain orders and species of plant pests, including insects, but are harmless to plants and other non-target organisms. For this reason, compositions comprising Bacillus thuringiensis strains or their insecticidal proteins can be used as environmentally-acceptable insecticides to control agricultural insect pests or insect vectors of a variety of human or animal diseases.
Crystal (Cry) proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis have potent insecticidal activity against predominantly lepidopteran, dipteran, and coleopteran pest insects. These proteins also have shown activity against pests in the Orders Hymenoptera, Homoptera, Phthiraptera, Mallophaga, and Acari pest orders, as well as other invertebrate orders such as Nemathelminthes, Platyhelminthes, and Sarcomastigorphora (Feitelson, J. 1993. The Bacillus Thuringiensis family tree. In Advanced Engineered Pesticides. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.). These proteins were originally classified as CryI to CryVI based primarily on their insecticidal activity. The major classes were Lepidoptera-specific (I), Lepidoptera- and Diptera-specific (II), Coleoptera-specific (III), Diptera-specific (IV), and nematode-specific (V) and (VI). The proteins were further classified into subfamilies; more highly related proteins within each family were assigned divisional letters such as CryIA, CryIB, CryIC, etc. Even more closely related proteins within each division were given names such as CryIC(a), CryIC(b), etc. The terms “Cry toxin” and “delta-endotoxin” have been used interchangeably with the term “Cry protein.” Current nomenclature for Cry proteins and genes is based upon amino acid sequence homology rather than insect target specificity (Crickmore et al. (1998) Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62:807-813). In this more accepted classification, each toxin is assigned a unique name incorporating a primary rank (an Arabic number), a secondary rank (an uppercase letter), a tertiary rank (a lowercase letter), and a quaternary rank (another Arabic number). In the current classification, Roman numerals have been exchanged for Arabic numerals in the primary rank. For example, “CryIA(a)” under the older nomenclature is now “Cry1Aa” under the current nomenclature. According to Ibrahim et al. (2010, Bioeng. Bugs, 1:31-50), the Cry toxins can still be separated into six major classes according to their insect host specificities and include: Group 1—lepidopteran e.g., Cry1, Cry9 and Cry15); group 2—lepidopteran and dipteran (e.g., Cry2); group 3—coleopteran (Cry3, Cry7 and Cry8); group 4—dipteran (Cry4, Cry10, Cry11, Cry16, Cry17, Cry19 and Cry20); group 5-lepidopteran and coleopteran (Cry1I); and group 6-nematodes (Cry6). The Cry1I, Cry2, Cry3, Cry10 and Cry1l toxins (73-82 kDa) are unique because they appear to be natural truncations of the larger Cry1 and Cry4 proteins (130-140 kDa).
Cry proteins are globular protein molecules which accumulate as protoxins in crystalline form during the sporulation stage of Bt. After ingestion by a pest, the crystals are typically solubilized to release protoxins, which can range in size, for example, from 130-140 kDa for many of the lepidopteran-active Cry proteins, such as Cry1 and Cry9, and 60-80 kDa for the coleopteran-active Cry3 proteins and the lepidopteran/dipteran-active Cry2 proteins. After the crystals are solubilized by a susceptible insect the released protoxins are processed by proteases in the insect gut, for example trypsin and chymotrypsin, to produce a protease-resistant core Cry protein toxin. This proteolytic processing involves the removal of amino acids from different regions of the various Cry protoxins. For example, Cry protoxins that are 130-140 kDa are typically activated through the proteolytic removal of an N-terminal peptide of 25-30 amino acids and approximately half of the remaining protein from the C-terminus resulting in an approximately 60-70 kDa mature Cry toxin. The protoxins that are 60-80 kDa, e.g. Cry2 and Cry3, are also processed but not to the same extent as the larger protoxins. The smaller protoxins typically have equal or more amino acids removed from the N-terminus than the larger protoxins but less amino acids removed from the C-terminus. For example, proteolytic activation of Cry2 family members typically involves the removal of approximately 40-50 N-terminal amino acids. Many of the Cry proteins are quite toxic to specific target insects, but many have narrow spectrums of activity.
Cry proteins generally have five conserved sequence domains, and three conserved structural domains (see, for example, de Maagd et al. (2001) Trends Genetics 17:193-199). The first conserved structural domain, called Domain I, typically consists of seven alpha helices and is involved in membrane insertion and pore formation. Domain II typically consists of three beta-sheets arranged in a Greek key configuration, and domain III typically consists of two antiparallel beta-sheets in ‘jelly-roll’ formation (de Maagd et al., 2001, supra). Domains II and III are involved in receptor recognition and binding, and are therefore considered determinants of toxin specificity.
Numerous commercially valuable plants, including common agricultural crops, are susceptible to attack by plant pests including insect and nematode pests, causing substantial reductions in crop yield and quality. For example, plant pests are a major factor in the loss of the world's important agricultural crops. About $8 billion are lost every year in the United States alone due to infestations of invertebrate pests including insects. Insect pests are also a burden to vegetable and fruit growers, to producers of ornamental flowers, and to home gardeners.
Insect pests are mainly controlled by intensive applications of chemical pesticides, which are active through inhibition of insect growth, prevention of insect feeding or reproduction, or cause death. Biological pest control agents, such as Bacillus thuringiensis strains expressing pesticidal toxins such as Cry proteins, have also been applied to crop plants with satisfactory results, offering an alternative or compliment to chemical pesticides. The genes coding for some of these Cry proteins have been isolated and their expression in heterologous hosts such as transgenic plants have been shown to provide another tool for the control of economically important insect pests.
Good insect control can thus be reached, but certain chemicals can sometimes also affect non-target beneficial insects and certain biologicals have a very narrow spectrum of activity. In addition, the continued use of certain chemical and biological control methods heightens the chance for insect pests to develop resistance to such control measures. This has been partially alleviated by various resistance management practices, but there remains a need to develop new and effective pest control agents that provide an economic benefit to farmers and that are environmentally acceptable. Particularly needed are control agents that can target to a wider spectrum of economically important insect pests and that efficiently control insect strains that are or could become resistant to existing insect control agents.