This article was originally published on July 27, 2009, at Britannica’s Advocacy for Animals, a blog dedicated to inspiring respect for and better treatment of animals and the environment.

Established in 1961, the Masai Mara National Reserve is one of Kenya’s numerous protected areas. It borders Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park not far from shores of Lake Victoria. It is a popular safari destination purported to have one of the highest densities of lions (Panthera leo) on the continent. However, the Mara has become better known as the setting of high-profile lion poisonings in 2008. Sadly, such poisonings have occurred throughout Kenya for several years, both inside and outside of protected areas. According to a recent report from the Kenyan Forestry and Wildlife Ministry, which was provided to the environmental group Wildlife Direct by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), 76 lions have been poisoned throughout the country between 2001 and 2009.

The lions are dying because they pose a threat to livestock in the area. The local Maasai people, who subsist almost exclusively on the meat and milk from their cattle, sheep, and goats, have traditionally fought and killed lions to protect their herds. Some Maasai have traded the spear, their traditional lion-fighting tool, for a very dangerous chemical pesticide and pollutant called Furadan. After a lion kills its prey, it partially consumes the carcass and may return to it at a later time for an additional meal. If the carcass is discovered by livestock owners between feedings, they often spread Furadan on the carcass. When one or more lions return to feed again (or if vultures or other animals consume parts of the carcass), they become poisoned and die shortly thereafter. In early 2009, the news of lion poisonings in the Masai Mara and across Kenya came to prominence as a result of a story on the American news program 60 Minutes.

Lion sitting in the sun, Kenya.

Credit: ©alain/Fotolia

Furadan, which goes by the official title of Carbofuran, is made by the FMC Corporation, an American company based in Philadelphia. It is a highly toxic, granular insecticide-nematicide that is applied to crops to protect them from insects, such as the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) in the United States. East African farmers also use it on their crops; however, some buyers of Furadan purchase it to kill lions and other animals. In addition to the figures on lions mentioned above, the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife reports that, between 1995 and 2002, members of several bird species (including egrets, storks, and spoonbills) have died by the “pickup truckload” as a result of Furadan poisoning, along with 252 vultures and 24 hippopotamuses. Some of this poisoning was probably intentional; however, most was probably incidental, since many birds may have mistaken the Furadan granules for edible seeds.



Furadan, which goes by the official title of Carbofuran, is made by the FMC Corporation, an American company based in Philadelphia. It is a highly toxic, granular insecticide-nematicide that is applied to crops to protect them from insects, such as the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) in the United States.

Furadan has been designed to kill a wide variety of insects and nematodes (roundworms), but very small amounts ingested by birds, lions, and even people are also fatal. The chemical is a carbamate insecticide that works by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that degrades acetylcholine (the messenger of the parasympathetic nervous system, which controls salivation, urination, movement of the skeletal muscles, etc.). After an animal ingests Furadan, its acetylcholine levels remain high, exaggerating the activities of the parasympathetic system. The animal typically dies from depressed respiratory function. It should be noted that the use of Furadan is outlawed in Europe and severely restricted in the United States.



A more accurate label for these chemicals is biocide, because they also kill or debilitate other nontarget organisms.

The 60 Minutes story aired on March 29th, 2009. In June, the Kenyan government began discussions to ban the product. FMC stopped selling Furadan to Kenya after the Maasai Mara killings in 2008 and has instituted a buy-back program of previously sold stock. Nevertheless, according to Wildlife Direct, some of the product remains available for purchase in Kenya through unknown distributors.

Kenya’s Furadan episode is another chapter in the ongoing debate between those who wish to ban pesticides and those who do not. On the one hand, without chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the crop yields of the Green Revolution (the tremendous increase in wheat and rice yields after 1945) could not have happened. Insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and others protect food and feed crops while they grow. On the other hand, it is important to keep in mind that the word “pesticide” is a misnomer. At first glance, reading the word conjures up the notion of a chemical that targets “pests” and pests alone. In reality, most pesticides are not selective. A more accurate label for these chemicals is biocide, because they also kill or debilitate other nontarget organisms.

Consider the American experience with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, or DDT, from the 1940s through the early 1970s. DDT was very effective against a wide variety of insects; however, since it was chemically very stable, it accumulated in the tissues of animals that preyed on insects as well as well as in the tissues of animals that consumed these insect predators. As a result of this bioaccumulation, songbirds and large predatory birds experienced reproductive problems. In 1962, Rachel Carson penned Silent Spring, a book whose title alluded to the absence of songbirds in some future time, served as a warning against the dangers of haphazard pesticide use. As a result of Carson’s work, pesticide regulations in the United States and other developed nations became more stringent.



First, some Maasai warriors are working as so-called Lion Guardians as part of an initiative under the direction of a group called Living with Lions.

Ultimately, Furadan presents a frightening prospect because of its high toxicity and ease of use. Combined with weak regulations governing the use of pesticides, Kenya is an environment where Furadan and other chemicals can be used indiscriminately and for purposes other than protecting crops. There have been several intentional poisonings involving Furadan beyond Kenya, however. One such case involved a southern Illinois farmer and his son who killed some 20,000 red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and several thousand members of other species with Furadan in 2000.



Second, reimbursement programs have been established to compensate Maasai livestock owners for animals lost to lions.

Although stocks of the chemical in Kenya are decreasing, the success of its phaseout will depend on the fortitude of Kenya’s lawmakers and the strength of incentives designed to keep people from using the product. There are also two other factors that are at work to help the lions. First, some Maasai warriors are working as so-called Lion Guardians as part of an initiative under the direction of a group called Living with Lions. The Lion Guardians program was started in 2006. The guardians track lion movements and warn livestock owners when lions are in the vicinity of livestock herds, giving shepherds an opportunity to move their herds out of the way. Second, reimbursement programs have been established to compensate Maasai livestock owners for animals lost to lions. These programs provide financial incentives to herders to dissuade them from lacing the carcasses with Furadan. The first such program, called the Predator Compensation Fund, began in 2003. Similar programs exist in some European countries and various U.S. states to pay livestock owners for animals killed by gray wolves (Canis lupus). Such programs have contributed to the reduction of tensions between livestock owners and wolves in attack-prone regions and are credited with helping wolves to reconstitute their numbers. Perhaps Kenya’s version of this program will help in the long-term recovery of lion populations.

Written by John Rafferty, Editor, Earth and Life Sciences, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Top image credit: ©Robert Muckley-Moment/Getty Images

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