Ethical and legal issues in non-heart-beating organ donation.
Procurement of kidneys and livers from non-heart-beating donors (NHBD) raises ethical and legal issues that need to be considered before wider use of these donors is undertaken. Although NHBDs were used in kidney transplantation as early as the 1960s, retrieval of these organs is not universally accepted today. From a medical point of view, these organs were considered "marginal" because the majority showed delayed or impaired function early after implantation. Legal problems relate to determination of death on cardiopulmonary criteria, the issue of valid consent, and the use of preservation measures. Among ethical issues involved are observance of the dead-donor rule, decisions with respect to resuscitation and withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment, respect for the dying patient and the dead body, and proper guidance of the family. In The Netherlands NHB donation was pioneered by the Maastricht Centre as early as 1981. Today, all seven transplant centers procure and transplant these organs, and NHBDs have become an important source of transplantable kidneys and livers. Recent legislation in The Netherlands also supports NHB donation by allowing the use of organ-preserving measures, even in the absence of family consent. As a result, one of every three kidneys transplanted in The Netherlands in 2004 derives from a NHBD. This article explores Dutch NHBD practice, protocols, and results and compares these data internationally.