The metabolic and nutritional effects of injury and sepsis.
The existence of a co-ordinated response to stress of a variety of causes has clearly been established. Basically, this consists of an elevation in energy expenditure and an increased breakdown of skeletal muscle protein. In addition, glucose level in the plasma increases as a result of increased synthesis and decreased uptake of glucose into cells. Release of fatty acid into the plasma is also increased, and an elevation in the proportion of energy derived from oxidation of fatty acids is observed. This response is qualitatively very different from that seen in simple starvation, where a progressive reduction in energy expenditure and a reduction in the synthesis of glucose allows fat to become the major energy-producing substrate and also allows sparing of body protein stores. The mechanisms responsible for this altered pattern of metabolism are probably primarily hormonal in nature, with adrenaline, cortisol and glucagon being the major catabolic stimulants. Some evidence exists, however, for alteration in intracellular pathway metabolism. Within the past decade a new class of mediators of the stress response, the cytokines, has been recognized. These substances are protein products of circulating monocytes and the way in which they integrate into the control of the stress response has not been completely elucidated. At present there is evidence that they can stimulate production of catabolic hormones, and also they may well have direct effects in enhancing protein catabolism in muscle. At present the main method for modification of the stress response remains the provision of energy and amino acid, either intravenously or enterally. In the present state of our knowledge, 30-40 kcal kg-1 day-1 would appear to be adequate for most patients, with half provided as fat. Amino acids 3 g kg-1 day-1 will provide adequate nitrogen. It must be said, however, that the most effective method of modifying the stress response is removal of the source of stress by surgery, antibiotics or other primary therapy.